Chapter Five: Hill Roads

Course Contents:
 Introduction of the hill road

 Special considerations in hill road design

 Special structures in hill road

Introduction:
Terrain can be classified into four groups based on the ground cross slope which includes plain
terrain, rolling terrain, mountainous terrain, and steep terrain. The hill road is defined as the one
which passes through a terrain with a cross-slope of 25% or more. There may be the possibility
of the sections along hill roads with the cross slope less than 25%, especially when the road
follows a river route. Nepal has a total area of 147,516 km 2 of which about 66% area covered
with thinly populated hills, mountains, and the Himalayas. The construction of roads in hilly and
mountainous regions is not easy compared to other topography of the country. The construction
of hill roads is not the practicable and direct investment is not profitable but it is necessary due to
the following reasons:

 National distribution of agro-product

 Supply of industrial goods
 Social justification and cultural development
 Good administration, security, and national defense.

Design and construction problems in hill roads: Design and construction of roads in
hills and mountains are more complex and require special consideration during design and
construction. The following are the reasons behind the design and construction complexity of hill
roads:

 The Hilly area has broken relief with widely differing elevations in a short
distance. It requires a considerable length of road
 Geological condition varies in a short distance. It makes it difficult to design and
construct embankments and for other structures.
  Cross slope may become unstable after road construction due to the removal of
vegetation and other activities.
 Difficult to investigate and forecast the hydro-geological condition of hill slopes
which may cause the landslide
 Requires more numbers of cross drainage structures and other special structures
 Steep slope needs careful arrangement of erosion control measures.
 Surface run-off becomes very high in a short period after heavy rainfall, it
requires a big opening for cross drainage.
 The variation of climatic conditions (temperature, atmospheric pressure,
precipitation, and wind energy) in the hilly and mountainous regions

Special considerations in hill road:

Alignment of hill roads: Selecting an alignment in the hilly region is a complex task. The
designer should attempt to choose a short, easy, economical, and safe comforting route.

General considerations: When designing hill roads the route is located along valleys, hillsides,
and if required over mountain passes. Due to complex topography, the length of the route is
automatically increased. Due to harsh geological conditions, special structures also have to be
provided.

Apart from the highly broken relief which has a fixed role in determining the alignment and
location of special structures, climatic and geological conditions are also important. In locating
the alignment special consideration should be made in respect to the variations in:

a. Temperature
 Temperature decreases per 100m increase in elevation (0.50C)
 Hill slopes facing south-west and south receive enough solar heat; snow
disappears quickly and rainwater evaporates rapidly.
 North and northeast; rainwater and snow remain for long period.
 Sharp temperature variation of south and south-west slopes results in the fast
weathering process, which causes deposition of the alluvial fan on that side,
mudflow, and avalanches occur frequently.
b. Rainfall
 In general, the increase of rainfall for every 100m of elevation averages 40 – 60 mm.
Hill/ mountain slopes that face winds, receive more rainfall.
 Heavy rainfall may occur in hills, which may cause serious damages to hill roads
 Openings of the cross drainage are required very large.

c. Atmospheric pressure and wind

 Atm. pressure decreases with the elevation
 At low atmospheric pressure, engine effort become less
 At high altitudes, the wind blows with high velocities
 Wind may damage the road pavement: by blowing away the binding particles (in
the dry season), and by the erosive action of surface runoff (in the wet season).

d. Geological condition
 Sedimentary rocks often occur as folds that may concave and convex with
inclinations
 The degree of stability of hill slopes depends upon the rock type, strata, inclination,
and presence of groundwater.

Alignment of Hill Roads (Route location)

The selection of alignment in hilly regions is a complex problem. The designer should attempt
the shortest most economical and safe route. Hill roads tend to follow routes with a large number
of curves. The route location of the hill roads follows the river route and ridge route.

River route (The location of a route along a river valley) : The location of a route
along the river valley is the most frequent ease of hill road alignment owing to the distinct
advantage of running the road at a comparatively gentle gradient. The route along the river route
serves rural settlements situated next to the watercourse. It has the advantage of low operating
cost, availability of water and other construction materials in the vicinity. However, a valley run
may involve numerous horizontal curves, construction of large bridges over tributaries, and on
stretches along steeply sloping hillsides, which in some places may be insufficiently stable.
Advantages of river route:

 Minimum gradient
 Availability of water and other construction materials
 The road can serve settlements, situated along the river valley
 Low vehicle operation cost

Disadvantages of river route:

 River alignment has many horizontal curves

 The route crosses a large number of tributaries. It means a large number of cross drainage
works.
 Need of protection works against the washout or toe cutting of foundation of roadbed or
other retaining structure.

The basic consideration in locating the river route:

 Road beds should be away and above the maximum water level in the river so that the
risk of erosion or seepage during high water levels.
 The embankment slope facing the river should be protected and stabilized
 It needs good geological and hydro-geological surveys of local conditions
 When crossing watercourses, several route alternatives have to be investigated.

Ridge route (The location of a route along a ridge): Hill roads may follow different
paths according to the feasibility of the road. However, a hill road alignment varies for the
sections along the valley bottom and along the mountain pass. The first is called the river route
and the second is called the ridge route. The ridge route constitutes the following parameters:

 Steep gradient
 A large number of curves (hairpin bends)
 Expensive rock work, many other structures
 It climbs continuously up from the valley till it reaches a mountain pass and descends
down to follow another hill system
 Mountain pass should have the least elevation to the direction of the destination
  If the land slope is steeper than the permissible maximum gradient, the route can’t be laid
along the shortest direction. So length has to be increased to gain the height with
permissible gradient.
 The route is traced out in the map by following more or less the line of equal gradient,
slightly lower than the ruling gradient.

Gradient: In hill roads, a heavy amount of earthwork is required. So to reduce the earthwork for
reducing construction cost the gradients selected are close to maximum. Although steep gradients
help in reducing earthwork and length of the road, it also causes increased fuel consumption and
reduction in operating speed as the vehicles will be on low gears which will use more energy. So
both these factors must be taken into account and a suitable solution should be chosen. The
cumulative rise or fall in elevation should not exceed 100 m in mountainous terrain and 120 m in
steep terrains. Vertical curves are designed as the square parabola. The curves should be provided
at all grade change exceeding those indicated in the table below:

Maximum grade change does not require a Minimum length of

Design speed vertical curve vertical curve
Up to 35kmph 1.5% 15m
40kmph 1.2% 20m
50kmph 1.0% 30m

Table 5.1: Gradient in hill road

Road Alignment survey for hill roads: The alignment of hill roads is fixed in the three
stages:

 Map study: The study of the topographical map is done to find out the possible
hill routes of the road. The following pieces of information are obtained from the
map study:
 Alignment avoiding valleys, ponds, lakes.
 When the road has to cross a row of hills, a mountain pass may be the
suitable alternative.
 Approximate location of the bridge site.
  Reconnaissance: The alignment of hill roads is tentatively selected during the
reconnaissance survey, which is carried out after the completion of the map study.
First, the topographic, geological maps of the area, and aerial photographs are
studied. Ground reconnaissance of difficult stretches is carried out.
 Preliminary survey and Trace cut: The route selected during the
reconnaissance is translated on the ground during the trace cut so as to provide
access for the subsequent detailed survey. A 1 to 1.2 m wide track is constructed
with an easier gradient.
 Detailed survey: The following steps are carried out during the detailed
survey.
 Temporary Bench Marks (TBM) are fixed at all underpass structures and
drainage structures.
 Levels along the final center line should be taken with great importance as
these data are required for vertical alignment, earthwork calculation, and
drainage details.
 A detailed survey is carried out to enable drawing the soil profile up to the
depth of 1.5- 3m below the Ground Line and twice the height of the
finished embankment in the case of the high embankment.
 The data during the detailed survey should be elaborated and completed
for the preparation of the plans, designing, and estimation of the project
 Hydrological analysis, geological investigation, and soil investigations

Hairpin bends:
When developing a route in a hilly area, it is frequently necessary to insert sharp angles. But it is
very difficult and sometimes impossible to layout curves following normal geometric standards
of design. When inscribing a curve inside a turning angle the length of the route will be
substantially reduced, which results in steep gradients. In such cases, it is preferable to round off
the route by circumscribing the curve around the turning point. Such compound curve is called
“hairpin bends” or “reverse loops”. The hairpin bent must also be safe from the viewpoint of
landslides and groundwater. For reducing the construction problems and expensive protection
works, the hairpin bends should be provided with long arms and farther spacing. So, the parapet
wall should be constructed on the outer edge of the pavement to protect from the landside.

Picture 5.2: Hair Pin bends

Design of hairpin bends

The radius of the main curve R, radius of the reverse curve (r), and length of the straight portion
(m) are selected based on the site situation and conforming to the required geometric standards.

Design parameters of hairpin bends

 Design speed =20kmph

 Min. radius of main curve = 14m
 Min. length of transition curve =15m
 Minimum gradient with bend =2.5%
 Super-elevation in curved portion =10%
 The approach gradient should not be steeper than 5% for 40 meters.

The acute angle of the bend is . The main curve with radius R, and has a total length of C, and
subtends the angle at the center. Points A and B are located at the apices of the reverse curves.
Between the ends of the reverse curves and the main curve of the bend, tangents must be
introduced to the transition of super-elevation and extra-widening in the curve.
For the designing and layout of the hairpin bends elements such as radii of the main curve and
reverse curves (R and r) and the length of tangent (m) are initially selected based on the site
situations in conformity with design standards. The design of hairpin bends then basically
consists of establishing the value of the turning angle at point A and B which satisfies the
preselected parameters of the bend. For this purpose, the following expressions may be derived
based on the geometry of hairpin bends shown in the figure below.

Figure 5.4: Hair Pin Bend

Tangent length of the reverse curve,

Where T is the length of the tangent; r is the radius of the reverse curve; is the deflection
angle.

The distance from the apex of the reverse cure to the commencement of the main curve is

From triangle AOE and BOF it is found that:

Where, R is the radius of the main curve. From the trigonometric it is known that:
Substituting this expression for tan in preceding expression, solution for becomes:

Solving quadratic equation:

In this way, the angle to corresponding to R, r and m can easily be determined.

The distance from the apex of the reverse curve to the center of the main curve is determined

by:

The central angle corresponding to the main curve of the bend is equal to:

The length of the main curve is:

The total length of the hair pin bend is

Having obtained these parameters, the hair pin bend can be plotted on the contour map or set
out on the ground.

Typical cross section of hill roads:

Cut and fill: When roadbed slope has a gradient 2% or more a cut and fills road bed is cheaper
and environmentally friendly as well. The fill mass is generally balanced by the cut mass. For
adequate stability, benches are made on the surface of the hill side with a height of 0.5 m and
length varying from 1.5 to 3.0 m depending upon the slope.
 Picture 5.5: Cut and fill type cross-section
Bench type: If the side slope is greater, it is difficult to fill the embankment, and the compaction
during construction is also difficult. In such cases, the bench-type cross-section is the most
suitable.

Picture 5.6: Bench type cross-section

Box cutting: When the location of road bed is unstable or unsuitable along the hillside due to
one or other reasons, the roadbed is designed as a trench type of cross-section. It increases
earthwork to a large extent. It is introduced to meet the geometric design standards for a given
category road.

Picture 5.7: Bench type cross-section

Embankment with retaining wall: On steep slopes of about 30-35°, the earthwork involved in
constructing the embankment increases substantially. The retaining wall is sometimes provided
to reduce earthwork’s cost and to increase stability. Also, the retaining wall is provided when
embankment soil on steep grounds itself need support. They may also be constructed on a less
steep ground slope to increase the stability of the roadbed.

Figure 5.8: Embankment with retaining wall type cross-section

Semi Bridge: If the road is located on a hill slope the retaining wall needs to be at a substantial
height. In such cases, to reduce quantities of work, road bed with a semi-bridge type of structure
may be constructed.

Figure 5.9: Semi bridge type cross-section

Semi tunnel: When inscribing is to be cut into steep hills in stable rock faces, the rock may be
permitted to overhang the road to reduce rock works. Such a cross section is called a semi-
tunnel.

Figure 5.10: Semi tunnel type cross-section

Platforms: On the precipitous slopes, where shifting of the route into the hillside will lead to
enormous rock works which eventually increases the cost and where semi-tunnel cannot be
constructed, platforms are usually cantilevered out of the rock on which roadway is partially
located. The platforms type constructions are cheaper and environmentally friendly.

Figure 5.11: Platforms type cross-section

Special structures in hill roads: Structures which are not usually required in roads in
plain terrain are referred as special structures in hill roads. These may include wide range of
structures which are used;

 to retain soil mass

  to increase stability of road embankment
 to accommodate road bed in steep slope
 to dissipate energy of surface water
 to provide snow avalanche control and protection system
 to river training and erosion control
 to prevent bed scouring

Types of special structures in hill roads:

a) Retaining structures
b) Drainage structures
c) Slope protection structures

Retaining structures:

Retaining structures are usually a wall constructed for the purpose of supporting or retaining
vertical earth bank which in turn may support vertical loads. A retaining wall is one of the most
important structure in hill road construction. It provides stability to the roadway and to the slope.

Retaining structures may be classified:

 Based on material:
 Stone filled gabion wire creates
 Stone masonry with cement, sand mortar
 Composite (dry stones filled in cement, sand, stone masonry frame)
 PCC
 RCC
 Steel or timber
 Based on location
 Hill side or valley side retaining walls
 Toe walls
 Cut-off walls
 Revetment walls (Breast walls- not retain soil mass but to prevent the cut slope
made of loose erodible soils from further slip or erosion)
  Based on their structural scheme:
 Gravity walls
 Semi gravity walls
 Cantilever walls
 Counterfort walls
 Buttressed walls
 Crib walls
 Reinforced soil walls

Design principles of Retaining walls:

a) The stability of the wall and structural strength of each component or section of wall:
This involves the proportioning, preliminary dimensioning, determining the thickness of
the wall, checking against overturning, and sliding.
b) The stability of foundation soil: it must not be overstressed. For this purpose, toe
pressure, heel pressure, and bearing pressure of the soil foundation must be checked
against their permissible values.

The design procedure of retaining walls usually comprises of the following steps:

a) collection of general information on topography and information on a physical survey

b) Analyze the sub-soil condition
c) establish surcharge loads: highway, building, and other structure
d) select the type and tentative proportioning of wall
e) compare the earth pressure and surcharge pressure
f) analyze the structural stability
g) analyze the foundation stability
h) Design structural elements
i) select drainage in backfill
j) predict settlement and movement of the wall

Drainage in Hill Roads

Drainage of water from the hill slope:

Surface water flowing from the hill slope towards the roadway is one of the main problems in the
drainage of hill roads. In order to intercept and divert water from the hill slope, catch water
drains are provided along the roadway. Water intercepted in catch water drain is then diverted by
slopping drains and carried out to the nearest culvert to cross the roadway.

Roadside drains:

Side drain is provided on the hillside of the roads. Due to limitation in the formation width, the side drain
is constructed to such a shape that at emergency the vehicles could utilize this shape for crossing at low
speed or for parking. The usual type of side drain is an angle, saucer, and curb drain.

Cross Drainage:

As far as possible, cross drainage should be taken under the road and at a right angle to it. At the head of
the small cross drains catch pits must be provided to collect the stones and rubbish and to prevent scour.
In rocky cuts catch pits can be provided as inlets in rocks. The floor level of the catch pit is deeper than
the sill of the culvert to cross drain by at least 0.3 m. The floor level of the drain is given a longitudinal
slope of 1 in 7.

The waterway required for cross drainage works may be calculated by any of the usual formulas. As far
as possible, single-span bridges are constructed. Protective structures are proved at the downstream and
upstream of the cross drainage structure.

In hill roads where rainfall is heavy, it is recommended that culverts should be provided every 60 to 90 m,
to facilitate drainage of water across the roads.

Scupper: The Scuppers and causeways are provided for cross drainage on unimportant roads. Scupper
is a cheap type of culvert or cross drain 0.9 to 1.0 m wide, made of coursed rubble dry stone masonry
abutments. Causeways are submersible bridges, with a drip in the road profile to allow water flow across
the road surface during flows.

Sub-surface drainage:

The seepage of water on hill roads is one of the major problems during and after the monsoons. The
seepage of water may cut across the hillside slope above, at or below the road level depending upon
several factors such as depth of hard stratum and its inclination, and quantity of underground water. The
seepage flow causes problems for slope stability as well as the weakening of the roadbed and pavement.
The seepage flow may be controlled by a suitable sub-surface drainage system.

Passing Lanes in hill roads

Passing lanes or lay–byes should be provided on single-lane roads on mountainous or steep

terrain roads to cater to the following requirements:

 to facilitate the crossing of vehicles approaching from the opposite direction;

 to tow aside a disabled vehicle so that it does not obstruct the traffic;

Passing lanes are not necessary on two-lane roads. In general, it should be provided at the rate of
2 to 3 per km. exact location and spacing should be determined according to the site condition
and visibility of the road section. Normally, passing lanes should be 3.75 m wide and 30 m long
on the inside edge towards the carriageway.