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ENGLIS --

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 8 Parts of Speech
With Examples
noun: verb:
a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea a word that shows action in a sentence

• Mr. Gutierrez (person) • baked (action verb)

• Brazil (place) • loves (stative verb)
• sofa (thing) • seems (linking verb)
• love (idea) • overstay (compound verb)

adjective: pronoun:
a word that explains more about a noun’s size, a word that stands in for a noun
shape, age, color, origin, purpose, or material
• I (personal pronoun)
• big - That’s a big table. • hers (possessive pronoun)
• chocolate - I love chocolate cake. • anybody (indefinite pronoun)
• French - Look at my French clock. • each other (reciprocal pronoun)

adverb: conjunction:
a word that tells you more about a verb, adjective, a word that joins parts of a sentence together
or adverb by answering one of five questions
• I bought apples and peanut butter.
• This car is incredibly expensive.
• The house will flood unless you fix the roof.
• The cute dog runs quickly.
• Both Shirley and I like the new paint color.
• My very patient mother walks slowly.

preposition: interjection:
a word that shows a noun or pronoun’s position a short word or phrase that expresses an
emotion or tone and can be grammatically
• It’s good to be among friends. (shows location) independent from the words surrounding it
• It will take around an hour. (shows time)
• She lives with her husband and four cats. • Wow, this is such a pleasant surprise!

(connects ideas) • Gosh! I can't believe how late it is.

Basic grammar - parts of speech
Grammar is the system and structure of a language. The rules of grammar help us decide the
order we put words in and which form of a word to use.
When you're talking about grammar, it's useful to know some basic terms. The following are
called parts of speech and they each have their own function.
Verbs
Verbs are often known as 'doing words'. They can also show 'having' or 'being'.
For example:
 The horse jumped the fence.
 The rider had a fall.
 The rider is not hurt.
Nouns
Nouns are the names of people, places, things and ideas. There are four kinds of noun.
 Common nouns - dog, computer, river, biscuit
 Collective nouns (names of a group of something) - a herd of cows, a flock of sheep
 Proper nouns (the names of people, places and so on) - London, Anne, Plain English
Campaign
 Abstract nouns (names of things we can't see or touch) - love, hope, fear, decision,
poverty
Adjectives
Adjectives describe nouns.
For example:
 She wore a blue dress.
 The small dog barked at me.
 A cool breeze made her shiver.
Adverbs
Adverbs give us extra information about how, where or when a verb happens. For example:
 He drove slowly.
 She spoke loudly.
 The article is well written.
Pronouns
Pronouns are usually small words which stand in place of a noun, often to avoid repeating the
noun. They include words such as I, you, he, we, hers, they, it.
Prepositions
Prepositions come before nouns or pronouns and usually show a connection.
For example:
 Your pen is on the desk.
 The children went to the park.
 We rested under the tree.
 Jim hid behind the door.
Conjunctions
Conjunctions link words, sentences or parts of a sentence together.
 The rug is blue and cream.
 The road was busy. And it was loud.
 I closed the door but I didn't lock it because I thought she was still inside.
Articles
There are two kinds of article: definite and indefinite.
The definite article is 'the'. It is used to identify a specific thing.
The indefinite article is 'a' and 'an'. It is used to refer to something in general.
For example:
 The cat sat on the mat. (We know which cat and which mat.)
 I need a ruler. (We do not need a specific ruler, any will do.)
 The car would struggle to get up a hill. (We can identify which car, but are referring
to any hill.)
Capital letters
We use capital letters as follows.
At the start of sentences, direct quotations and direct questions
For example:
 The ceremony went without a hitch. It appeared to be a huge success.
 At the end of the day, he said, 'Tomorrow will be better' and smiled to himself.
 She told me, 'Sometimes that happens, sometimes it doesn't.'
 The question 'Why should we?' is often asked.
  Puzzled, he asked, 'Are you sure?'
At the start of titles and subtitles
For proper nouns
Proper nouns refer to a particular person, organisation, place or thing.
Proper nouns include the following.
 People's names
 Organisation names
 Place names - street names, towns, counties, countries and so on
 Some well-known landmarks (Big Ben, the Pyramids)
 Some significant days (New Year's Eve, Mother's Day)
 Specific titles and ranks (Miss Scarlet, Professor Plum, Colonel Mustard)
 Months and days of the week
 Religions and religious holidays
 The points of the compass (NW) and specific regions (the North West, South
Manchester) but not general areas (north-west England, the south of Manchester)
 The pronoun 'I'
 The names of languages and nationalities
 Trade names
Most adjectives derived from proper nouns
For example:
 Freudian significance
 British people
But, take care with the following.
Titles
There is no need to capitalise the main words in a document title. However, if, in your
writing, you are quoting the title of a document, you should quote it precisely, using capitals
where appropriate.
Subtitles
There is no need to capitalise every main word.
Abbreviations
We often use capital letters in abbreviations such as BBC, TV, USA, GMC and PEC. Don't
put full stops after any of the letters.
Acronyms
These are words formed from the initial letters of other words. Most acronyms are in block
capitals (for example, OPEC, NASA and SPECTRE). But some acronyms only have an initial
capital letter (for example, Aids) and others, normally scientific words, are so well accepted
that they have no capital letter at all (for example, laser).
Government
If we are referring specifically to 'the Government' (for example, 'when the Government
decides its policy'), we would use a capital 'G'. However, if we are referring to government in
general (for example, 'national and local government'), or as an adjective (for example, 'many
government departments'), we would use a lower case 'g'.
The council, the association and so on
If we are referring to an organisation by quoting their full name, we would use capitals where
they are used in that name.
For example:
 'Borough Council has...'
 'Home Housing Association will...'
However, when we are referring to an organisation in a general way without giving its full
name, we would use a lower case letter.
For example:
 'The council has...'
 'The association will...'
If an organisation insisted on using an initial capital when it referred to itself in a general
way, we would (reluctantly) accept it.
Punctuating bulleted lists
Bulleted lists are a great way of breaking down complicated information. There are different
ways to punctuate lists. Here are the most common ways of punctuating them.
A list in which each point is a complete sentence
The Managing Director made three comments about using information technology.
 All IT equipment needs to be kept up to date.
 Staff must be trained to use new IT equipment.
 Don't think that technology will cure all our problems - it won't.
A list which is a continuous sentence
If you want to keep your office tidy, please remember to:
 put your rubbish in the bin;
  clean up after you make the tea; and
 take your food out of the fridge.
A list of very short points
Any good office should have:
 a kettle
 a teapot
 a microwave, and
 a fridge.
Or
Any good office should have the following.
 A kettle
 A teapot
 A microwave
 A fridge
Punctuating sentences
What is a sentence?
A sentence is a group of words that makes complete sense.
'She is running late.' This is a sentence.
'She is' isn't a complete sentence unless it is an answer to a question. (Is she running late? She
is.)
Sentences can contain one statement:
'I fed the dog.'
or more than one statement:
'I fed the dog and then I went to the pet shop to buy more dog food.'
The second sentence covers three things:
 feeding the dog;
 going to the pet shop; and
 buying dog food.
Try to have no more than two or three statements in a sentence.
Most sentences end with a full stop, but they can also end with a question mark or an
exclamation mark.
Question mark
We use question marks at the end of direct questions:
'Have you fed the dog?' but not after indirect questions:
'She asked him if he had fed the dog.'
Try to make sure the question you are asking is clearly set out for your reader. It's easy to lose
a question in the middle of lots of information, especially in an email. Then people wonder
why they don't get a reply to their question!
Exclamation mark
An exclamation mark indicates something you would normally say loudly or strongly in
speech.
'I told you not to feed that dog!'
It often demonstrates emotions such as anger, irritation or surprise. For this reason,
exclamation marks are not used very much in business writing.
Other punctuation marks, such as commas, semicolons and colons, appear within sentences.
Commas
A comma is most commonly used to indicate where there would be a natural pause in speech.
'It was a tiring day, so tiring he fell asleep on the train and missed his stop.'
A comma can also be used to separate items in a list.
'I bought bread, cheese, olives and white wine.'
Sometimes we use a pair of commas, in the same way we use brackets, to separate parts of a
sentence.
'I bought some olives, which we didn't eat, when I went shopping last week.'
Semicolon
A semicolon is a stronger break than a comma, but not as much as a full stop. We use
semicolons to separate two closely linked sentences.
'They'd love to move house; it's just so difficult to sell right now.'
We can also use a semicolon to separate items in a list when we use bullet points.
'We aim to:
 listen to your views;
 investigate any concerns you have; and
 provide a full response within 10 working days.'
Colon
A colon can act as a break in a sentence when we expect something to follow.
'Only four contestants remained: Louise, Jack, Michael and Ruby.' In business writing, we
most commonly use colons to introduce lists.
'Please send us:
 your filled-in application form;
 proof of your identity; and
 your last five bank statements.'
Sentence length
Try to aim for no more than 15 to 20 words in a sentence. Remember that no matter how
many commas, semicolons and colons you put in, long sentences can be confusing.
Using apostrophes
We use the apostrophe for three reasons.
To show that a letter or letters are missing
For example:
 I'm going to the zoo.
 You can't feed the animals.
 It's a lovely day out, isn't it?
To show possession
In the singular, the apostrophe comes before the 's'. In the plural it comes after the 's'.
For example:
 The girl's idea was accepted. (Singular - the idea a girl has had)
 The girls' idea was accepted. (Plural - an idea a group of girls has had)
 The company's management must tackle this. (The management of one company)
 The companies' management must tackle this. (The management of several
companies)
If a plural noun doesn't end in 's', we add an apostrophe and an 's'.
For example:
 This is the people's choice.
 We invited the children's parents to this event.
With names or singular nouns that end in 's', 'x' or 'z', we usually add an apostrophe followed
by 's'.
For example:
  The bus's journey came to an end.
 The fox's den was well hidden.
 Liz's bag cut into her shoulder.
However, if it sounds better, it is acceptable to just add the apostrophe.
For example:
 Karl Benz' vehicle was the first to be driven by an internal-combustion engine.
 Euripides' plays show innovation.
In some expressions of time
For example:
 We have been given a week's notice. (Singular)
 We have been given two weeks' notice. (Plural)
When apostrophes must not be used
Normal plurals don't need an apostrophe.
For example:
 We sell oranges and lemons.
 The 1980s are a blur.
 MPs debating this today.
 People in their 70s need to renew their licence every three years.
The word 'its', used to show possession, doesn't have an apostrophe. 'It's' with an apostrophe
means 'it is' or 'it has'.
For example:
 The company now has its own car park. It's to the rear of the building. It's been there
for about a year now.
Using hyphens
The main use of a hyphen is to join two or more words together.
Sometimes a word needs a hyphen for it to be spelt correctly.
For example:
 one-off
 part-time
 face-to-face
In some situations there are no hard and fast rules and the use of hyphens is a matter of
personal preference. However, there are some guidelines on when you should use them.
In compound adjectives (single adjectives formed from two or more words) that appear
before a noun
For example:
 An up-to-date guide is a guide that is up to date.
 Income-based Jobseeker's Allowance is a benefit that is based on your income.
 An energy-efficient fridge is one that is energy efficient.
These hyphens are often necessary to avoid confusion.
For example:
 A blue-collared shirt is a shirt with a blue collar, while a blue collared shirt could be a
blue shirt that has a collar.
 A French-dictionary salesman is a man who sells French dictionaries, while a French
dictionary salesman could be a Frenchman who sells dictionaries.
 A red-wine bottle is a bottle for red wine, while a red wine bottle could be a wine
bottle that is red.
To distinguish one word from a similar one
For example:
 re-sort, not resort
 co-op, not coop
 re-form, not reform
With prefixes
Some words formed with a prefix are always hyphenated.
For example:
 self-employed
 pro-family
 anti-aircraft
With some prefixes, a hyphen is not necessary but is preferable to help with pronunciation,
avoid a double vowel, or stop a word looking odd.
For example:
 co-ordinate
 re-enter
 de-ice
When numbers between 21 and 99 are written out in full
For example:
 twenty-one
 ninety-nine
 one hundred and thirty-four (Note that only 'thirty-four' is hyphenated.)
THE EIGHT PARTS OF SPEECH
There are eight parts of speech in the English language: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective,
adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. The part of speech indicates how the word
functions in meaning as well as grammatically within the sentence. An individual word can
function as more than one part of speech when used in different
circumstances. Understanding parts of speech is essential for determining the correct
definition of a word when using the dictionary.
1. NOUN
• A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea.
man... Butte College... house... happiness
A noun is a word for a person, place, thing, or idea. Nouns are often used with an article
(the, a, an), but not always. Proper nouns always start with a capital letter; common nouns do
not. Nouns can be singular or plural, concrete or abstract. Nouns show possession by
adding 's. Nouns can function in different roles within a sentence; for example, a noun can be
a subject, direct object, indirect object, subject complement, or object of a preposition.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!
See the TIP Sheet on "Nouns" for further information.
2. PRONOUN
• A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun.
She... we... they... it
A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. A pronoun is usually substituted for a specific
noun, which is called its antecedent. In the sentence above, the antecedent for the
pronoun she is the girl. Pronouns are further defined by type: personal pronouns refer to
specific persons or things; possessive pronouns indicate ownership; reflexive pronouns are
used to emphasize another noun or pronoun; relative pronouns introduce a subordinate
clause; and demonstrative pronouns identify, point to, or refer to nouns.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!
See the TIP Sheet on "Pronouns" for further information.
3. VERB
• A verb expresses action or being.
jump... is... write... become
The verb in a sentence expresses action or being. There is a main verb and sometimes one or
more helping verbs. ("She can sing." Sing is the main verb; can is the helping verb.) A verb
must agree with its subject in number (both are singular or both are plural). Verbs also take
different forms to express tense.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she
quickly disappeared. Oh my!
See the TIP Sheet on "Verbs" for more information.
4. ADJECTIVE
• An adjective modifies or describes a noun or pronoun.
pretty... old... blue... smart
An adjective is a word used to modify or describe a noun or a pronoun. It usually answers the
question of which one, what kind, or how many. (Articles [a, an, the] are usually classified as
adjectives.)
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!
See the TIP Sheet on "Adjectives" for more information.
5. ADVERB
• An adverb modifies or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
gently... extremely... carefully... well
An adverb describes or modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, but never a noun. It
usually answers the questions of when, where, how, why, under what conditions, or to what
degree. Adverbs often end in -ly.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher,
and then she quickly disappeared. Oh my!
See the TIP Sheet on "Adverbs" for more information.
6. PREPOSITION
• A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase
modifying another word in the sentence.
by... with.... about... until
(by the tree, with our friends, about the book, until tomorrow)
A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase modifying another
word in the sentence. Therefore a preposition is always part of a prepositional phrase. The
prepositional phrase almost always functions as an adjective or as an adverb. The following
list includes the most common prepositions:
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!
See the TIP Sheet on "Prepositions" for more information.
7. CONJUNCTION
• A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses.
and... but... or... while... because
A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses, and indicates the relationship between the
elements joined. Coordinating conjunctions connect grammatically equal elements: and, but,
or, nor, for, so, yet. Subordinating conjunctions connect clauses that are not equal: because,
although, while, since, etc. There are other types of conjunctions as well.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!
See the TIP Sheet on "Conjunctions" for more information.
8. INTERJECTION
• An interjection is a word used to express emotion.
Oh!... Wow!... Oops!
An interjection is a word used to express emotion. It is often followed by an exclamation
point.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!
See the TIP Sheet on "Interjections" for more information.
NOUNS
The first real word you ever used probably was a noun-a word like mama, daddy, car,
or cookie. Most children begin building their vocabularies with nouns. A noun names
something: a person, place, or thing. Most other parts of our language either describe nouns,
tell what a noun is doing, or take the place of a noun.
Nouns have these characteristics:
• They are abstract or concrete.
• They are proper or common.
• Most are singular or plural, but...
• Some are collective.

In English, nouns are often preceded by noun markers--the articles/adjectives a, an, the,
or some for example; or possessive words like my or your. A noun always follows a noun
marker, though adjectives or other words may come between them:
my former roommate
a sunny June day
an objective and very thorough evaluation
some existential angst
Because of their noun markers, you could safely guess
that roommate, day, evaluation and angst are nouns (even if you didn't know
what angst was). Although not all nouns are preceded by markers, you can use a noun marker
test to identify many, including abstract nouns. Consider this example:
Enthusiasm and willingness to work hard are a remedy for the existential angst of many
students.
Remedy is marked as a noun by the noun marker a. Angst is preceded by the noun
marker the. Students is preceded by the adjective (adjectives modify nouns) many. Test the
remaining words: can you have an enthusiasm or some enthusiasm? Certainly: "I
have an enthusiasm for snowboarding" or "Show some enthusiasm!" So enthusiasm is a
noun. Can you have an and or some and? Uh, no. So and is not a noun. Can you have a
willingness or some willingness? Sure, you can have "a willingness to learn"; willingness is
also a noun.
Every noun is either abstract or concrete.
Nouns like enthusiasm, willingness and angst are abstract nouns. Abstract nouns name things
we cannot see, touch, or detect readily through our senses. Abstract nouns name ideas
(existentialism, democracy), measurements (weight, percent), emotions (love, angst), or
qualities (responsibility). Concrete nouns, on the other hand, name persons, including animals
(cousins, Roger Rabbit), places (beach, Chico), or things we can see, touch, or otherwise
detect through our senses (smoke, beer).
Every noun is either proper or common.
A proper noun identifies a particular person, animal, place, thing, or idea--Roger Rabbit, for
example. The first letter of each word of a proper noun is capitalized. A common noun does
not name a particular person or thing; rather, it refers to a whole class or type. Common
nouns do not require capitalization.
Proper noun common
(capitalized) noun
Sierra Nevada Crystal
is his favorite beer.
Wheat
The Rooks and the are our local soccer and
teams.
Rangers baseball
is one of the largest
Bidwell Park parks.
municipal
Lundberg Family Farm is a sustainable, organic farm.
Most nouns are either singular or plural...
Most nouns are made plural with the addition of s or es. Thus, instructor becomes instructors,
and class becomes classes. Some nouns have irregular plural forms: man becomes men,
and woman becomes women. Child becomes children, and person becomes people.
Many people, both men and women, believe that having children will be a remedy for their
existential angst.
Some nouns have the same form in both singular and plural: "A moose is crossing the river.
No, wait--three moose are crossing the river!"
...but some nouns are collective.
A collective noun names a collection or group of things. Although a collective noun refers to
a group of many things, it is usually singular in form. We think of a collective noun as
singular because its members act in one accord:
The army is withdrawing from those Asian countries that are in negotiations.
Here, army is a collective noun referring to a group of many people acting with one will. We
treat it as a singular noun. Countries is a plural noun. If several countries joined together to
form an alliance, we could say this:
The Asian alliance is united in its determination to repel foreign invaders.
In some instances a collective noun describes a group that is not acting with one will, whose
members rather are taking independent, divergent actions. In this case, the collective noun is
treated as a plural to reflect the plurality of the members' actions:
The jury were unable to come to any consensus.
If the jury had reached a unanimous decision, we would have said:
The jury was unanimous in its verdict.
PRONOUNS
Pronouns replace nouns. Without them, language would be repetitious, lengthy, and
awkward:
President John Kennedy had severe back trouble, and although President John Kennedy
approached stairs gingerly and lifted with care, President John Kennedy did swim and sail,
and occasionally President John Kennedy even managed to play touch football with friends,
family members, or co-workers.
With pronouns taking the place of some nouns, that sentence reads more naturally:
President John Kennedy had severe back trouble, and although he approached stairs gingerly
and lifted with care, he did swim and sail, and occasionally he even managed to play touch
football with friends, family members, or co-workers.
The pronoun he takes the place of the proper noun President John Kennedy. This
makes President John Kennedy the antecedent of the pronoun. The antecedent is the noun or
pronoun that a pronoun replaces. There are six types of pronouns:

Personal Reflexive
Indefinite Relative

Possessive Demonstrative

Personal pronouns
Since nouns refer to specific persons, places, or things, personal pronouns also refer to
specific persons, places, or things. Pronouns have characteristics called number, person,
and case.
Number refers to whether a pronoun is singular (him) or plural (them). Thus John Kennedy
becomes he or him, while the president's friends would be they or them.
Person is a little more abstract. The first person is the person speaking-I. The sentence
"I expect to graduate in January," is in the first person. The second person is the one being
spoken to–you: "You may be able to graduate sooner!" The third person is being spoken of-
he, she, it, they, them: "She, on the other hand, may have to wait until June to graduate." A
pronoun must match (agree with) its antecedent in person as well as number. So
graduating students must be referred to as they or them, not as us; a valedictorian must be
referred to as he or she, him or her, not as we or you.
Case refers to what job a pronoun can legally perform in a sentence. Some pronouns can be
subjects and others cannot. For example, we are allowed to say "I expect to graduate soon,"
but we are not allowed to say "Me expect to graduate soon." Pronouns that may be subjects
are in the subjective case; they are subject pronouns. Some pronouns cannot be subjects; they
are, instead, used as direct objects, indirect objects, or objects of prepositions. They are
in objective case; they are object pronouns: "His uncle hired him after graduation." "Uncle
Joe gave her a job, too." "Without them, he would have been shorthanded."

First person Second person Third person

Subjective Objective Subjective Objective Subjective Objective

he, she, it, him, her, it,

I, we me, us you you
they them

Subject pronouns also are used after linking verbs, where they refer back to the subject: "The
valedictorian was

she."
Indefinite pronouns
While personal pronouns refer to specific persons, places, or things, indefinite pronouns refer
to general persons, places, or things. Indefinite pronouns all are third-person pronouns and
can be subjects or objects in sentences.
Many indefinite pronouns seem to refer to groups–everybody seems like a crowd, right?-and
so are often mistakenly treated as plurals ("Everybody overfilled their backpack"). However,
any indefinite pronoun that ends in -one, -body, -thing is singular:
"Everybody overfilled his (or her) backpack." The following indefinite pronouns are usually
singular; if one of these words is the antecedent in a sentence, the pronoun that refers to it
must also be singular. Thus, we must write, "Does anyone know," rather than "Do anyone
know"; "Each of them knows," rather than "Each of them know"; and "Someone left her cell
phone," rather than, "Someone left their cell phone."

Indefinite pronouns, singular

anyone anybody anything either each

no one nobody nothing another one

someone somebody something any

everyone everybody everything

On the other hand, some indefinite pronouns are plural:

Indefinite pronouns, plural

both few many several

Plural indefinite pronouns take plural verbs and plural pronouns: "Both were rewarded
for their courage." "Many attend in spite of their other obligations."
A few indefinite pronouns can be either singular or plural, depending on the context:

Indefinite pronouns, singular or plural

most any all none some neither

Thus, we may write, "All is well," (singular) in reference to the general condition of things,
or "All are attending," (plural) in reference to individuals. (For more, look up count and non-
count nouns in an English grammar reference or online.)
(Some of the indefinite pronouns above can also be used as adjectives. In "Many left their
trash on the riverbank," many is a pronoun replacing swimmers. In contrast, in
"Many students went tubing on the river," many is an adjective modifying students. For more
information, see the TIP sheet "Adjectives.")
Possessive Pronouns
Possessive pronouns replace possessive nouns. Thus, Jamie's Corvette becomes her Corvette.
Possessive pronouns never take apostrophes.
Possessive pronouns

my our your his, her its their whose

mine ours yours his, hers theirs

In the table above, the words in the upper row must accompany nouns: her Corvette, our
Nissan. The pronouns in the lower row stand alone, as replacements for the adjective + noun
pair– "Hers is fast; mine is slow."
Reflexive pronouns
Reflexive pronouns add emphasis. They always follow a noun or personal pronoun and do
not appear alone in a sentence: "Jamie herself changed the tire." "She herself changed the
tire." The meaning is that she, and no one else, changed the tire, and the emphasis is on the
independence of her action. Reflexive pronouns also show that someone did something to
himself or herself: "She surprised herself with how well she did on the test."

Reflexive pronouns

yourself himself, herself, itself

myself ourselves
yourselves themselves

A reflexive pronoun cannot replace the subject of a sentence, such as in "Burcu

and myself are taking that class together." Instead, use a personal pronoun: "Burcu and I are
taking that class together" or "Burcu and I myself are taking that class together."
There is no theirself or theirselves. "They waxed the car themselves at home." There is
no hisself: "Jesse taught himself French."
Relative pronouns
A relative pronoun begins a clause that refers to a noun in a sentence. (A clause is a word
group with its own subject and verb.) Who begins a clause that refers to people: "Krista is the
math tutor who helped me the most." That may refer either to persons or things: "Laura is the
math tutor that knows the most about calculus; calculus is the class that I am taking in the
fall." Which begins a clause that refers to things: "Statistics, which is the interpretation of
collected numerical data, has many practical applications."

Relative pronouns

that who whoever whose

which whom whomever what

Who is a subject pronoun; it can be the subject of a sentence: "Who was at the
door?" Whom is an object pronoun. It cannot be the subject of a sentence, but it can be a
direct or indirect object or the object of a preposition: "Don't ask for whom the bell
tolls." Who and whom often appear in questions where the natural word order is inverted and
where the words you see first are the pronouns who or whom, followed by part of the
verb, then the subject, then the rest of the verb. So it isn't always easy to figure out if you
should use who or whom. Is it "Who did you visit last summer?" or "Whom did you visit last
summer?" To decide, follow these steps:

1. Change the question to a statement: "You did visit who/whom last summer." This
restores natural word order: subject, verb, direct object.
2. In place of who/whom, substitute the personal pronouns he and him: "You did
visit he last summer"; "You did visit him last summer."
3. If he, a subject pronoun, is right, then the right choice for the original question
is who–another subject pronoun. If him, an object pronoun, is correct, then the right
choice for the original question is whom–another object pronoun.
4. Based on step three, above, correctly frame the question: "Whom did you visit last
summer?"

Similarly, whoever is a subject pronoun, and whomever is an object pronoun. Use the same
test for, "Whoever/whomever would want to run on such a humid day?" Change the question
to a statement, substituting he and him: "He (not him) would want to run on such a humid
day." The right word, therefore, would be whoever, the subject pronoun. On the other hand,
you would say, "Hand out plenty of water to whomever you see." You would see and hand the
water out to him, not to he; this sentence requires the object pronoun.
Demonstrative pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns indicate specific persons, places, or things: "That is a great idea!"
That is a pronoun referring to the abstract noun idea.

Demonstrative pronouns

this these

that those

(Like some indefinite pronouns, demonstrative pronouns can also be used as adjectives. In
"That band started out playing local Chico clubs," that modifies the noun band.)
For more on pronouns, see the TIP Sheets "The Eight Parts of Speech," "Pronoun Reference,"
and "Relative Pronouns: Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses."
VERBS
If a noun was the first word you ever spoke (Mama or cookie), a verb probably followed just
as soon as you learned that "Give cookie" got you better results than "Cookie." In a sentence,
the verb expresses what the subject does (She hopes for the job) or what the subject is (She
is confident). All verbs are one of three types:
• Action verbs
• Linking verbs
 • Helping verbs
Action verbs
In a sentence, an action verb tells what the subject does. Action verbs express physical or
mental actions: think, eat, collide, realize, dance. Admittedly, some of these seem more active
than others. Nevertheless, realize is still as much a verb as collide:
I finally realized my mistake.
The outfielder collided with the second-baseman.
She dances every Friday night.
(In the present tense, statements with subjects of he, she, or it, we add an s to the verb: I
go downstairs, we go downstairs, and ballplayers go downstairs, but he goes downstairs
and Loren goes downstairs. For more, see the TIP Sheet "Subject-Verb Agreement.")
Linking verbs
Linking verbs are the couch potatoes of verbs, that is, not very active at all. In a sentence, a
linking verb tells what the subject is rather than what it does; linking verbs express a state of
being. For example, all the forms of the verb to be are linking verbs:

3rd person (she, he, it;

1st person (I; we) 2nd person (you)
they)

present am; are are is; are

past was; were were was; were

[have] been; [had] [have] been; [had] [has] been; [had]

participle
been been been

These verbs connect a subject, say, Loren, with more information about that subject: Loren is
an athlete, or Loren was glad.
Another set of linking verbs are those pertaining to our five senses--seeing, tasting, touching,
hearing, and smelling--and how we perceive the world: the
verbs appear, seem, look, feel, smell, taste, and sound, for example. When used as linking
verbs, they connect the subject with a word offering more information about that subject:
Loren seems anxious about the test.
The well water tastes wonderful.
My carpet still feels damp.
You sound hoarse.
The curtains smell a little smoky.
As linking verbs, these "sense" verbs have about the same meaning as
is. Loren seems anxious is roughly equivalent to Loren is anxious; the curtains smell smoky is
about the same as the curtains are smoky. However, these same "sense" verbs can sometimes
be action verbs instead. The real test whether one of these verbs is or is not a linking verb is
whether it draws an equivalence with the subject, almost like a math equation: Loren =
anxious; curtains = smoky. Consider the sentence I can't taste my lunch because I have a
cold. Taste here does not draw an equivalence between I and lunch; rather, here it is an action
verb, something the subject does. In the sentence Can you smell smoke? smell does not
describe what the subject is, but what the subject does; it is an action verb.
Other common linking verbs include become, remain, and grow, when they link the subject to
more information (either a noun or an adjective) about that subject:
You will soon become tired of the monotony.
Pha has become a very responsible teenager.
I remain hopeful.
Daniel grew more and more confident.
Again, these verbs might be action verbs in other sentences, such as in I grew carrots.
Helping verbs...
Verbs often appear with helping verbs that fine-tune their meaning, usually expressing when
something occurred. The complete verb is the main verb plus all its helping verbs.
Verb tense is the name for the characteristic verbs have of expressing time. Simple present
tense verbs express present or habitual action, and simple past tense verbs express actions
that were completed in the past; neither simple present nor simple past tense verbs require
helping verbs. However, most other verb tenses require one or more helping verbs. Moreover,
some helping verbs express more than just time-possibility, obligation, or permission, for
example.
...have, has, had
Every verb has three basic forms: present or simple form, past form, and participle form. All
participle forms require a helping verb that fine-tunes the time expression:
Comets have collided with earth many times.
Stan had known about the plan for some time.
The table below demonstrates these three forms with their required helping verbs:

present or simple form past form participle form participle + helper

collide collided collided has, have, had collided

is was been has, have, had been

choose chose chosen has, have, had been

know knew known has, have, had been

Participles used as verbs in a sentence must be used with has, have, or had. Participles used
without helpers become adjectives: The early explorers sailed beyond the known world.
...to be: am, are, is, was, were, been
Verbs with -ing endings require a helper from the to be family of verbs. These progressive
verb tenses express ongoing present action, continuous past action or future planned action:
They are still working on the contract.
Phanat was studying all night.
Holly had been reviewing her notes since the day before.
We are holding student elections next September.
Verbs with -ing endings must be used with one of the to be helpers; an -ing word without a
helper is ineligible to act as the verb of a sentence. It can, however, be a noun (Hiking is fun)
or an adjective (The hiking trail is closed).
...do, does, did
The helping verbs do, does, and did may be used optionally to add emphasis: She
certainly does like her morning mocha.
While adding emphasis is optional, these helpers must be used when forming
questions: Does Andrea ski every weekend? They must also accompany the verb in sentences
that combine not with an action verb: Don't you want to take the train? Do not wait for me
past 4:30.
When do and does are used, they change form to match the subject while the main verb
remains in simple form: instead of She likes coffee, we would say, She sure does like her
coffee. Similarly, for questions, we change the form of the helper and leave the main verb in
simple form: Does Andrea ski? The negative is Andrea does not ski, even though the
statement would have been Andrea skis. (In the past tense, with did, the verb never changes
form.)
...will and shall
Future tense verbs require a helper, will or shall, and express intention, expectation, or action
that will happen later.
We shall drive to Santa Barbara in August.
Krista will not attend.
We will be holding student elections in September.
...would, could, should, can, may, might...
The verb helpers would, could, should, can, may, might, must, supposed to, ought to, used to,
and have to are examples of modal helpers. (Will and shall are technically modals as well.)
Modal helpers are little different from real verbs because they never change form. They are
easy to use because they always are used with the simple form of the verb:
I may want to change my flight.
You can cash your check at the grocery store.
Paul must notify his employer soon.
Instead of expressing time, modals help verbs express a variety of other things:

Expresses For example...

I never used to eat breakfast;

past habit
I would never eat breakfast.

He would like us to clean

requests
up; could you clean up? Can you do it?
 Yes, you can go. You may change the channel.
permission
He could leave early.

necessity, You must see that movie! We ought to go soon;

advisability we will have to call later.

I might pay with cash; we may write a check.

possibility
That could be true.

For more information on the various possible meanings of some modals, see the TIP Sheet
"Would, Should, Could." For more on verbs, see the TIP Sheets "Consistent Verb Tense" and
"Two-Word Verbs."
(Grammar geek note: Sometimes, when words like would and could express a statement of
possibility or desire, or when they state something contrary to fact, a special verb form,
the subjunctive, is required. For example, If he had known, he would have come sooner is an
expression contrary to fact. So in this example, the subjunctive form causes the helper to
change to have instead of the expected has--for more information, check a grammar and
usage guide for "subjunctive mood.")
ADJECTIVES
An adjective is a word used to describe, or modify, noun or a pronoun. Adjectives usually
answer questions like which one, what kind, or how many:
that hilarious book
the red one
several heavy books
In English adjectives usually precede nouns or pronouns. However, in sentences with linking
verbs, such as the to be verbs or the "sense" verbs, adjectives can follow the verb (for more
information on to be or "sense" verbs, see the TIP Sheet "Verbs"):
Dave Barry's books are hilarious; they seem so random.
One good adjective can be invaluable in producing the image or tone you want. You may also
"stack" adjectives--as long as you don't stack them too high. In general, if you think you need
more than three adjectives, you may really just need a better noun. For instance, instead of
saying the unkempt, dilapidated, dirty little house, consider just saying the hovel. (It's not true
that he who uses the most adjectives wins; it's he who uses the most suitable adjectives.)
Descriptive adjectives
Descriptive adjectives (steamy, stormy) call up images, tones, and feelings. Steamy weather is
different from stormy weather. Steamy and stormy conjure different pictures, feelings, and
associations.
Many descriptive adjectives come from verbs. The verb had broken, without the helper had,
is an adjective: a broken keyboard. Likewise, the -ing verb form, such as is running, used
without its helper is, can be an adjective: running shoes. (For more on -ed and -ing forms,
see the TIP SheetS "Verbs" and "Consistent Verb Tense.")
Nouns can be used as adjectives, too. For instance, the noun student can be made to modify,
or describe, the noun bookstore: the student bookstore. Nouns often combine to produce
compound adjectives that modify a noun as a unit, usually joined by hyphens when they
precede the noun. When they follow the noun, the hyphens are omitted:
He was an 18-year-old boy, but the girl was only 16 years old.
Other compound adjectives do not use hyphens in any case. In income tax forms, income
tax is a compound adjective that does not require a hyphen.
Articles
The, an, and a, called articles, are adjectives that answer the question which
one? The modifies a noun or pronoun by limiting its reference to a particular or known thing,
either singular or plural. A expands the reference to a single non-specific or previously
unknown thing. An is similar to a, but is used when the word following it begins with a vowel
sound:
the books on the table
a book from an online store, the one we ordered last week
See the TIP sheet "Articles" for more information.
Demonstrative adjectives
Demonstrative adjectives answer the question which one(s)? They are the only adjectives that
have both a singular and plural form--this and that are singular; these and those are plural.
Demonstrative adjectives point to particular or previously named
things. This and these indicate things nearby (in time or space), while that and those suggest
distance (in time or space):
This novel is the worst I've ever read; these biographies are much better.
Tell me more about that author; why does she write about those events?
Possessive adjectives
Possessive adjectives answer the question whose? They include my, our, your, his, her, its,
and their:
our joke book
its well-worn pages
Indefinite adjectives
Indefinite adjectives include some, many, any, few, several, and all:
some jokes
few listeners
Note that these words can also be used as pronouns: Some were in bad taste; few could
carpool. For more, see the TIP Sheets "Pronouns" and "Pronoun Reference."
Questioning adjectives
Which and what are adjectives when they modify nouns or pronouns:
Which joke did you like better, and what reason can you give for your preference?
Like indefinite adjectives, the questioning (or interrogative) adjectives can also function as
pronouns; see the TIP Sheets "Pronouns" and "Pronoun Reference."
Adjective order and punctuation
Some stacks of adjectives can be rearranged freely without changing the meaning. They
are coordinate adjectives, and they are equal and separate in the way they modify a noun. For
example, we can freely rearrange a dull, dark,
and depressing day: a depressing, dark, dull day. Separate two or more coordinate adjectives
with commas (note that no comma goes immediately before the noun).
Other adjective groups cannot be freely rearranged. These cumulative adjectives are not
separated by commas. Rich chocolate layer cake cannot be changed
to layer chocolate rich cake. For more on identifying and punctuating coordinate and
cumulative adjectives, see the TIP Sheet "Commas."
If you were born to English, you may not realize that there are rules for placing adjective
groups in order. For example, the determiner (a, an, the) comes first, then size words, then
color, then purpose:
a large, purple sleeping bag
You can't freely rearrange these adjectives and say, for example, sleeping, purple, a
large bag without awkwardness, absurdity, or loss of meaning, The rule is that a stack of
adjectives generally occurs in the following order: opinion (useful, lovely, ugly), size
(big, small), age (young, old), shape (square, squiggly), color (cobalt, yellow), origin
(Canadian, solar), material (granite, wool), and purpose (shopping, running).
scary, squiggly solar flares
lovely, cobalt, Canadian running shoes
Cobalt, running, Canadian, lovely shoes doesn't work. If English is a second language for
you, consult an ESL guide for more information.
ADVERBS
An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, adjective, or another adverb. An adverb usually
modifies by telling how, when, where, why, under what conditions, or to what degree. An
adverb is often formed by adding -ly to an adjective.
Conjunctive adverbs form a separate category because they serve as both conjunctions (they
connect) and adverbs (they modify). Groups of words can also function as adverb phrases or
adverb clauses.
(In the examples below, the adverb is in bold and the modified word is underlined.)
1. An adverb can modify a verb.
The girls ran quickly but happily through the puddle. (The
adverbs quickly and happily modify the verb ran by telling how.)
Go to the administration office first, and then come to class. (The adverb first modifies the
verb go, and the adverb then modifies the verb come. Both modify the verbs by telling when.)
They are moving her office upstairs. (The adverb upstairs modifies the verb moving by telling
where.)
2. An adverb can modify an adjective. The adverb usually clarifies the degree or
intensity of the adjective.
Maria was almost finished when they brought her an exceptionally delicious dessert. (The
adverb almost modifies the adjective finished and exceptionally modifies delicious by
describing the degree or intensity of the adjectives.)
He was very happy about being so good at such an extremely challenging sport. (The
adverb very modifies the adjective happy, so modifies good,
and extremely modifies challenging by describing the degree or intensity of the adjectives.)
Students are often entertained and sometimes confused, but never bored in that class. (The
adverb often modifies the adjective entertained, sometimes modifies confused,
and never modifies bored by describing the degree or intensity of the adjectives.)
3. An adverb can modify another adverb. The modifying adverb usually clarifies the
degree or intensity of the adverb.
Eating her lunch somewhat cautiously, Carolyn tried to ignore the commotion. (The
adverb somewhat modifies the adverb cautiously by telling to what degree.)
Stan can discuss the English language very thoroughly. (The adverb very modifies the
adverb thoroughly by telling to what degree.)
Even in the other room, Vickilee was never completely unaware of the crying kittens. (The
adverb never modifies the adverb completely by telling to what degree.)
Additional Notes on Adverbs
In addition to the rules that apply to the use of adverbs, the following points further discuss
their formation and function.
• Adverbs are often made by adding -ly to an adjective.
adjective: slow adverb: slowly
adjective: deep adverb: deeply
adjective: fair adverb: fairly
Ø However, not all words that end in -ly are adverbs!
nouns: family, homily, rally, lily
adjectives: friendly, worldly, lovely, sly
• Some common adverbs do not originate from adjectives.
very
quite
only
so
Some adverbs modify by negating a statement. These are referred to as negative adverbs.
hardly
never
no
not
scarcely
Ø When using negative adverbs, be careful to avoid a double negative.
(Incorrect double negative)
He can't hardly understand the words of the speaker.
(Correct)
He can hardly understand the words of the speaker.
(See TIP Sheet "Avoiding Modifier Problems" regarding "limiters" for further information on
negative adverbs.)
• In order to form the comparative or superlative forms of adverbs, add the ending of -
er or -est to certain adverbs of only one syllable (fast, faster, fastest). However, all
adverbs which end in -ly and most adverbs of more than one syllable form the
comparative and superlative with the addition of more or most.
Todd drives faster than I do, but I get there sooner and more efficiently by taking
a shorter route. Amy drives most slowly of all of us.
Conjunctive Adverbs
Words that function as adverbs (telling how, when, where, why, under what conditions, or to
what degree) and which also function as conjunctions (joining grammatical parts) are called
conjunctive adverbs.
• Conjunctive adverbs
accordingly finally likewise similarly
also furthermore meanwhile specifically
anyway hence moreover still
besides however nevertheless subsequently
certainly incidentally next then
consequently indeed nonetheless therefore
conversely instead otherwise thus
Conjunctive adverbs join and create transitions between independent clauses. A conjunctive
adverb may begin a sentence and is often followed by a comma. When place between
independent clauses, a conjunctive adverb is preceded by a semicolon and is usually followed
by a comma.
Her husband is a rice farmer; consequently, these days he is busy from sunrise until
nightfall. Nevertheless, he is still home every night to read his sons a story.
Adverb Phrases and Adverb Clauses
Sometimes groups of words function together to form an adverb phrase or adverb clause.
 • Adverb prepositional phrase
The puppy is sleeping under my desk. (Under my desk is a prepositional phrase that functions
as an adverb because it modifies the verb sleeping by telling where.)
• Adverb infinitive phrase
To prevent the theft of your food, use a locked cabinet to store your camp supplies. (To
prevent the theft of your food is an infinitive phrase that functions as an adverb because it
modifies the verb use by telling why.)
• Adverb dependent clause
Marco departed before the storm arrived. (Before the storm arrived is a dependent clause
that modifies the verb departed by telling when.)
REPOSITIONS AND PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
Prepositions are common; they are not flashy. They are sometimes very little words,
like on, in, and unlike; sometimes they are two words, like according to. A preposition
combined with a noun (or pronoun), in that order, makes a prepositional phrase:
in Duffy's Tavern
on the dashboard of my car
unlike most biologists
according to most moviegoers
Prepositional phrases usually tell where or when. Or, as most instructors are fond of saying,
they show relationship, for example, of location (in Duffy's Tavern) or of time (in February).
The formula, with variations
To describe a prepositional phrase we can borrow some math shorthand (although our
description does not really function like an equation--the preposition must always come
first!):
preposition + noun or pronoun = prepositional phrase
without Suzanna
without her
Stuff can be added between, usually in the form of various adjectives, but a prepositional
phrase always begins with the preposition and ends with the noun (or pronoun):
preposition + adjectives + noun or pronoun = prepositional phrase
in a yellow submarine
of the best and brightest students
above it
The second example above adds multiple adjectives (as well as a conjunction) but it begins
with the preposition and ends with the noun, and that is what matters.
The noun (or pronoun) that ends a prepositional phrase is called the object of the preposition.
If all prepositional phrases ended with nouns, you might not care to know this; however,
prepositional phrases may also end with pronouns, and those pronouns must be objective
pronouns: her (not she), him (not he), me (not I), them (not they), us (not we).
Rossi will come with her and me.
Why council members didn't explain about it was beyond us.
Notice that prepositional phrases may end with double nouns or double pronouns (compound
objects of the preposition), as illustrated above.
A complete list of prepositions would be huge. You do not need to know all of them, but
become familiar with at least some common prepositions:
about below inside throughout
above beneath into to
across beside like toward
after between near under
against beyond of underneath
along by off unlike
among down on until
around during out up
as except outside upon
at for over with
before from past within
behind in through without
The no-subject rule
Is there any practical advantage to knowing about prepositional phrases, you ask? Well,
consider that it is a common mistake for beginning writers to misidentify the subject of a
sentence (randomly picking out a likely noun, perhaps), make punctuation choices based on
this mistake, and end up with basic sentence errors in their writing. And consider further that
you will not make this mistake if you remember this rule: a prepositional phrase never
contains the subject of a sentence.
This is the advantage to knowing how to recognize prepositions and prepositional phrases in
your own writing. You need to be able to identify the subjects of sentences to be sure you
have constructed and punctuated them correctly. For example, you must be able to identify
subjects in order to avoid creating comma splices and fragments; ESL learners need to be
able to identify the subject in order to make sure the verb is in agreement with the subject.
To make this rule work for you, place parentheses around the prepositional phrases in your
sentences. Whatever is inside the parentheses is not the subject, no matter how prominently it
is placed:
(After the homecoming game), (before midnight), we will leave.
Since the nouns in this sentence, game and midnight, occur in prepositional phrases, they are
disqualified as subjects. That leaves only we--a simple pronoun subject buried near the end of
the sentence and easily overlooked.
Preposition look-alikes
"Preposition" is a function of the word, not the word itself. A preposition, to be a preposition,
must be in a prepositional phrase. Sometimes a word on the list of common prepositions
above occurs alone in a sentence, without a noun or pronoun following. In the following
example, outside is not a preposition at all, but a simple adverb modifying the verb practice:
Please practice your soccer dribbling outside!
For more on adverbs, see the TIP Sheet "Adverbs."
Another preposition look-alike occurs when the word to appears followed by a verb rather
than by a noun. This is a type of verbal phrase called an infinitive:
They practiced their dribbling outside to avoid breaking the furniture.
For more on verbals, see the TIP Sheet "Other Phrases: Verbal, Appositive, Absolute."
Yet another preposition look-alike is the phrasal verb-two-word verbs such as check out, run
into, or show up:
Carol never showed up for the soccer game on Sunday.
For more information on phrasal verbs, see the TIP Sheet "Two-word (Phrasal) Verbs."
Problem expressions
Which prepositions go with which verbs in which expressions is often a matter of custom
rather than rule. For ESL students in particular, prepositions can be difficult to master. The
prepositions describing when something occurs are a good example. If you wish to state that
an event occurred generally within a particular season, week, month, or year,
use during or in:
During the winter break I worked at the Heavenly Valley ski resort.
In 2002 the snow was pretty sparse; we're hoping for more this year.
That year we were already getting spring snow conditions in February!
On the other hand, if you are stating that an event occurred on a particular calendar date,
weekday, or holiday, use on:
You'd be surprised how many families ski on Christmas.
I'll meet you there on the 24th.
For specific times of day and clock times, use at:
The best time to catch the gondola to the top is at 11:30, just before the lunch rush.
Our favorite ski run of the day is the run from the top at sunset.
In addition, one can be on time for a scheduled event, but in time for an unscheduled one:
He met me at the bottom of the expert run right on time, as we had agreed.
The Ski Patrol arrived just in time to keep Jeff from breaking his neck.
 Other expressions mean very different things depending on which prepositions they are
paired with, for example, differ from (be dissimilar) and differ with (disagree with). In
comparisons, a thing is similar to another thing. We agree with a person, but we agree on a
plan and agree to particular actions.
CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions join words, phrases, or clauses. The three different types of conjunctions
indicate different relationships between the elements joined. Coordinating conjunctions link
elements of equal value. Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs to establish a specific
relationship between elements of equal value. Subordinating conjunctions indicate that one
element is of lesser value (subordinate) to another element.
1. Use a coordinating conjunction to connect elements (words, phrases, or clauses) of
equal grammatical value.
• There are seven coordinating conjunctions in English:
and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet
(Note: These are often remembered with the acronym FANBOYS.)
• Coordinating conjunctions link equal elements.
Swimming and reading are my two favorite summer activities. (Swimming and reading are
both subjects in the sentence.)

Please place the papers on top of the desk or in the drawer. (On top of the desk and in the
drawer are both prepositional phrases.)

She wanted to drive the car, but she had never received her license. (She wanted to drive the
car and she had never received her license are both independent clauses.)
2. Use correlative conjunctions in pairs to connect words, phrases, or clauses of equal
grammatical value. Correct use of these conjunctions is critical in achieving parallelism
in sentence structure (see TIP Sheet on "Achieving Parallelism").
• Correlative conjunctions always come in pairs:
as...as
both...and
not only...but also
either...or
neither...nor
whether...or
• Make sure that the grammatical structure following the second half of the pair is the
same as that following the first half.

You must decide either to fly or to drive. (The elements to fly and to drive are both
infinitives.)
Contrary to my plans, I spent much of my vacation both correcting papers and contacting
students. (The elements correcting papers and contacting students are both participial
phrases.)
I hope not only that you will attend the play, but also that you will stay for the cast party
afterwards. (The elements that you will attend the play and that you will stay for the cast
party afterwards are both subordinate clauses.)
3. Use a subordinating conjunction to connect a subordinate (dependent) clause to an
independent clause.
• Common subordinating conjunctions include the following:
after even though than whenever
although if that where
as in order that though whereas
as if rather than unless wherever
because since until whether
before so that when while
(Note: Some of the words listed can serve as different parts of speech, depending on how
they are used.)
• A subordinating conjunction indicates that the dependent clause is not complete
without an attached independent clause.
If you finish your homework, you will be prepared for the test. (If you finish your
homework by itself is an incomplete thought.)
I lose myself in the music whenever I practice the piano. (Whenever I practice the piano by
itself is an incomplete thought.)
4. Conjunctive adverbs (sometimes called adverbial conjunctions) are used to indicate a
relationship between sentences and independent clauses.
• Common conjunctive adverbs include the following:
however therefore moreover nevertheless
• When a conjunctive adverb appears at the beginning or in the middle of an
independent clause, it is usually set off by commas. When a conjunctive adverb
introduces a second clause within a sentence, a semicolon precedes it and a comma
follows it.
Carrot cake is very tasty. Moreover, the carrots make it a "healthy" choice for dessert.
I realize you were busy. It is unfortunate, however, that you missed that phone call.
The hurricane has lessened in intensity; nevertheless, we are evacuating in an hour.
 ِ‫الر ِح ْي ِم‬
َّ ِ‫الرحْ َم ِن‬
َّ ِ‫للا‬
ِ ‫ــــــــــــــــــم‬
ِِ ‫س‬ْ ‫ِب‬

Tenses Kegunaan Sinyal Rumus Contoh

Simple Digunakan untuk always, every, (+) Subject + Verb/ Verb-s/es I work hard for this
present menunjukkan fakta, kebiasaan, never, normally, + Complement) company
tense dan keadaan umum yang often, sometimes, (+) S + to be + adverb I am busy in my
terjadi pada saat ini usually, seldom (+) S + Do /does + Verb 1 office
(-) Subject + am/are/is/do/does I do my job at
+ not + complement) office
(?) Do/does + Subject + Verb1
+ Complement
Present Digunakan untuk at the moment, Subject + am/are/is + Verb-ing I am working today
continuous membicarakan aksi yang just now, now, + Complement)
tense sedang berlangsung. Yang right now, (-)Subject + am/are/is + (?) We are
paling utama dari tense ini Listen!, Look! Am/are/is + Subject + Verb-ing studying English
adalah adanya durasi waktu + Complement?
untuk kata kerjanya
Present Digunakan untuk already, ever, (+) Subject + has/have + I have worked
perfect menunjukkan suatu aksi atau just, never, not Verb3 + Complement) there 2 weeks a go
tense kejadian sudah selesai dan yet, so far, till (-) (Subject + has/have + not + I have finished my
menekankan pada hasilnya. now Verb3 + Complement) homework.
(?) Has/have + Subject +
Verb3 + Complement?
Present Digunakan untuk since, for the (+) Subject + has/have + been I have been
perfect menunjukkan aksi yang past …, the + Verb-ing + Complement) = working there for 2
continuous dimulai pada masa lampau dan whole week (-) (Subject + has/have + not + month
tense terus berlanjut sampai saat ini. been + Verb-ing + She has been
Biasanya aksi yang Complement) speaking for the
menggunakan tense ini (?) Has/have + Subject + been last 3 hours.
mempunyai durasi waktu tentu + Verb-ing + Complement?)
dan mempunyai relevansi
dengan kondisi sekarang
Simple Digunakan untuk last year, last (+) Subject + Verb2 + I worked hard for
past tense menunjukkan suatu kejadian month, Complement atau subject + that company
yang telah terjadi di masa lalu yesterday, in was/were + Complement) I was busy today
1996, last (-) Subject + did/was/were not I did not work
Sunday + Verb1 + Complement) today
(?) (Did + Subject + Verb1 +
Complement? atau Was/were +
Subject + Complement?
Past Digunakan untuk when, while, as (+) Subject + was/were + I was
continuous menunjukkan suatu kejadian long as, at this Verb-ing + Complement) studying English
tense yang sedang terjadi pada masa time yesterday (?) (Was/were + Subject + when he called
lampau. Biasanya ada dua Verb-ing + Complement?
kejadian terjadi di masa I was working
lampau dan kejadian yang there yesterday.
diinterupsi tersebut yang
menggunakan tense ini.
Past Digunakan untuk yesterday, till (+) Subject + had + Verb3 + I had worked there,
perfect menunjukkan kejadian yang three days ago, Complement) when she came to
tense terjadi sebelum waktu tertentu already, until (-) (Had + Subject + Verb3 + this
di masa lampau dan lebih that day Complement? neighbourhood.
menekankan pada hasil dari
pada durasinya kejadiannya. I had finished my
Biasanya digunakan untuk homework before I
menunjukkan kejadian mana met up with my
yang terjadi terlebih dahulu di friends yesterday.
antara dua kejadian yang
disebut.
Past Digunakan untuk for, since, the (+) Subject + had + been + I had been working
perfect menunjukkan aksi yang terjadi whole day, all Verb-ing + Complement) = . when she came to
continuous di masa lalu dan sudah selesai day (-) Subject + had + not + been my house
 ِ‫الر ِح ْي ِم‬
َّ ِ‫الرحْ َم ِن‬
َّ ِ‫للا‬
ِ ‫ــــــــــــــــــم‬
ِِ ‫س‬ْ ‫ِب‬
tense pada waktu tertentu di masa + Verb-ing + Complement) You had been
lalu juga. Tense ini (?) Had + Subject + been + crying for an hour
menekankan pada durasi Verb-ing + Complement?
kejadiannya. Tense ini juga
digunakan pada Reported
Speech.
Simple Kalimat yang menunjukan next…, (+) Subject + will/be going to I will work
future kejadian yang akan terjadi di tomorrow, five + Verb1 + Complement tomorrow
tense masa datang days later (?) Will + Subject + Verb1 + I am going to
Complement? atau Be + work hard for this
Subject + going to + Verb1 + company
Complement?

Future Digunakan untuk tomorrow (+) Subject + will / be going

(+)I will working
continuous menunjukkan suatu aksi atau morning, in ten to+ be + Verb-ing + on that building at
tense keadaan yang akan terjadi di years Complement) 8 o’clock
suatu waktu tertentu di masa (?) Am/are/is + Subject + (+)I will
yang akan datang Verb-ing + Complement? be studying English
(?)Are you going to
be
studying English?
Future Digunakan untuk next…, in a (+) Subject + will have + I will have finished
perfect menunjukkan aksi yang akan week. Verb3 + Complement my homework by
tense berakhir di masa depan (?)Will + Subject + have Verb3 tomorrow.
+ Complement?
Future Digunakan untuk for the last…, all (+) Subject + would + have + In 2020, she would
perfect menunjukkan aksi yang akan day long been + Verb-ing + have been working
continuous terus terjadi di masa Complement) here for two years.
tense depan. Tense ini menekankan (?) Would + Subject + have +
pada hasil been + Verb-ing +
Complement?
Simple Digunakan untuk yesterday, the (+) Subject + would/should + I would come to
past menunjukkan aksi yang day before, last Verb1 + Complement. your party if you
future seharusnya dilakukan di masa week (?)Would/should + Subject + invited me.
tense lalu namun gagal (rencana Verb1 + Complement?
yang gagal).
Past Digunakan untuk (+) Subject + would/should + I would be studying
future menunjukkan suatu aksi be + Verb-ing + Complement if you had not
continuous yang akan dilakukan di masa (?) Would/should + Subject + disturbed me
tense lampau dan be + Verb-ing + Complement yesterday.
akan berlangsung hingga
waktu tertentu di masa
lampau. Tense ini menekankan
pada durasi aksinya.
Past Digunakan untuk (+) Subject + would/should I would have
future menunjukkan suatu aksi yang + have + Verb3 + Complement bought a new car if
perfect akan sudah dilakukan di masa (?) Would/should + Subject + I had enough
tense lampau namun ternyata tidak be + Verb3 + Complement? money.
dilakukan (rencana yang
gagal). Tense ini menekankan
pada hasil
Past menunjukkan aksi yang akan for, but, (+) Subject + would/should + She would have
future sudah dan masih sedang unfortunately. have + been + Verb-ing + been waiting for
perfect dilakukan di masa lampau, Complement me for three hours
continuous namun sebenarnya tidak (?) Would/should + Subject + yesterday but she
tense terjadi. Tense ini menekankan have + Verb-ed + had left by 9.00
pada durasi dan hasilnya. Complement? PM.

Have / Do / Are I, you, We, they (Jamak)

Has / Does / Is He, She, It(tunggal)