ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The successful completion of our Road Alignment exercise would not have
been possible without the guidance, support, and cooperation of many
individuals. I feel extremely fortunate to have received this invaluable
assistance throughout the entire project, and I am deeply grateful to all those
who contributed.
First and foremost, I express my sincere gratitude to our esteemed Director,
Dr. Tejashwini Arvind Patil, CCF, for her keen interest and unwavering support.
Her efforts in arranging transportation, as well as providing us with the
necessary instruments and equipment for our fieldwork, were crucial to the
success of this exercise.
I am also deeply thankful to our respected faculty member, Mr. D.S. Kotlia, for
his continuous supervision and mentorship. His constant availability for
guidance, along with his emphasis on punctuality and discipline, greatly
enriched our learning experience.
I would also like to extend my heartfelt thanks to the resource persons: Mr.
Rajkamal (AE, PWD Nainital), Mr. Abid Ansari (JE, PWD Nainital), and Mr. Gopal
Dutt (Field Supervisor, PWD Nainital). Their practical knowledge and expert
guidance throughout the field exercise were invaluable and deeply
appreciated.
I am equally grateful to my fellow trainees for their teamwork, unity, and
cooperation during the entire exercise, which made the experience both
smooth and enjoyable.
Lastly, I would like to acknowledge and thank our drivers, Mr. Gopal and Mr.
Bhupal, along with the support staff, Mr. Umesh and Mr. Balwant, for ensuring
a safe and comfortable journey throughout the expedition.

Thank you all for your invaluable contributions.

 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Acknowledgement Page No.
2. Chapter 1 Terminology
Definition and objective of Forest road

Gradient and its measurement

Types of Gradient

Suitable Gradient in hill roads

Points to be considered in the Alignment of hill road

Re-entrant curve and salient curve

Breast wall

Retaining wall

Culvert and Scupper

Side Drain

Parapet

H.P. Bend

Super Elevation

Waterways

3. Chapter II Field Exercise of Alignment of road in hills

Instruments required
Ceylon Ghat Trace, Prismatic Compass

Measuring tape, Ranging rod

Procedure
Exercise – 1 ,Exercise - 2 , Exercise - 3

4. Chapter III Alignment of road in plains

Points to be considered for alignment of road in plains

Required gradients
Diagrame of an ideal road
Cross section of metallic road
5. Critic Note
 CHAPTER -1
Terminology
Definition and Objective of Forest Roads
Forest Road:
Forest roads are roads built and maintained by the forest department within or
near forest areas. They provide access to forest regions and help in managing,
protecting, and utilizing the forests.
Objectives of Forest Roads:
1. Connectivity: These roads allow movement within the forest and make it
easier for forest staff and vehicles to reach remote areas.
2. Transporting Forest Products: Forest roads help in moving timber,
firewood, and other forest products to markets or processing units.
3. Forest Protection: They provide access for forest guards to patrol the
area and protect it from illegal activities.
4. Community Access: Local communities living near forests can use these
roads to access resources and services.
Classification of Forest Roads:
i. Based on Function:
a) Main Motorable Road:
These are the primary roads that connect important places like the DFO
(Divisional Forest Officer) office, rest houses, and main facilities. They are well-
built (usually paved) and used regularly by vehicles.
b) Branch Jeepable Road:
These are secondary roads that go deeper into the forest, connecting smaller
areas like forest guard stations. They are usually not paved and made of gravel
or sand, suitable for smaller vehicles like jeeps.
c) Bridle Path:
These are narrow paths used by people on foot or with animals to carry goods.
They are simple paths made by cutting the earth.
d) Inspection Path:
These are small, narrow trails mainly used by forest staff for inspection and
patrolling on foot.

ii. Based on Period of Use:

a) Temporary Road:
Temporary roads are built for a short time, often to transport timber during a
specific season. They are not permanent and can be closed or removed later.
b) Fair Weather Road:
These roads are only used in good weather, like in dry seasons. They are closed
during rain or snow because they can become too muddy or unsafe to use.
c) Permanent Road:
Permanent roads are built to be used all year round. They are well-maintained
and open for traffic regardless of the weather.

Water Drainage:
Water is the biggest threat to forest roads. Good drainage is essential to
prevent water from damaging the road. Proper slopes are added to roads to
ensure that water doesn’t stay on the surface, which helps maintain the road
in good condition.
Types of Slopes
i. Gradient:
The gradient is the slope or incline of a road, measured along its center. It
shows how much the road rises or falls over a certain distance.

Measurement of Gradient:
 A gradient of 1:25 or 4% means that for every 25 units of horizontal
distance, the road rises or falls by 1 unit.
 A 1° gradient means a rise of 1 unit over a distance of 57.3 units.
 A 2° rise would mean a rise of (57.3 / 2) units.
Types of Gradients:
1. Ruling Gradient:
This is the typical slope used for most of the road. It’s considered
comfortable for vehicles to travel on.
2. Maximum Gradient:
The steepest slope allowed for a short section of the road. This is used in
areas where the terrain makes it hard to maintain gentler slopes.
3. Minimum Gradient:
The smallest slope needed, often used for ensuring water drains off the
road properly.
4. Average Gradient:
The average of all the ups and downs in the road, calculated over the
entire length of the road.

Disadvantages of Steep Gradients:

 Waste of Power:
Steeper slopes require more energy for vehicles to climb, leading to
increased fuel consumption.
 Soil Erosion:
Steep slopes can cause soil to erode faster, especially during rains, which
can damage the road.
 Wear and Tear on Vehicles:
Vehicles travelling on steep gradients face more strain due to frequent
braking, gear changes, and clutch usage, which increases the pressure on
the engine and reduces the lifespan of parts.

ii.Camber
Definition:
Camber is the upward curve or slope built into the surface of a road. It is raised
in the centre and slopes down towards the edges. This design helps drain
rainwater off the road quickly, preventing water from pooling in the middle
and reducing the risk of damage to the road.
Explanation of Camber:
 The camber is described by the slope across the road from the center
(also called the transverse slope).
 For example, a camber ratio of 1:20 means the center of the road is
raised by 1/20th of the road’s half-width compared to its edges.
Calculation of Camber:
 Let’s assume the total width of the road AB is - 3 meters.
 The half-width of the road, from the center to one edge is - 1.5 meters.
Now, to calculate the camber, if the slope is 1:20
Camber = 1/20×1.5
= 7.5cm
HOW TO DRAWN CAMBER ?
In Hills, gradient should be as shown bellow-

Table 1: suitable gradient in hill road

S. NO. Class of Road Width Ruling Gradient

in Hill

1 MAIN MOTORABLE ROAD 3.5 to 4.0 1:20 to 1:30

2 BRANCH JEEPABLE ROAD 3.0 to 3.5 1:15 to 1:20

3 BRIDEL PATH 2.0 to 2.5 1:10 to 1:15

4 INSPECTION PATH o.6 to 1.0 1:08 to 1:10

3 . Key Considerations in the Alignment of Hill Roads

 Site Familiarization: Conduct field visits to understand the general

terrain, focusing on geological features.
 Key Features Identification: Identify valleys, rivers, ridges, water
bodies, and other important features that influence road alignment.
 Ruling Gradient Decision: Establish the optimal ruling gradient based
on the landscape and road safety considerations.
 Curve Optimization: Minimize zig-zags and hairpin bends to the extent
possible for better traffic flow and safety.
 Road Leveling Near Bridges: Ensure the approach roads on both sides
of bridges and culverts are properly leveled to avoid sudden elevation
changes.
4. Understanding Re-entrant and Salient Curves :

This diagram represents the re-entrant and salient curves in hill road
alignment.

 Re-entrant Curve: This curve forms where the road bends into the hill
(inward curve), typically found on slopes with dips.
 Salient Curve: The outward curve found where the road bends out from
the hill, located on a higher slope.
5. Breast Wall Design

Purpose: The breast wall is constructed on the uphill side of road cuts to
support the soil and maintain road stability. The wall counters the additional
thrust from the soil due to changes in the angle of repose and atmospheric
conditions like humidity.

Key Design Features:

 Slanted Faces: Both the front and back faces of the breast wall are
slanted but at different angles for stability.
o Front Face Batter: 1:3 (steeper angle)
o Back Face Batter: 1:6 (more gradual)
 Top Width: The wall’s top width is usually 60 cm.
Calculation:

Formula for Bottom Width of the Breast Wall:

Bottom Width = Top Width +Height × Batter

Question: In a breast wall with a height of 1.8 m, the front face batter is 1:3,
the back face batter is 1:6, and the top width is 60 cm. Calculate the bottom
width of the breast wall.

Solution:

Bottom Width= Top Width+Height×Batter

= 0.6+1.8(1/3-1/6)
= 0.9m

6. Retaining Wall

Definition:
A retaining wall is a structure designed to resist the lateral pressure of soil in
areas where ground elevation changes beyond the soil’s natural angle of
repose.

Retaining walls are rigid structures that hold soil mass laterally, ensuring the
soil is retained at varying heights. These are typically constructed on the
downhill side under the following conditions:

 Where the embankment fill is excessively long.

 At re-entrant curves where cross drains are necessary to allow uphill
drainage to flow across the road.

Design of Retaining Wall:

The retaining wall design follows these principles:

 1. Face Slope:
The front face of the wall is slanted, while the back face can be flat or
vertical.
2. Face Batter:
The batter of the flat surface face ranges between 1:4 and 1:8.
3. Foundation Depth:
The depth of the foundation is calculated as 0.1H+0.3 m. where H is the
height of the wall from ground level to the top.
4. Toe:
The toe of the wall will be 0.1H, adding stability to the structure.
5. Top Width:
The top width is usually half the base width.
6. Foundation Width:
The foundation width is approximately three times the bottom width for
additional support.

Formula for Base Width:

Base Width = Top Width + Height × Batter

Masonry Techniques for Retaining Walls

Overview: Retaining walls can be constructed using various masonry

techniques depending on the wall's height and the desired durability and
strength. Below are the construction techniques for different wall heights:

Construction Techniques by Wall Height:

 Up to 2 meters: Walls up to 2m in height can be constructed using dry

stone masonry. This technique does not require mortar and relies on the
careful selection and placement of stones to ensure stability.
 2 to 3 meters: For walls higher than 2m but less than 3m, the top half
should be built using dry stone masonry while the bottom half can be
reinforced with mortar. This approach balances the natural aesthetics of
stone with the strength provided by mortar.
 Above 3 meters: Walls exceeding 3m in height should be fully
constructed with reinforced cement mortar. This method provides the
maximum strength and stability, essential for supporting larger soil
masses.
Weep Holes: Retaining walls must also include weep holes to prevent water
build-up behind the wall, which can lead to structural failures. Weep holes
should be:

 Size: Typically 10x10cm.

 Spacing: Placed approximately every 1m across the wall, in a staggered
pattern.
 Function: These holes allow water to escape, reducing hydrostatic
pressure and enhancing the wall’s longevity.
CULVERTS AND SCUPPERS

Culverts:

A culvert is a small bridge-like structure with a span of less than 4 meters,

typically used for the following purposes:

 To carry a road over small streams or waterways.

 To channel and drain water collected from side drains along the road.

Design of Culverts:

Culverts are designed with specific considerations to ensure functionality and

durability:

1. Gradient: The gradient underneath the culvert is kept high enough to

allow for proper drainage, but not so steep as to cause erosion or
scouring.
2. Cushion Walls: In hilly or steep terrain, cushion walls (also known as
headwalls or wing walls) are provided at the inlet and outlet of the
culvert. These walls prevent soil erosion and protect the structure by
reducing the impact of flowing water.
Side wall: Side wall are provided known as Wing Walls

Scupper:

A scupper is an opening or drainage outlet provided in the side walls, deck, or

parapets of bridges, roads, or other structures to allow water to drain off.
Scuppers are essential for preventing water accumulation, which can weaken
the structure over time and lead to damage or safety concerns.
SIDE DRAIN

The side drain, also known as an inner gutter, is typically constructed on the
side of the road adjacent to a hill. It is designed with the following dimensions:

 Width: Approximately 60 cm at the top.

 Depth: Approximately 30 cm.

Function:

The primary function of the side drain is to:

 Channel surface runoff: It collects and directs water from the road's
surface, particularly from the area between the road's center line and
the edge.
 Prevent water accumulation: By efficiently draining water away from
the road, it helps to prevent waterlogging, erosion, and potential
damage to the road structure.

In hilly areas, side drains are crucial for managing surface water and preventing
landslides or washouts, ensuring the longevity and safety of the road.
PARAPET
A parapet wall is a protective structure built above the formation level of a hill
road, typically on the downhill side. It is often constructed in conjunction with
a retaining wall to provide additional support. The primary function of the
parapet is to protect vehicles and pedestrians from falling over the edge of the
road, especially in steep or hazardous areas.

Key features of a parapet wall include:

Intermittent Construction: For cost-effectiveness and to allow drainage,

parapet walls are typically constructed with gaps rather than as a continuous
structure.
Material: Parapet walls can be made from a variety of materials, such as
concrete, stone, or metal (e.g., iron), depending on design needs and local
resources.
Height: The height can vary significantly, from just a few inches (sufficient to
deflect a vehicle’s tire like a curb) to over a meter in areas requiring greater
safety measures.
HAIRPIN BEND
A hairpin bend is a sharp, 180-degree turn in a road, resembling the shape of a
hairpin or bobby pin. These bends are typically found in steep, mountainous
terrains where the road needs to make a significant change in direction while
maintaining a manageable gradient for vehicles. Hairpin bends are essential for
reducing the steepness of roads in hilly areas but require careful navigation
due to their sharp angles.

SUPER ELEVATION
Super elevation is the banking or tilting of a road's outer edge relative to its
inner edge to counteract the effects of centrifugal force on vehicles traveling
around a curve. By providing a transverse slope, super elevation reduces the
tendency of vehicles to skid outward or overturn on curved sections of the
road. This design feature enhances road safety by allowing vehicles to maintain
higher speeds on curves without compromising stability.
WATERWAYS

Definition:

Waterways are cross-drainage structures built to allow roads to traverse

natural obstacles such as small or large perennial rivers, streams (nalas), or
even dry riverbeds that may contain little to no water during the dry season.

The forest department often constructs the following types of waterways or

bridges:

1. Ford
2. Road Dam
3. Irish Bridge
4. Causeway

Factors to Consider for Waterway Construction:

When deciding on the type of waterway to construct, several key factors must
be evaluated:

 Availability of Construction Materials: The accessibility of materials like

stone, cement, or other resources at the site.
 Traffic Load and Usage: The type of traffic and load the structure must
support—whether light or heavy vehicles.
 Span of the Waterway: The width of the obstacle, such as a river or
stream, that needs to be crossed.
 Nature of the Obstacle: Characteristics of the water body, whether it’s a
perennial or seasonal river, a small stream, or a dry riverbed.
 Bridge Usage Duration: Whether the structure will serve as a temporary
or permanent solution.
Types of Waterways

1. The Ford

A ford is a waterway designed for dry rivers or streams that typically have very
little or no water during most of the year. The key features of a ford include:

 Slow Water Flow: The water, if present, flows very slowly.

 Carriageway Preparation: The riverbed is cleared of boulders, and
potholes are filled during the dry season to ensure a smoother passage.
 Gentle Slope: The banks are cut down to provide a gradual slope,
making the ford easier to cross.

2. Road Dam

A road dam is constructed over small, shallow streams where the carriageway
is built at the bed level of the water channel on the upstream side. Key
features include:

 Drop Wall: A retaining wall is built on the downstream side to hold up

the road and prevent bank erosion.
 Debris Removal: Regular maintenance is performed to clear debris that
accumulates on the road surface.

3. Irish Bridge

An Irish bridge is a type of waterway where the carriageway is constructed

using dry stone masonry or lime/cement mortar. It is typically used for water
crossings with spans less than 7 meters. Key design considerations include:

 Cross Slope: The slope of the carriageway is tailored to the terrain:

o In hills: 1:12 slope ratio.
o In plains: 1:30 slope ratio.

4. Causeway

A causeway is a raised road or track across a low or wet area, built to prevent
flooding or to allow for water drainage across roads. This type of structure is
often used for crossings where there may be intermittent water flow.

It is like Irish bridge but made in the following conditions:

a) The span is more than 7m

b) The depth of water is not expected more than 30cm.

c) The road is not expected and to be used very frequently by heavy traffic.

d) The funds are not available for construction of bridge.

MAIN FEATURES OF CAUSE WAY

 Drop wall on the downstream side and curtain wall on the upstream side
are constructed.

 Cross slope of carriage way 1:30.

 At the ends of carriage way, gentle slope of 1:12 is given.

 The above waterways are negotiable upto a water depth of about:

 30cm for scooters and motorcycles
 50cm for cars
 70cm for trucks and other heavy vehicles

Fig : Cause Way

 Fig :Irish Bridge

Fig : cheack dam

 CHAPTER – 2
FIELD EXERCISE OF ROAD ALIGNMENT IN HILLS

DATE : 12/08/2024
1 . INSTRUMENT REQUIRED
1.1 Ceylon Ghat Tracer
1.2 Cross staff
1.3 Prismatic Compass
1.4 Measuring Tape
1.5 Ranging Road

Fig : Ceylon Ghat Tracer Fig : prismatic compass

Fig : Cross Staff Fig : Ranging road
2 . STEP BY STEP PROCEDURE :
2.1 First we selected a best route for the surveying and take a starting point .
2.2 Standing at the starting point we checked wheather ghat and cross staff
are of same height ,if not we adjust to bring it to equel height .
2.3 After every chain length i.e.20 m (or any desired length ) the route was
first pegged using a measuring tape .
2.4 Through the eye piece of Ghat tracer fixed at the start point ,we tried to
see the cross mark on the cross staff placed at the next point .
2.5 When the cross is observed we noted the gradient reading from Ghat
Tracer .
2.6 Then a ranging rod replaced the cross staff so as to note the fore bearing
of the above point using prismatic compass.
2.7 WE continued with the above process for the next points and kept on
taking the corresponding reading for chainage ,gradient and Rise / Fall .
 Fig : Group 1 ready with instrument for road alignment exercise

EXERCISE -1

DATE : 12/08/2024

NAME OF THE SITE :

Forest range :- Manora
FOREST DIVISION : - Nainital
Name of the road :- Nainital bypass road
 READING TABLE :
Point Chainage (in Gradient Fore Bearing Rise/Fall
m)
A 00-20 1:26 1200SE Rise
B 20-40 1:30 1100SE Rise
C 40-60 1:35 1150SE Rise
D 60-80 1:40 1120SE Rise
E 80-100 1:55 1050SE Rise
F 100-120 1:35 1070SE Rise
G 120-140 1:30 1140SE Rise
H 140-160 1:20 1200SE Rise
I 160-180 1:11 1150SE Rise
J 180-200 1:14 1350SE Rise

Road alignment exercise

EXERCISE - 2
DATE : 03 /10/2024

NAME OF THE SITE :

Forest range :- Manora
Forest division :- Nainital
Name of inspection path :- Patwadanger to kalona

READING TABLE :
POINT CHAINAGE GRADIENT FORE RISE /FALL
(in m ) BEARING
A 0-20 1:27 270NE RISE
B 20-40 1:29 40NE RISE
C 40-50 1:20 600NE FALL
D 50-60 1:21 2100SW RISE
E 60-70 1:20 2020SW FALL
F 70-80 1:30 1880SW RISE
G 80-100 1:22 2050SW RISE
Noting down the reading by ghat tracer
 EXERCISE -3
ALIGNMENT OF ROAD BY GPS

DATE : 04/10/2024

NAME OF THE SITE : UFTA CAMPUS HALDWANI

GPS device
 CHAPTER – 3
ALIGNMENT OF R0AD IN PLAINS

1 . TO BE CONSIDERED POINTS FOR ALIGNING OF ROAD IN PLAINS

 As far as possible the existing roads and paths are
used.
 Wherever possible ,the alignment of the road is on
high ground to keep the road dry .
 Unnecessary crossing of river ,streams and natural
channels are avoided .
 The monotony of very long and straight stetches on
the road is broken by curves .
  A small deviation of upto 10% of the total length of the
road made in order to connect a village , bus station,
FRH ,hospitals ,school or any other places .

2. REQUIRED GRADIENTS

TABLE : Suitable gradient in plains

SL.No. Class of Road Gradient
1 CC Road 1:300 to 1:400
2 Damar Road 1:200 to 1:300
Fixing gradient with Ghat tracer
 Noting down the reading by ghat tracer

After completion of road Alignment Exercise

CRITIC NOTE
The road alignment exercise was an insightful
experience, offering a clear understanding of how
roads are aligned in both hilly and plain terrains,
with due consideration of suitable gradients. We
also had the opportunity to observe key
structures related to road construction, such as
breast walls, retaining walls, parapets, culverts,
and scuppers.
Despite their busy schedules, the engineers and
staff of the Public Works Department provided
exceptional support. They demonstrated the use
of tools like the Ghat Tracer and Prismatic
Compass in the field, ensuring the successful
completion of the exercise under their guidance.
Although working in such rugged terrain is
challenging, it is essential to account for
geological factors such as lithological properties,
underground water conditions, landslide-prone
areas, fault lines, and the dip and strike of rock
strata to ensure effective road alignment,
especially in hilly regions.