Topic 1

Scientific Processes
 Working in the laboratory p 3
• Investigations in Physical Science often involve
working in the laboratory.
LABORATORY APPARATUS
 Safety first! p 4

1. Always be prepared before you go into the lab.

2. Never take food or drinks into the lab
3. Wear protective clothing or safety wear as instructed
4. If you have long hair, tie it back
5. Never taste any substance or samples in the lab.
6. Be careful when you pour chemicals down the sink.
7. Tell your teacher immediately if glassware has broken or if you
spilled a chemical.
8. Never leave an open flame unattended.
9. Never add water to an acid to make a dilution. Always add the acid
to water.
10. Always wash and dry glassware immediate after use.
• Chemicals need to be used with care as some
are flammable, can cause irritation to the
skein or lungs, can cause burns, or can harm
the environment.

• The containers should be labelled with

standard hazard pictograms to show whether
there are any specific precautions you need to
follow. P 11
Laboratory signs p5
 Estimating and Measuring
• Estimate or measure and record :
1. Area
2. Volume
3. Length
4. Mass
5. Time
6. Temperature.
• Convert units of length, mass, time, area and
volume
 Estimating and measuring p 11
• Glossary words:
1. Estimate:

2. Calibrate:

3. SI unit:

4. Length:

5. Resolution:

6. Parallax:

7. Meniscus:

8. Displacement:

9. Mass:

10. Volume:
 Measurements at work
• Measurements has to be made accurately using a reliable
instrument calibrated in agreed units
• Reliable instrument
1. Give the same reading every time the same quantity is
measured
2. Give the correct reading when checked using a known
quantity
3. Has to be used correctly to obtain accurate
measurements
 SI units
• Systeme International (international
system of units)
• Units for scientific measurements
• All scientific units used in physical science
are derived from 5 base units (listed in
table on the next slide)
– Each unit is defined in terms of an
agreed standard
– Example: the unit of mass is the
kilogram and is defined by a standard
mass of 1 kilogram in the Bureau of
International Weights and Measures in
Paris
 SI units
Quantity Unit Unit Symbol
Length meter m
Time second s
Mass kilogram kg
Electric Ampere A
current
Temperature Kelvin K
Brightness of Candela Cd
light
Quality of mole mol
matter
 When writing units and symbols
• When writing the UNIT on FULL always start
the unit with a small letter.
• When writing the symbol:
1. Use a capitol letter if the unit is named after
a person.
2. Otherwise use a small letter!
Conversions p 6
Table 1.1 p 7
Table p 8
Converting exercise
 Measuring length
• Use a meter rule
– Graduated in millimeters (mm)
– Can measure lengths to within a mm
– Measure the length of a bar
1. Place bar alongside the rule
2. One end of the bar should be at the zero mark of the
rule
3. Read the position of other end of the bar gives the
length of the bar
 Measuring length
• Length: Measure of the distance between two points.
• Apparatus:
1. Ruler
2. Meter rule
3. Tape measure
4. Micrometer screw gauge
5. Venier caliper

• Use a meter rule

– Graduated in millimeters (mm)
– Can measure lengths to within a mm
– Measure the length of a bar
1. Place bar alongside the rule
2. One end of the bar should be at the zero mark of the rule
3. Read the position of other end of the bar gives the length of the bar
 Measuring length
• Common errors in measuring length
– Inaccurate setting of the end of the bar at the zero mark
of the rule
– ‘Line of site’ errors
• The observer must be positioned so that the line of
sight is at right angles to the scale
Measuring length - error
Conversions
 Classwork 1
• Convert:
• 1) 5km to m
• 2) 70cm to m
• 3) 1000m to cm
• 4) 1km to cm
 Classwork
• Convert the following length units:
1. 25.6 m to cm
2. 863.4 cm to dm
3. 34.0131 km to m
4. 5900 mm to m
5. 672 hm to km
6. 21. 6 dam to km
 Homework
• Worksheet Conversions
 Area: Square and rectangle
• The area of the square
with sides 1cm ling is 1
square centimetre (1cm²)
• In figure b, the rectangle
measures 4cm by 3 cm
and has an area of 4 cm ×
3 cm, and has an area of
12 cm².
• area = length × breadth
• The SI unit of area is the
square metre (m2)
 Area: Triangle
• area of triangle = ½ ×
base × height
Area of a Circle
 Measure Area p 3
• Area(A) is a measure of the size of a surface.
• SI unit: m²
• 1 m² is the area of a square with sides 1 m
long.
• For measuring smaller areas, square
centimetres (cm²) are used.
Formulas
 Calculating area
• Calculate:
• 1) Triangle with base 5cm and height 15cm
• 2) Square with sides measuring 5cm
• 3) Rectangle with width 800mm and height
• 200mm
Formula
 Classwork
• A floor is 5 m long and 3 m wide. Calculate
the area.
• A window has the following dimensions: 0.55
m × 40 cm. Calculate the size of the surface
area. Give your answer in SI units.
• A book is 33 mm long and 26 cm wide.
Calculate the are in cm²
Converting
 Converting area
• Convert:
• 1) 1000mm2 to cm2
• 2) 5m2 to cm2
• 3) 5km2 to m2
 Classwork
• Convert the following squared units:
1. 2.34 m² to mm²
2. 986 cm² to m²
3. 401 dm² to Hm²
4. 9667 dm² to m²
5. 326 mm² to cm²
6. 0.86 cm² to mm²
 Homework
Homework: Conversion worksheet
 Measuring volume
• Definition:
• Volume (V) = the amount of space an object takes up.
• SI unit – cubic meter (mᵌ)
• 1 mᵌ is the volume of a cube with sides 1 m in length.
• We can measure the volume of a solid and the volume
of a liquid.
• Equipment:
1. Measuring cylinder
2. Burette
3. Pipette
4. Ruler
 Definitions
• Graduations – the markings for measuring
• Error of parallax – an error in reading a
measurement when the eye is not placed
directly opposite the scale.
• Meniscus – the curved surface of a column of
liquid.
• You should be able to measure the volume of:
1. Liquid
2. Regular shaped object
3. Irregular shaped object
 1. Measuring the volume of a liquid
• SI unit for volume is mᵌ, but we use litres (l) to
measure the volume of a liquid in everyday
life.
• Capacity is the word used to describe the
amount of substance in a container.
1 Litre = 1 dmᵌ
1ml = 1 cmᵌ
Remember!!! 1 litre = 1000 ml
 Laboratory equipment – measuring
volume
• Measuring beaker
• Measuring cylinder
• Conical flask
In everyday life we use • In the laboratory we use
measuring spoons and measuring cylinders.
measuring cups to
measure volume.
• To measure small volumes of liquids we use
measuring instruments such as pipettes and
burettes.
 How to read a measuring cylinder.
• The surface of a liquid inside a tube is not a
straight line, but looks curved.
• This curved surface is called a meniscus.
• The thinner the tube, the more pronounced
the curve.
 How to read a measuring cylinder p6
1. Place the cylinder on a
flat surface.
2. Take the reading at the
bottom of the
meniscus.
3. Eye must be in line
with the liquid surface.
 2. Measuring the volume of regular
solids
To calculate the volume of a regular-shaped
solid, measure the correct dimensions with a
ruler and use the correct formula.
Formulas
 Classwork
1. Calculate the volume of a block of the
following dimensions: 5.1 m × 4.2 m × 3.3
m.
2. Calculate the volume of a cupboard with a
base area of 0.8 m² and a height of 1.5 m.
 Measuring the volume of irregular
solids p7
• We use the displacement method to find the
volume of an irregular-shaped solid.
 Displacement method
• Step 1: Pour water into a measuring cylinder until
the cylinder is half full. This is the initial volume.
• Step 2: Lower pebble until it is completely
immersed by the water.
• Step 3: Measure the volume of the liquid. This is
the final volume.
• Step 4: The volume of the pebble is found by
subtracting the first reading from the second.
• Volume of stone = 2nd reading – 1st reading
 Homework
Practical Investigation – displacement
 Classwork - conversions
• Convert the following cubed units:
1. 46134 mmᵌ to cmᵌ
2. 986 cmᵌ to dmᵌ
3. 489 dmᵌ to hmᵌ
4. 91667dmᵌ to mᵌ
5. 0.86cmᵌ to mmᵌ
 Measuring time intervals
• Mechanical or electronic devices can used to measure
time intervals
• Devices include
– Ordinary clocks
– Watches
– Stop clocks
– Stopwatches
– Electronic light-gate timers
Measuring time intervals
 Measuring time intervals

T(s) = (10 x 60) + 53 +(23/100)

=653.23 s T(s) = (1 x 60) + 23 + (44/100)
= 83.44 s

T(s) = (40 x 60) + (5/100)

= 2400.05 s
 Measuring Mass
• Mass = measure of the amount of matter an
object contains.

• SI unit – kilogram (kg)

• Equipment:
1. Bathroom scale
2. Kitchen scale
3. Electronic top-pan balance
4. Triple beam balance
• Convert:
• 1) 5kg to g
• 2) 2 ton to kg
• 3) 300mg to g
• 4) 700mg to kg
 Measuring time
• SI unit for measuring time (t) = seconds (s)
• To measure longer period of time we use minutes
(min) or hours (h).
• You must be able to change hours to minutes of
seconds.

• Equipment:
• Stop clocks
• Stopwatches
• Digital stopwatches
Conversions
 Classwork
Change 2.4 hours to
a) Minutes
b) Seconds

Write 2 h 20 min as
a) Min
b) s

How many hours are there in 30960 s?

 Measure Temperature
• Temperature tells us how hot or cold an object
is.
• The unit we use
Summary
• Converting units worksheet.
Questions
 Definitions
1. Scientific process
2. Observation
3. Aim of an investigation
4. Hypothesis
5. Estimation
6. SI Unit
7. Uncertainties
8. Volume
9. Mass
10. Anomalous reading
11. Random error
12. Systematic error
13. Error of parallax
14. Meniscus
15. Zero error
16. Dependant variable
17. Independent variable
 6 Steps to the Scientific Method
• 1.
Make an observation
• 2.
Form a hypothesis
• 3.
Finding the Aim
• 4.
Test the hypothesis/Designing the
investigation
• 5. Running the investigation/ Collect,
Organize and Analyze the Data
• 6. Analyzing the results / Draw Conclusions
Section A: The scientific method p 33 -
37
• Steps we use to answer our questions.
I. Observation (use our senses)
• Observe something of scientific interest.
• To observe use all five senses: sight, smell,
hearing, touch and taste.
• Taste???
2. Make a hypothesis
• Propose an explanation for the observation,
• A possible answer to a research question.
• A statement that you can either prove right or
wrong through your investigation.
• Hypothesis can be tested and the results of
the investigation can prove it right or wrong.
3. Finding the Aim:
• The aim is a statement of what the
investigation is setting out to achieve.
• It often start with “to test or to see if……
4. Design the investigation
• An investigation needs to be:
1. Valid
2. Reliable
3. Accurate
4. Fair
4. Experiment
• Test the hypothesis and retest (errors) the
hypothesis
• Handling apparatus and materials (material and
methods)
• Safety – is extremely important, always wear a
white coat and safety goggles, wear gloves, use
tongs if you heat materials.
• Variables
5. Theory/Conclusion/ Analysing results
• Thoroughly tested explanation of why
experiments give results.
• Drawing graphs/tables.
• The conclusion states whether the hypothesis
is right or wrong.
 Which is an Observation?
1. The bus was probably early today.
2. The bus didn’t pick me up.
3. The bus was actually early because my
neighbour say the bus come early
4. Tomorrow I will come to the bus stop early to
see if the bus comes early.
 Which is the hypothesis?
1. The bus was probably early today.
2. The bus didn’t pick me up.
3. The bus was actually early because my
neighbour say the bus come early
4. Tomorrow I will come to the bus stop early to
see if the bus comes early.
• What is the difference between observation
and Conclusion?
• E.g
• Water boils is a conclusion while bubble
formed is the observation.
• Lab activity
• Measuring and converting worksheet
• Lab equipment
Observe and Recall p10
Presenting results and conclusions
 Section D: Variables p 36
• When doing investigations/experiments it is
necessary to identify the different things that
may affect the outcome of your investigation.
• These are called variables.
 Solubility investigation
Dissolving salt in water
• These students are discussing ways to
investigate how temperature affects the
amounts of salt that would dissolve in water.
They are trying to think of the different things
that could affect the results.
• These are called variables
Questions
 Carrying out the investigation
• The students decide to
count the number of
spatulas of salt that will
dissolve in 50 cmᵌ of water.
They will repeat the
experiment at different
temperatures for 20ᵒ to 80
ᵒC.
• What is the variable they
change during this
experiment?(independent
variable)
• Answer: temperature.
• They will count the
number of spatulas of
salt that will dissolve.
• This is the variable that
will depend on the water
temperature.
(dependant variable)
• The volume of water is a
variable that the
students keep the same
so that the test is fair.
(controlled variables)
• The variable you change is called the
independent variable.
• The variable you measure as the result is
called the dependent variable.
• The variable you keep the same are called
controlled variables.
 Plotting a graph of your results
• When you plot a graph of your results the
independent variable always goes along the
horizontal axis. ( x axis)
• The dependant variable always goes up the
vertical axis. (Y axis).
Questions
Homework.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iaewZmc
4TYQ Dependent and Independent variables.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_VdOB4J
JE_8
 Discussing trends p 17
• A relationship between two variables means
that a change in one, will cause a predictable
change in the other.
• Knowing the relationship between the
variables is useful in predicting an effect
without having to set up a test first.
 Directly proportional
• When the dependant
variable increases at the
same rate as the
independent variable,
we say that the two
variables are directly
proportional.
 Inversely proportional
• When the dependant
variable decreases as the
independent variable
increases, we say the two
variables are inversely
proportional.
• Asymptotic curve –
approaching an axis
• A graph of inverse
proportion is called a
hyperbola
 Evaluating and explaining results p 13
• The results of all experiments must be
evaluated and explained in a scientific report.
• Therefore good communications of the facts is
essential.
• P 13
 Handling errors p13
• When we do practical work, you may get an
unexpected reading or a reading that you
know is wrong.
• This is called a anomalous reading,
• Sometimes the fault lies in something you
have done wrong, but sometimes there is a
fault in the equipment
 Types of errors
• Anomalous readings and other errors may be
due to:
1. random errors or
2. systematic errors.
 Random errors
• Caused by human errors
• Faulty technique or faulty equipment
• How do we avoid making these mistakes?
1. Repeat/redo experiment and then calculate
the average.
2. Error of parallax is a common random error.
Measuring length - error
• Error also occurs when we measure the
volumes of liquids.
• The surface of the liquid curves up or down
slightly just where it meets the walls of the
container.
• We call this curved surface the meniscus.
• Always take readings with your eye in line with
the bottom of the meniscus.
 How to avoid random errors when
reading scales
• Thermometer
1. Make sure the liquid is well-stirred before
you take the reading
2. Wait a few seconds for the thermometer to
reach a stable temperature.
3. Keep the bulb of the thermometer
submerged in the liquid while you take a
reading.
• Ruler:
1. Make sure that the scale lies directly next to
the length you are you are trying to measure.
2. Avoid metal rulers, why???
• Measuring cylinder or beaker:
• Read the flat surface of the liquid, and not the
parts where the surface curves up at the sides
of the container.
• Meter (mass meter/ammeter/voltmeter)
• Meter
• Make sure that you read the pointer or
indicator with you eye in line with it.
• If the indicator is very sensitive, it may take a
while to settle on a reading.
• Give a little time to do so before you record
the reading.
 Systematic errors
• Systematic errors are errors caused by
readings that have shifted one way or another
form the true reading.
• This means that all your results will be wrong
by the same margin.
• An error that happens because the measuring
system is faulty is called a Zero error.
• Zero error:
• Happens in mechanical and digital measuring
instruments when the indicator does not point to
zero.
• If indicator points slightly to:
• Right of the zero mark – then the zero error must
be subtracted form each measurement.
• Left of the zero mark, then the zero error must be
added to ach measurement made with that
instrument.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZOk9JHN
km7w
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uuanyWZ
vDHw
Interpreting graphs homework
 Evaluating and explaining results
• Read p 17