Standards of Measurements The different types of standards of length are 1.

Material Standards (a)Line Standard When length is measured as the distance between centers of two engraved lines. (b)End Standard When length is measured as the distancebetween to flat parallel faces.2.Wavelength StandardThe wavelength of a selected orange radiation of Krtypton-86isotope was measured and used as the basic unit of length. International Prototype Meter International Prototype meter is defined as the straight linedistance, at 0c between the engraved lines of a platinum irridiumalloy of 1020 mm of total length and having a tresca cross-sectionas shown in the figure. The graduations are on the upper surface of the web, which coincides with the neutral axis of the section. Thesectional shape gives better rigidity for the amount of metalinvolved and is therefore economic in use for an expensive metal. Line and End Standards and differentiate between them . Line Standards When length is measured as the distancebetween centers of two engraved lines, it is called Line Standards.Both material Standards, yard and metre are line standardsE.g. Scale, Rulers, Imperial Standard Yard.Characteristics of Line Standards :(i)Scale can be accurately emblemed, but the engraved linesposses thickness and it is not possible to accurately measure(ii)Scale is used over a wide range(iii)Scale markings are subjected to wear. However the ends aresubjected to wear and this leads to undersize measurements(iv)Scale does not posses built in datum. Therefore it is notpossible to align the scale with the axis of measurement(v)Scales are subjected to parallax errors(vi)Assistance of magnifying glass or microscope is required. End Standards When length is expressed as the distancebetween centers of two flat parallel faces, it is called EndStandards. Slip Gauges, End Bars, Ends of micrometer Anvils.Characteristics of End Standards(i)Highly accurate and used for measurement of closedtolerances in precision engineering as well as standardlaboratories, tool rooms, inspection departments.(ii)They require more time for measurement and measure onlyone dimension.(iii)They wear at their measuring faces(iv)They are not subjected to parallax error.

Slip Gauges
Slip Gauges are universally accepted end standards of Length inindustry. Also known as Johnson gauges. Slip gauges arerectangular blocks of high grade steel with close tolerances. Theyare hardened throughout to ensure maximum resistance to wear.For successful use of slip gauges their working faces are truly flatand parallel. Most slip gauges are made from constant alloy which isextremely hard and wear resistance

Wringing of slip gauges Wringing :

Success of precision elements which can be made withslip gauges either by using it alone or in conjunction with othersample apparatus such as rollers, sine centers, sine bars, etc,depends on the phenomenon of wringing. The slip gauges arewrung together by hand by a combined sliding and twisting motionas shown.The gap between two wrung slip gauges is only of the order of 0.0065 microns, which is negligible.Procedure :(i) Before using, the slip gauges are cleaned(ii) One slip gauge is then oscillated slightly over the other slipgauge with a light pressure.(iii) One gauge is then raised at 90 degrees, to the other, andby using light pressure it is rotated until the blocks are in line. Principle of Interchangeability and selective assembly Interchangeability - It occurs when one part in an assembly can besubstituted for a similar part which has been made to the samedrawing. Interchangeability is possible only when certain standardsare strictly followed. In universal interchangeability the mating partsare drawn from two different manufacturing sources. This isdesirable. When all parts to be assembled are made in the samemanufacturing unit, then local standards may be followed which isknown as local

interchangeability.Selective assembly - In selective assembly the parts are gradedaccording to the size and only the matched grades of mating partsare assembled. The technique is most suitable where a close fit of two component assemblies is required. It results in completeprotection against nonconforming assemblies and reducesmachining costs since close tolerances are maintained. Different types of fits. When two parts are to be assembled, the relationship resulting fromthe difference between their sizes before assembly is called a fit.Clearance fit : In this type of fit, the largest permitted shaftdiameter is smaller than the diameter of the smallest hole, so that

the shaft can rotate or slide through the different degrees of freedom according to the purpose of mating parts.Interference fit : It is defined as the fit established when a negativeclearance exist between the sizes of the holes and the shaft. In thistype of fit, the minimum permitted diameter of the shaft is largerthan the maximum allowable diameter of the hole. In this case thehole members are intended to be attached permanently and used asa solid component Example : Bearing BushesTransitional Fit : The diameter os the largest allowable hole isgreater than that of the smallest shaft, but the smallest hole issmaller than the largest shaft and the hole. Example : CouplingRings Wavelength standards and its advantages A major drawback wit the material standards, that their lengthchanges with time. Secondly, considerable difficulty is expressedwhile comparing the sizes of the gauges by using materialstandards.Jacques Babinet suggested that wave length of a monochromaticlight can be used as a natural and invariable unit of length. 7 th general Conference of Weights and Measures approved in 1927,approved the definition of standard of length relative to meter.Orange radiation of isotope Krypton-86 was chosen for the newdefinition of length in 1960, by the 11 th General Conference of Weigths and Measures. The committee recommended Krypton-86and that it should be used in hot cathode discharge lamp,maintained at a temperature of 63K.According to this standard metre was defined as equal to 165763.73wavelengths of the red-orange radiation of Krypton86 isotope.A standard can now be produced to an accuracy of about 1 part of 10^9. Advantages :

(a)Not a material standard and hence it is not influeced by effects of variation of environmental conditions like temperature, pressure(b)It need not be preserved or stored under security and thus thereis not fear of being destroyed.(c)It is subjected to destruction by wear and tear.

(d)It gives the unit of length which can be produced consistently atall times.(e)The standard facility can be easily available in all standardlaboratories and industries(f)Can be used for making comparative measurements of very highaccuracy

This system gives same tolerance limits on workshop and inspection gauges andthe same gauge can be used for both purposes. The tolerance zone for the Gogauges should be placed inside the work limits and the tolerance for the No Gogauges outside the work limits. Provision for wear of Go gauges is made by theintroduction of a margin between the tolerance zone for the gauge and maximummetal limit of the work.

Fig.2.14

Fig.2.15 Types of limit gauges:Limit gauges for internal diameters of holes

Full form cylindrical plug gauge: A small circumferential groove is cut near theleading end of the gauge and the remaining part of the cylinder is slightly reducedin order to act as a pilot.

Fig 2. 16Full form spherical plug or disc gauge:Segmental cylindrical bar gauge:

Fig.2.17 Gauges for tapers:

A taper is tested by using taper plug a or ring gauge. Theimportant thing in testing a tapered job is to check the diameter at bigger endand the change of diameter per unit length.

FIG:2.18