Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Cyclopedia
of
General Referente
Work
E,
(
ON
.\R(
SrpKKINTKMJKX(
I
ONTRACTS,
S1'E(
KSTIMATING, MASONRY, RELNKORCEI) rONfRETE, STRlCTfRAL ESGINEERINC, AR( IIITECTIRAL I)KA\VIN(;, SHEET METAL
LI) ING,
STAIR-Ul
ETC
iFESSIONAL STANUINO
with
ox<er 'Ihrte
'Ihouiond hnj^nwingt
lllt:A(io
ami:ki(\\
ri-.ciiM(
I'm:
m.
><)c:i:tv
Copyright.
BY
Copyright.
BV
Entered
at Stationers' Hall.
London
PLANT
C. E.
'Economics of Railroatl Construction,"
EnKintvr
etc.
Author of
"KailruucJ Construction,"
J.
K.
COOLIDGE,
Jr., A.
M.
Architect. Boston
H. V. vo.N
HOLST, A.
B., S. B.
Architect, Chicago
FRED
T.
HODGSON
5>elf -Taught,"
Architect and Editor Member, Ontario Association of Architects Author of "Modern Carpentry." "Architectural Drawinar, Square," "Modem Estimator." etc.
"The
Steel
GLENN
M.
HOBBS.
Ph. D.
FRANK
O.
DUFOUR,
C. E.
Illinoi*
SIDNEY
T.
STRICKLAND.
S. B.
WM.
II.
LAWRENCE.
iif
S. B.
i'rufraxir
Twhnolovy
EDWARD NICHOLS
Architect, Boston
H.
W. GARDNER,
S. B.
JESSIE M. SHEPHERD, A.
B.
GEORGE
C.
SHAAD,
E. E.
MORRIS WILLIAMS
Writer and Expert on Carpentry and Building
HERBERT
E.
EVERETT
V
ERNEST
L.
WALLACE,
B. S.
Assistant Examiner, United States Patent Office. Washington. D. C. Formerly Instructor in Electrical Engineering, American School of Correspondence
V
OTIS W. RICHARDSON,
Of the Boston Bar
LL. B.
WM.
G.
SNOW,
S.
B.
of Buildings"
steam Heating Specialist Author of "Furnace Heating." Joint Author of "Ventilation American Society of Mechanical Engineers
W.
HERBERT GIBSON,
Civil
B. S., C. E.
ELIOT
N.
JONES, LL.
B.
MILLER.
Jr.,
A. M., LL. B.
School
i>{
I'rt-sident. Aiiu-rican
Corrmponijenct^
Department of
EDWARD MAURER.
B. C. E.
EDWARD
A.
TUCKER,
S. B.
Architectural Enjrineer
Civil
EnKineers
EDWARD
B.
WAITE
of Correspondence
ALVAH HORTON
Lecturer
in
SABIN, M.
S.
York Univorily Author of "Technoloify of I'liint and Varnish." American Society of Mechanical Engineers
New
etc,
GEORGE
R.
METCALFE,
M. E.
cif
^Alitor,
American Institute
Electrical Enifim-i-rs
& Manufac-
HENRY
M.
"
HYDE
Technical World Magazine"
Editor
CHAS.
L.
HL'BBARD,
.S.
S.
B..
M. E.
Vi'ntllntlnff. I.lithtinii.
Conniilllnir Knirineer
on lleatinu.
ami I'owrr
Kormrrly with
Homer
Wmaltirlilun Co.
DAVID
A.
GREGG
in
CHAS.
B.
BALL
ERVIN KENISON,
S. B.
CHAS.
E.
KNOX,
E. E.
Electrical Engineers
American Institute of
JOHN
H.
JALLINGS
Mechanical Engineer
FRANK
A.
BOURNE,
S. M.,
A. A.
I.
A.
Architect, Boston
Special Librarian,
ALFRED
S.
JOHNSON,
Ph. D.
GILBERT TOWNSEND,
With Ross
S. B.
&
McFarlane, Montreal
HARRIS
C.
TROW,
S. B.,
Managing Editor
American School of Correspondence
Authorities Consulted
THE
m
of
editors have freely consulted the standard technical literature America and Europe in the preparation of these volumes. They
jjarticularly
to
in
the
f(j|lowing
eminent authorities whose well-known works should be everyone connected with buildinjr.
the library of
Grateful acknowledgment is here made also for the invaluable cooperation of the foremost architects, engineers, and builders in making these volumes thoroughly re|)resentative of the very best and latest practice the design and construction of buildings; also for the valuable
J.
B.
JOHNSON,
C. E.
Formerly Dean, CoIIckc of Mechanics and Enfrineerinir. University of Wisconsin Author of "Enirinoorintr Contracts and Siiecifications," "Materials of Construction," Joint Author of "Theory and Practice ;in the Desitrnini? of Modern Framed Structures"
M, C,
E.,
LL. B.
Counselor-at-Law iind ConsultinR Entrinecr: Formerly Assistant Professor of Enicineerinjt at Harvanl University Author of "EnKinecrinK and Architectural Jurisprudence"
T.
M.
CLARK
FVIlow of the American Institute of Architects Author of "Buildinir Superintendence." "Architect. Builder, ami
Owner
before the
Law"
FRANK
E,
KIDDER.
C, E.. Ph.
I).
Consultinic Architect
Architocta
Author of "Architects' and Builders' Pocket- Pook " "Ruildinir Construction and Superintendence: Part I. Masons' Wtirk Part II. CariH-ntem' Work: Part 111. Truued lUxjfs and Koof Trunscs; " "Churches and Chapeln"
:
V*
AUSTIN
T.
BYRNE,
C. K.
Civil Knsinii'r
In
Conslruclkm."
"y
VV.
R.
WARE
Form'rly PriifiMor of Arrhltrvture, Columbia University Author of "Mi<lrrn l'rni|>eclivo"
Authorities Consulted
Continued
CLARENCE
A.
MARTIN
FRANK
N.
SNYDER
Architect
^*
CHARLES
H.
SNOW
*>*
OWEN
B.
MAGINNIS
of
Author
"How
to
Frame a House,
or
'
HALBERT
P.
GILLETTE,
C. E.
OLIVER COLEMAN
Author of "Successful Houses"
CHAS.
E.
GREENE,
A. M., C. E.
LOUIS
de C.
BERG
^*
GAETANO LANZA,
S. B., C.
&
M. E.
IRA
0.
BAKER
Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Illinois Author of "A Treatise on Masonry Construction"
GEORGE
P.
MERRILL
"A
A. W.
BUEL
and C.
"
S.
1111. L
Joint Authoni of
Reinforced Concrete"
NEWTON HARRISON,
Author of
E. E.
Klectric Wirinir.
FRANCIS
Head
B.
of
CROCKER.
E. M.. Ph. D.
i
i
Department of Electrical Enuinecrinir. Columbia Univemity; American Institute of Klectrical Eni?ineer8 Author of "Electric LiRhtini?"
.idem.
V
J.
K.
CKAVATH
and V. K.
"
LANSINGH
Joint Authors of
Practical Illumination"
B.
S.. "
C. E.
Fireproofinif of Steel BuildinKs"
Architectural Enitincorink'."
WILLIAM
11.
BIRKMIRE,
"
C. E.
Author of IManninj: and Construction of Hiith Office BuildinRs." "Architeotural Iron and Steel, and Ita Application in the Construction of Buildings." "Compound Riveted Girders," "Skeleton Structures." etc.
EVERETT
U.
CROSBY
"
and
HENRY
A.
FISKE
for
Joint Authors of
Improved Risk"
of Steel"
J. C.
TKAUTWINE,
C. E.
"y
ALPHA
PlKia'E .lAMLSON, M.
..f
K.
Purdue
l'nlverltjr
Aiiolitunt PrufesHor
Autliiir of
Mi-ctmnliiil Driiwrnn.
FRANK CHOUTEAU
Arrlillrct
Aiithiir of
BliOVVN
l.'lt<'rintt"
ikinlnn
"
t.<>ttrr<i
nnM
Authorities Consulted
Continued
HENRY McGOODWIN
Author
of "Architectural Shades
and Shadows"
VIGNOLA
Author of "The Five Orders of Architecture," American Edition by Prof. Ware
CHAS.
D.
MAGINNIS
Illustrated Treatise"
FRANZ
S.
MEYER
Professor in the School of Industrial Art. Karlsruhe " Author of Handbook of Ornament," American Edition
RUSSELL STURGIS
Author of
"A
"How
to
Judge Archi-
tecture"
A. D. F.
HAMLIN,
A. M.
Professor of Architecture at Columbia University Author of "A Textbook of the History of Architecture
Author
of
"Church Building'
C. H.
MOORE
Author of
"
ROLLA
C.
CARPENTER,
C. E.,
M. M. E.
Professor of Experimental Engineering, Cornell University Author of "Heating and Ventilating Buildings"
^
I.
J.
COSGROVE
Author of "Principles and Practice of Plumbing"
COriSTRUCTION
DRAWIHa
IN
snov/iriG.
'Bz.sndJ
Iron Br>a-C>
<
r^
-^
M^
JL
Vent.
-iboir
',Wood'^
Jomt
befwcen Vent.
a.rjd.
Secfton&Jl view s'ho\A/l"n^ ventilaJtion pipes conrjcclfed To drum in aJlic e>s.lso sTea^m coils in drum To crcavte sucTion.
Foreword
HF^
nii)i(l
I'volutiuii
(if
.\t':iis.
and concrete,
buildinjfs,
'^
^f 1^^'
~
'^'"^
^'"'
size
and complexity of
foi'
Tin'
Cyclope(lia
to
lill
Architecture,
Carpentry, and
need.
Huildiiiir
designed
this
acknowledged
C,
There
is
no
indiiNirv
(hut
its
coinpares
with
Building
in
the
close
interdeiwndence of
subsidiaiy trades.
of
Steel
oi-
The
Architect,
for
example,
is
Concrete con-
struction
niurh
out
of
iilace
on
important
work
as the Contractor
intelligent estimato,s, or
who
understands nothing of
carpenter must
and. in fact,
ing; and the
all
legal
right-;
and responsibilities.
now know
othei' trades
is
employed
all
in
the erection of a
l)uild-
same
tiue
<yi'
the craftsmen
whose handiwork
completed structure.
noi-
C.
Neither
pains
the
spared
to
make
the
pro.sent
work
Hul)ject of
Building and
allied
industries.
will
Immmi.
not
merel\- to create a
work which
a|>peal
trained
commend
itself also
to
the
beginner
man by
knowledge
of the principles
own
try as well.
for
The various
home
by an acknowledged authority on
of matter
is
the subject.
The arrangement
it
permanent possession.
The
illustrations
text.
have
many important
on
topics on
which
little
This
is
Steel, Concrete,
;
Building Superintendence
, The Cyclopedia
a compilation of
many
many years.
all
that of
practical
has demonstrated
it
to be the
working man.
is
C
this
due the
staff of
without whose
impossible.
hearty
co-operation
Tabic of Contents
Electric Wiring
Wired Run on Inulator
..
-
Vttl.rMK IX
.
By Charles
E.
Knoxf
Pa^e !!
Tubing
Mi-lal Conduit Armored Conduit Armort-d Cable Fibroun Two- Win- and Thrco-Win- .SyHti-ma - SizeH of Comluctom FormulajJ In.sUillation Location of Outlets Chaac* for CalcuUitini; I-oiw. Current, etc.
for Feeders
in Conduitu: in
MoMinit Knob
and Mains
and
Distributint: Centers
Testintr -Alternatinir-Currcnt
Circuita-Drop
in
Fuse-Links
Electric LightiN(;
B>j G. r.
Shaad
Page 95
Manufacture Carbon FilamentHistorical Sketch Incandescent Lamps Selection Distribution of Light Voltage and Candlepower Efficiency Tungsten Lamp Osmium Lamp Metallic-Filament Ijimps Tantalum Lamp Helion Lamp Nernst Lamp Mercur>'-Vapor Lamp Moore-Tube LightArc Lamps Arc-Lamp Mechanisms Flaming-Arc Lamp Power Distribution Illumination Residence Lighting Lighting of Public Halls and Offices Table of Lighting Data
Skylights, Roofing, Cornice
Work By William Neubecker Page Reinforcing Strips Weight of Glass Skylight Bars Condensation Gutters
.
163
Single-Pitch and Double-Pitch Skylights Hip Monitor Skylight VentilationRoof Mensuration Corrugate<l Iron Flat Extension Skylight MeUl Roofs Brackets. Tnis.sos Raking MoldMembers of Cornice Roofing ami Siding
ings
Plastering
...
Page 297
Plaster Plaster Finish Patent Plasters Back Plastering Cracks Drying PlasU'r Plaster Molding Exterior Plastering
MorUr Rough
Painting
Ctmi Crcoaoting
By
.\.
H. Sabiu
I'ajro
;!2'.>
Linseetl Oil Data of Priming Coat Paintii Oil Finish Mixing and Grinding Thinners and Dryers White Ix?ad White Zinc AdulternlsTinting Colors Brushes Fillers House Painting Painting Plastered VarnishR.">f Painting Painting Structural Metal Walls- Repainting
Shellac
Damar
Index
....
Page 363
pau<i<.
'
li'-l
of Aiilhiirs
ami Collaborator*
at
ELECTRIC WIRING
.mi:th()I)s oi
wikiNO
an- ikav
In-
T\\v
(litlVn-iit iiiftlKMls
of
\\iriii<; wliicli
aj>pn>\(.*(l ly tlie
National Hoanl of
i^fiienil lieails,
Firt-
I'mk'nvriters,
may
as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
WiHEs Run' Concealed in Conduits. WiuES Run in Moulding. Concealed Knou a.nd Tube Wikino. Wires Run Exposed on Insulators.
I-JIN
WIRHS
Under
CONCnALED
IN
CONDIITS
Armoreil cable.
Wires Run
in
Rigid Conduit.
(oii>i>i>
The form of
rigid
metal conduit
now
of plain iron gasj)ij)e the interior suruse<l almost t-xcliisix i-ly, Ik-cii face of which has j)rej)are<l liy removing the scale and hy remov-
ing the irregidarities, and which is then coate<l with lle\il)le enamel. The outside of the pi|>e is given a thin coat (f enamel in some eases,
and,
cases,
in
is
h c
galvan-
ized.
Ot
,
Fig.
11/
'
'^-^
'
Co.,
PUtttmrg,
l\t.
lined
conduit.
.\iiother
duit,
form of
rigid
conduit
jiijM-
is
that
known
impregnate*! with asphaltum or ..imilar compound. 'This latter form of conduit is now rapiillv going out of us*-, owing to the uidinctl lilH*
iK-ingclu-aprr ami la^icr to install, and owing also to imj)nivel mellxNls of pn)tccting the iron pipe frnm corrosion, and to the intniduclion of additioiuil hniid on tin- lonductors, which |irtly <-om|H'n.sates ft>r the
ELECTRIC WIRING
pipe being unlined.
such as
outlet insulators, for protecting the conductors from the sharp edges of also decreases the necesthe pipe, at outlets, cui-out cabinets, etc. afforded by the interior paper lining. of the additional
sity
protection
from one-half inch to Rigid Conduits are made in gaspipe sizes, The following table gives the various data three inches in diameter.
relating to rigid,
TABLE
Rigid,
ELECTHIC WIUIN'G
TABLi: III in Une Conduit
Two Wires
Sizr.
WiHK. U
&.
8 U.
ELECTRIC WIRING
that the sizes of conductors which using these tables, for the reason be safely installed in any run of conduit depend, of course, upon
may
the length of
The
tables are
based on average conditions where the run does not exceed 90 to 100 in the case of the smaller feet, without more than three or four bends,
sizes of wires for a given size of conduit;
exceed 40 to 50
feet,
same
sizes of conduit.
Unlined conduit can be bent without injury to the conduit, if the conduit is properly made and if proper means are used in making the bends. Care should be exercised to avoid flattening the tube as a result
of the bend over a sharp curve or angle. In installing iron conduits, the conduits should cross sleepers or beams at right angles, so as to reduce the amount of cutting of the
making
at a center of distribution,
they should be run at right angles for a distance of two or three feet from the cut-out box, in order to obtain a symmetrical and workmanlike
to
at the joints of conduits in order to make them water-tight, this frequently unnecessary in the case of enameled conduit, as there
is
often sufficient
to
make a
in
water-tight joint.
When
cement,
installed
ash concrete, in
in
Keene
or, in general,
to corrosive
work run
iron conduits
is
usually
is
method of wiring, it is the most permanent strongly recommended where the first cost is not
This method of wiring should always be used in fireproof buildings, and also in the better class of frame buildIt is also to be recommended for exposed work where the work ings.
the sole consideration.
is
liable to disturbance or
in Flexible
is
mechanical damage. Metal Conduit. This form of conduit, described by the manufacturers as a conduit com-
posed of "concave and convex metal strips wound spirally upon each other in such a manner as to interlock several concave surfaces and
ELKCTHIC
W111IN(]
their convex surfaces, lx)th exterior aiui interior, thereby prtvstMit securing a smooth and cijniparatively frictionless surface inside and
out.
The
Owing
rigid
fielil
i.l"
this
form of conduit
<;iii
is
rapidly increasing.
Ik- nsil in
nuniemus
cases where
the
conduit
ployed.
is
Its
use
Fig.
Vourtt*!/
2.
to
be recom-
Flexible Sl.'clC.udult.
Co., Trot/. X. V-
mendeil al)Ove
all
of Sterling Electric
the other forms of wiring, except that installe<l in rigid conduits. For new fireproof buildings, it is not so durable as the rigid conduit,
and
it is
ver}' difliciilt,
if
not impossible,
workmanlike a condu't system with tiie flexible as with the of conduit. For completed or old frame luiildings, liowever, type
Tal)le
duit,
V gives
the
is sujoerior to all other forms of wiring. the inside diameter of various sizes of flexible cx)n-
tandard
coils.
conduit
for the
same as
maximum
little
that of the rigid conduit; and the table given sizes of conductors which may l)e installiHl in the
maybe
except that a
conduits than for the rigid conduits, as the stiffness of the latter makes
it
jK>ssil)le
TABLE V
Orcenfield I-Icxiblc Steel Conduit
Is.HIL'l.
ELECTRIC WIRING
This conduit should, of course, be
first
ductors, in the
same manner as
Owing
to the
of this conduit, however, it is absolutely essential to fasten flexibility it securely at all elbows, bends, or offsets; for, if this is not done, con-
The
the
rigid conduits.
Fig.
3.
Use
of
Elbow Clamp
As already stated, the conduit should as required by the Code Rules. be securely fastened (in not less than three places) at all elbows; or
else the special
this purpose,
shown
in
Fig. 3,
.should be used.
as well
Figs.
and 7 show, respectively, an outlet box and cover, outlet plate, and bushing used for this
conduit.
are
many
There
it is
im-
possible
a conduit
Fig. 4. A 100-Foot Coll of Flexible Steel Conduit. Courtesy of Sprague Electric Co., New Tork,N.Y.
erning the installation of annored cable are given in the Natimial Electric Code, under Section 24-A, and Section 48; also in 24-S. This cable is shown in Fig. 8.
Steel
armored cable
is
strips over
those used
ELECTRIC WIRING
for the steel eoiuliiit.
(are
tlie
is
taken
cnishinj; or ahraiilinij
insnlation
Fig.
5.
Outlet
Box
FIk'.
ft.
Flpr
7.
Courtftynf Spriujut 1
;iiid
SnrYork, S.Y.
is
machine
is
stojipi-d,
the rililum
slarletl
on
There
is
no
rea.son
whv
^ V
PlR.
ft.
y*
Floxlbln
AnnonM
Cable.
Co.,
lengths as
In- mndc of any length; but their aetnul made are dctcrmiiuHl by eonvciiien e in haiulling. Ariuoa\]
ELECTRIC WIRING
is
1 to No. 10 B. & S. G.; B. & S. G.; and three-conducin twin conductors, from No. 6 to No. 14 Table VI gives various tor cable, from No. 10 to No. 14 B. & S. G.
cable
made
in single conductors
from No.
TABLE
VI
Etc.
KLKCTHIC WlUIXr,
tors) art'
aniioml
caljlf ala|>tttl
is
Tvjk*
HM
(twill
coiuluctors)
(twin),
a<la|)t'<l
marine
wiriiij;.
(sinfi;le),
HXI.
and
HXL
:{
('i
conductors)
haw
DL
armor
outside,
and an-
e.s[)ecially
adapted
damp
Tvpe
is
as l)reweries, staljles, and similar places. places, sucli H is usel for tlexihUword j)cndants, and is suitable for
factories, mills,
similar jjlaees.
Tj'pe
EM
Type K; hut the flexihle conl is reinforcwl, and is suitable for marine work, for use in damj) places, and in all ca.ses where it
the .siime as
U" subject to ver}' rouf^h handling;;. While this form of wirinj^ has not the advantage of the conduit svstem namely, that the wires can U' withdrawn and new wires
will
any way whatever yet it has many of the advantages of the flexible steel conduit, and it has some additional advantages of its own. For example, in a building
mserte<l without disturbing the buildin<( in
tlinirs antl in
the
where
it
would
conduit or flexible
steel
wouUl be objectionable.
to outlet,
without Iw'ing spliced and installed on the loop .system. Outlet Utxes should be installwl at all outlets, although, where this is imi)o.s.sible, outlet plates may be used under certain conditions. Clamps should
l.r
j)ri.\
the cable in
switch-boxes, junction-lK).xes, etc.. (o hold of grounding the steel place, and also to .ser\-e as a means
sheathing.
le.ss expensive than the rigid conduit or the but more expensive than cleat wiring or knob flexible steel conduit, and tube wiring, and is strongly reconunenditl in preference to the
Armored cable
is
latt.T.
\\II^!:S
RIN
IN
MOI IDINCi
f<pr
Moulding
also in
is ver}'
extensively used
electric circuit
work,
in
which have already U-en wiriNl, and which were not pmvidetl with ele<-lric cin'uit wiring buildings
'The n-ason for the |M)pularity
)f
Work
niouMing
that
it
wiri's,
injur.'.
10
ELECTRIC WIRING
seems almost unwise to place conductors carrying electric current, wood casing; but this method is still permitted by the National
it is
It in
not allowed in
>
damp
places or in places
is liability to
where there
I
"^
%,
dampwalls,
sj
ness, such as
in cellars, etc.
on brick
The
mould-
Furthermore,
if
charred and finally igquently overheated, the wood is likely to become nited. Moreover, the moulding itself is always a temptation as affording
a good "round strip" in which to drive nails, hooks, etc. However, the convenience and popularity of moulding cannot be denied; and until
some
Rules,
better substitute
it
is
found, or until
its
use
is
forbidden by the
will continue to
be used
running
and on the
moulding required
While the Rules recommend the use of hardwood moulding, as a matter of fact probably 90 per cent of the moulding used is of whitewood or other similar cheap, soft wood Georgia pine or oak ordinarily
.
S
o
Ac-
-Ab-
-Aa-
Ab-
-Ac-*
CD
d
GO
Fig.
10.
work,
much as the soft wood. In designing moulding appearance is of importance, the moulding circuits shoulJ be laid out so as to afford a symmetrical and complete design. For
if
KI.KCTKK" WIUING
11
is U> In- locatnl in the center of the ceiling, exampli', if an initlct the inoiiltlinj,' shouM Iw continued from wall to wall, the [Mjrtion l>ey(jnl
no conductors inside of
<jn
tiie
moulding.
Ih'
should
coinijlctJ-^l
the <eiling, the r-ctangle of moulding placetl mi the fourth side, altliouj^'h, of coiirM*. no (.tm-
Kl^,'. 11.
Thn-i- \Vlr'
Wood
.Mi.uMuik
ductors neel
Ik-
])lace<l
in this
I)ting thi.s
Moulding
tubing.
is
fre(|nently
of wiring, including
armored cable,
instances,
it
and fibrous
the conduc-
In
many
is
po.ssible to fish
tubing U'tween
in a certain direction;
but
when
another direction or
In such ca.se.s, a junction-lM)x or studs, exj)osed work is nece.s.sary. outlet-box nuist be placed at the point of comiection l)etweeii the moulding and the armored cable or steel tubing.
Where
circuits are
nm
in
floor,
('(xlc liu}\s,
GO
Ac
Ab-
Aa - Ab-* Aa --^Ab
-
Agio
1 m
riK.
12.
Tlir.'c'Wli-r
WimmI
MuuUlliifc'.
As a nilc. it is belter to use C4>nduit for all protect the moulding. of moulding within six feet of the flo)r, .S4) as to avoid tlu{Mirtions
til
|)ossibilitv
When-
combination of inn
conduit or flexible steel tubing is us'l with moulding, it is well t<t um* double-}raided conductors throughout, ln'<'ause. although only single-
12
ELECTRIC WIRING
TABLE
Vll
ol
Z
u.
FT-ErrUIC WIRING
onlinan' conditions, of the cost of annore<l
iiietlKxl of
wiritii:
13
c-ahle.
le
Where
tlie Litter
other of
tliese
used
in
preference to moulding,
Fig. 13
Courtfity
Fuseless Cord
Fig. H.
Vourttny of
T. Patttt Ci.,
r/iil>nl<lpfiia,
IM.
ns the
of metal mouldin<j;
not only more .suhstantial, but also siifer. Various forms have been intHMJuced, Init up tt) the present time have not met with the success which they deserve.
work
is
CONCIIALHI)
This metlKHJ
Cfxlf, althou;;h
nlH)lishe<l.
KNOB ANDTl
HP:
IRIN(i
of wirini'
is still
vigorous attempts have l)een ma<le to have it Each of these attempts lias met with the strongest
many
opposition from contractors and central stations, particularly towns and villages, the argument for this metluHl InMiig, that
chca|)est metluHl of wiring,
in
it
small
is
the
and that
which are
wirel
according to this
were forbidden, many j)laivs iiielluHl would not 1k> winil at all,
if
it
Ik.'
electricity
would therefore
nuich
ri'strictetl, if
not
This argument, lu)Wentirely done away with, in such conununities. is onlv a temponirv makeshift obstruction in the wav of inevitable ever, pntgress, and in a fi-w years, mwloubtnlly, the con<-ealel knob and
tuU- mcthixl will
Ik-
The
aUuit one-lhinl
nm
in rigid coniluit,
and
The
14
ELECTRIC WIRING
is
knob and tube wiring, and justly so, wherever rapidly replacing the additional price for the latter method of wiring can be obtained. As the name indicates, this method of wiring employs -porcelain knohs
Fig.
15.
and
work being run concealed between the floor beams The knobs are used when the circuits building. floor beams; and the porcelain tubes are used when
In concealed
the circuits are run at right angles to the floor beams. Fig. 15 shows an example of knob and tube wiring.
wiring, the wires must be separated at least ten inches from one another, and at least one inch from the surface wired over,
is,
tened.
flooring, etc., to
is
fas-
good
knob
wiring.
that the
Fig.
16.
Porcelain Knob.
must be kept further apart than in the case of exposed or open wiring on insulators, where, except in damp places, the wires may be run on
cleats or
EI.F.rruiC
Tibrous lubiiiK.
WIRING
15
and
tiil)e
wirinj;,
and the
pven
in
Rule 24,
to
Se<'tion S, of thi"
This tuhing, as
in
where
it is
irn[MJSsililean<l injj)raeti-al>le
einj)loy
knobs
anl
is
tuU-s,
pmvided
."iOO
the difTerenj-e
]x>tential
not DVt-r
volts,
and
if
.^.
...
ject to moisture.
The
fil)roiis
tul)ing
is
appn)xiniately about the same as the cost of knob and tul)e wiring. Duplex conductors, or two wires together are not alloweti in fibrous
tubing.
Fibrous tubing
cable
is
is
in
reciuirol
Ritle.i, it
beyond the
Fig. 17
tubinij.
Table VIII gives the maximum sizes of conductors (doublebraide<J) which may l)e installe<l in hbrous conduit.
TAHLl:
Sizes of Conductors
VIII
in I'lbrous
Conduit
()
16
ELECTRIC WIRING
WIRES RUN EXPOSED ON INSULATORS
This method of wiring has the advantages of cheapness, durabiUty,
and
accessibihty.
Cheapness. The relative cost of this method of wiring as comconduit system, is about fifty per cent pared with that of the concealed of the latter if rubber-covered conductors are used, and about forty
per cent of the latter if weatherproof slow-burning conductors are used. As the Rules of the Fire Underwriters allow the use of weatherproof slow-burning conductors in dry places, considerable saving may be
effected
by
this
method
is
no objection
to
it
Fig.
Is.
not
mechanical injury or disarrangement. It Is a well-known fact that rubber insulation has a Durability.
life.
relatively short
Inasmuch as
in this
depend upon the insulation of the conductors, but on the insulators themselves, which are of glass or porcelain, this system
is
if
much more
Of
course,
the conductors are mechanically injured, or the insulators broken, the insulation of the system is reduced ; but there is no gradual deterioration as there
is in
li.iini
stri-ft suliHt.til.iii
KI.KCTItIC
nihlxT
is
WIRING
This
is
is
17
e.s|K-tially
tnie in hot
such
aUne. For tfinperature the wt'atht'rj)r(M)f slow-hum in;; coiuUn-tors on |)orceliun or glass insulators arc esjH*cially reconuntMulc*!.
120 V. or
cast's,
Accessibility.
Ije
may
lx>
made
This
to the
sime.
of
inethtjd
is
wiring
esjx'cially
reconunended
mills, factories,
for
and
for
large
feeder
Fig.
FJg.
19.
or long conductors.
e.\-
IS shows
T\vo-\Vlre Cleat.
aujples of
large
e.\jKsfl
fee<ler
con-
Vork
City.
New York
may
the
New
&
S.
Gauge
each,
porcelain
cleats
V)e use<l
or three
conductors,
provided
tlistance
to
FlK-
-I'
r<>ri'<'litiii
hisuUtor fur
Fig. 2a
Onc-WJro aoal.
Lartcu Couiluctorn.
tors
is
at
least
21
in<hes in a
two-wire
in
.system,
and
2'
inches
a thnv-win* .system where the U'tween the outsi<le conductors is not over '.HM.) volts. The |)otential cleat must hold the wire at h-ast one-half in<'h front the sirface to whi<-li
the cleat
is
fastenel;
and
in
damp
l>e
helil at
'For
IjirgiT
conductors,
18
ELECTRIC WIRING
to
from No. 6
cleats
No.
4/ OB. &
Figs. 19
S.
or knobs.
Gauge, it is usual to use single porcelain and 20 show a good form of two-wire
Fig. 22. Iron Rack and Insulators for Large Conductors. Courtesy of General Electric Co., Schenectady, iV. Y.
cleat
and single-wire cleat, respectively. For large feeder or main conductors from No. 4/0 B. & S. Gauge upward, a more substantial form of porcelain insulator should
-Q^
oo
^ n ^t>
in
Fig.
21.
These
held in
which
two forms are shown in Figs. 22 and 23. The latter form of rack is particularly desirable for
number
of conductors are run together. In this form of rack, any length of con-
ductor can be removed without disturbing the other conductors. As a rule, the porcelain insulators
apart; and
should be placed not more than 4h feet if the wires are liable to be
disturbed, the distance between supports should be shortened, particularly for small
conductors.
If
the
beams are
so
far
apart that supports cannot be obtained every 42- feet, it is necessaiy to provide a
running board as shown in Fig. 24, to which the porcelain cleats and knobs can be fastened. Figs. 25 and 26 show two methods of supporting small conductors,
Fig.
&
S.
ELECTRIC WliaXC
(
19
Juuge, or over, it is not nect'ssjirv to hrt-ak iinuiul the ln*ain.s, pmviiletl they an* not Hahle to Ik- <li.stiirl>el but the siij)j>ort.s may Ik* plaeed on
;
each
iH'aiii.
is
usually
necessiiry to provide
Ulterniediate
|K)rtS,
SUJ)in
p 1^,34
as
shown
Beams.
Another
nietho<l
ajKirt,
which
is
may
lie
used,
furtlier
than 4\ feet
to
M~
Method of Supporting Small Conductors. :i
Fig.
25.
F-^
-ct>
Flg.
27.
Uoam.->.
nin a main along the wall at right angles to the iH'ains, and to have the individual circuits run lietween and parallel t) the U'ams.
FIk-
2<J.
.Mil
li'
"I
of SupiH.!
luK
.1
.s
until
Flu-
2H.
Conductor.
In low-<'eiliiig rooms,
it is
liable
f(
injurA*.
Usually rei|uirnl that a wtHxIeii guard of tlic cdiidiictors, as .shown in Kig. '2S.
plac'd
on each side
Where
the conductors
pa.s.s
20
ELECTRIC WIRING
or,
if
means
of fibrous tubing placed inside of iron conduits. All conductors on the walls for a height of not less than six feet
from the ground, either should be boxed in,or,if they be rubber-covered, should (preferably) be run in iron conduits; and in conductors having
single braid only, additional protection should be provided inside of the iron conduit. flexible tubing
bymeans
of
placed Where conductors cross each other, or where they cross iron pipes, they should be protected by means of porcelain tubes fastened with
tape or in
some other
substantial
manner
them
somewhat
in detail.
Relative Advantages.
The
wire system depends largely upon the source of supply. If, for example, the source of supply will always probably be a 120-volt, twowire system, there w^ould be no object in installing a three-wire system for the wiring. If, on the other hand, the source of supply is a 120240-volt system, the wiring should, of course, be made three-wire. Furthermore, if at the outset the supply were two-wire, but with a posthree-wire system being provided later, it would be well sibility of a
adapt the electric wiring for the three-wire system, making the neutral conductor twice as large as either of the outside conductors, and combining the two outside conductors to make a single conductor
to
until
is installed.
Of course,
there
would be no saving of copper in this last-mentioned three-wire system, and in fact it would be slightly more expensive than a two-wire system,
as will be shortly explained. The object of the three-wire system is to reduce the amount of copper and consequently the cost of wiring necessary to transmit a
given
amount of electric power. As a rule, the proposition is usually one of lighting and not of power, for the reason that by means of the
three-wire system
we
turrent
is
are able to increase the potential at which the same time to take advantage of the
21
j,'rt'atiT
If ciirrt'iit fir |Hj\Vfr rdiciency of the Idwit v()haf,'e lain[). {motors, vtv.) only werr to Ik- tninsinittitl, it woiihl U* a siinplf muttiT to wind the motors, etr., for a hij^her voUafje, ami therely retluee the
weight
If,
of
copjK'r.
in-
however, we
the
crease
voltajLje
nor
is
their
so long ^'
With
t'lK-
iS*-
Thrt-e-Wlrc Syst'-m. wiih N<-iitr;il I'uiiducUir btLWi-i-u the Two outsldo C'ouJuftors.
thestandanl carbon
lamp,
life,
it
24()-volt
retpiires
about 10
to
12 ])er cent
Furthermore,
the case of
the
more
fsucii as the Tantalum lamp, has been foimd impracticable, if not iuijxisTunj^sten lamj), etc.), For this reason sible, to make them for pressures alxive 120 volts.
lamps recently
intr(Hluce<l
it
the three-wire system is employed, for by tiiis metluKl we can use 210 volts across the t)utside conductors, and bv the use of a neutral con-
ductor obtain 120 volts between the neutral and the outside conluctor,
enaljUnl to use 12()-volt lamps. Furtherniori', if a should ever be j)lace<l on the market that was as economilamp cal as the lower voltage lamp, the result would be that the 240-lSO-
and thereby
210-volt
l)e
volt
svstem would be introduce*!, and 210-volt lamps usel. As ii . . matter of fact, this
A.
I
A.
I
has
l)een
trietl
in
2
KIg.
30.
O
I I
particularly
I'rovidence,
Island.
in
Rhode
120-
As a nde,
I.Hnips
Necoii.Hliy for
llOWCNCr, the
volt
lamp has
Urn
found
it
.si>
much more
.sjjtisfacton'
as reganis
life,
is
The
whatever
two-wire system
is
is .so
re(|uirnl
concerning
The
will
now
is
22
ELECTRIC WIRING
Details of Three-Wire System. The three-wire system may be considered as a two-wire system with a third or neutral conductor placed between the two outside conductors, as shown in Fig. 29.
if
we
shown in Fig. 30. In this case, the two lamps would bum in series, and we could transmit the current at double the usual voltage, and thereby supply twice the number of lamps with one-quarter the weight of copper, allowing the same loss
in pressure in the
lamps.
The
is,
that,
having the
lamps arranged and, as the pressure at which the current is transmitted is doubled, we can again reduce the copper one-half without increasing the loss
in lamps.
in series of pairs,
we reduce
We therefore
see that
we have
reduced one-half, which reduces the weight of copper one-half, and we can again reduce the copper one-half by doubling the loss in
rent
is
case
For example, if in one two-wire system transmitting current to 100 straight lamps at a potential of 100 volts, and this system were replaced by one
we had a
in which the lamps were placed in and the potential increased to 200
series of pairs, as
being used current really carrj'ing for only 50 lamps, as we would require only the same amount of current for two lamps now that we required for one lamp before. Furvolts
still
100 lamps
shown
in Fig. 30,
we should
we were
thermore, as the potential would now be 200 instead of 100 volts, we could allow twice as much loss as in the first case, because the loss would now be figured as a percentage of 200 volts instead of a percentage of 100 volts. From this, it will readily be seen that in the second case mentioned, we would require only one-quarter the weight of
copper that would be required in the first case. It will readily be seen, however, tliat a system such as that outlined in the second scheme having two lamps, would be impracticable
for ordinary purposes, for the reason that
it
lamps
it
to
be burned
in pairs.
is
Now,
to
it is
third or neutral
will
conductor
required
and,
conductor be added,
This, then, the object of the three-wire system to enable us to reduce the amount of copper required for transmitting current, without increasing the electric pressure employed for the lamps.
is
no longer be necessary
in pairs.
ELECTRIC WIRING
23
With re^anl to the size of the iieiitnil C(iii(luctor, one im[xjrtant must l>e Ixjnie in iniiul; ami that is, that the Rules of the J^ ational {Mjiiit
Electric
Code
wiring to
Ik?
The
if
fire
for
side eonduetors,
mi^ht In- re<|uintl to earrv the siime eurrent as the outami therefore it should In- of the same eapaeity. ( )f
course, the chaiiees of such an event haj)j>ening are slight; hut, as the fire haziird is all-important, this rule nuist Ik- complied with for
interior wiring or in all cases
fire.
jirohahility of
For outside or umh-rground work, however, where the fire hazjinl would l)e relatively unimportant, the neutral conductor might
lie relucetl
in size;
and, as a matter of
fact,
it is
made
where
smaller than
The
to use the
three-wire system
is
.sometimes
installeil
it is
desired
so that
it
system as a two-wire, 125-volt .system, or to have it arninged mav he use<l at any time also as a three-wire, 1 2.")-2.')0-volt
(
system.
)f
course, in onler to
do
this,
it is
nece.ssiirv to
make
the
neutral conductor ef[ual to the combined capacity of the outside conductors, the latter being then connected together to form one conductor, the neutral ln-ing the return conductor. This .system is not
reeonnnended except
Lsolated plant of
12.')
in
volts
such instances, for example, as where an is installed, and where there is a |>ossibility
t)
the three-wire,
it
12.")-2.")()-volt
system.
po.ssible,
would be
U-tter.
where
plant for a three-wire, 1 2.")-2.")<>-volt to make the ncutr.il ondiictor the siime system originally, and thru size as each of the two oiilsid*' coMdiictors.
<
weight of copper re(|uired in a three-wire .system where the conductor is the s;ime size as either of the two outside eonluctneutral
'I'he
ors, is 3 "f
'!''
rei|uini| for a
It
obvious that
V"Tr
i|ii<
If.
In
lln< wi'lulif
of
in
wo
ront
>f
rnrhor
if
Ih'
I
liiiil
lhn'<> loiidiiildi
III
.o
p.,
of ru|i|HT nHjulnnl
.
iIi)<
>
Haiiiv |M<n'^<n(at!i<
'
uf Ionh mhI
"x. '
M
J
In iw>i
k-
'
'
'
,-,
,,
1.1
......
.,
.i.
-..
24
ELECTRIC WIRING
as the discussion proved concerning the arrangement shown in Fig. 30, where the lamps were placed in series of pairs, we found that the
weight of copper for the two conductors was one-quarter the weight
It is then of course true, that, if we of the regular two-wire system. had another conductor of the same size as each of the outside conduct-
we increase theweight of copper one-half, or one-quarter plus one-half of one-quarter that is, three-eighths. In the three-wire system frequently used in isolated plants in
ors,
which the two outside conductors are joined together and the neutral conductor made equal to their combined capacity, there is no saving
of copper, for the reason that the same voltage of transmission is used, and, consequently, we have neither reduced the current nor increased
tlie
it is it
potential.
is
the same,
divided into three conductors, instead of two, and naturally costs relatively more to insulate and manufacture three conductors
now
total
than to insulate and manufacture two conductors having the same weight of copper. As a matter of fact, the three-wire system,
having the neutral conductor equal to the combined capacity of the two outside ones, the latter being joined together, is about 8 to 10 per cent more expensive than the corresponding straight two-wire
system.
In interior wiring, as a
for the
rule,
is
used
feeders, the two-wire system is nearly always emfor the branch circuits. Of course, the two-wire branch cirployed cuits are then balanced on each side of the three-wire system, so as to
mains and
obtain as far as possible at all times an equal balance on the two sides This is done so as to have the neutral conductor carry of the system.
as
From what has already been said, it is a perfect balance, the lamps are virtually in series of pairs, and the neutral conductor does not carry any current. Where there is an unbalanced condition, the neutral conductor carries
little
current as possible.
is
the difference between the current on one side and the current on the
For example, if we had five lamps on one other side of the system. side of the system and ten lamps on the other, the neutral conductor
to five lamps. In calculating the three-wire system, the neutral conductor is disregarded, the outer wires being treated as a two-wire circuit, and
the calculation
is
number
25
mi the
[X)teiitial
The
three-wire system
is
ver}'
three-wire c-oniieetions.
While unhalancing
coniluetjrs, yet
it
the outsiile
is
divided e<)Ually between the two lamps (the latter Ix'ing consideretl in series of pairs). If, however, there is ur.ljalaiicing to
a great degree, the loss in lamps will be increase-*!; and if the entire load is thrown over on one side, the loss in the lamps will lie doubled
on the remaining
in
side,
because the
now
(M-cur
l>e
would
e(jually divided
between
tlie
lows
The
size of
^^^^ rxDx2i.r.
in
^(^
which C
= D
V
Current, in amperes; Distance or length of the circuit (one way, in feet); Loss in volts between the licginnini^ and end of tiie circuit.
is
The
77''
derivcl
FahR-nheit.
The
per
<eiit
eter
tivity
foot
long,
is
lO.S at the
ti-mperatiire
and eondi)<>
nndtiply this figure (10. S) by 'J, as the length of a circuit is usually given as the distance one way, and in onler t obtain the resistance of lM)th conductors in a two-wire circuit, we must
multiply by 2. The formida as alM)ve given, therefore, is for a tw>wire circuit; and in calculating the si/e of conductors in a thri'e-win*
.system, the calcidatioti
Wf
shouM be made on
plained
lieri'iiiaflcr.
26
ELECTRIC WIRING
Formula
1 can be transformed so as to obtain the loss in a given or the current which may be carried a given distance with a circuit, stated loss, or to obtain the distance when the other factors are given,
in the following
manner:
Loss
in Circuit rr
Formula
for Calculating
when
Size, Current,
_ ~ CX
DX
CM
21.6
y-^)
/^x
Formula
which may be Carried by a Qiven Circuit of Specified Length, and with a Specified Loss
^^ DX
Formula for Calculating Length
of Circuit
21.6
V'';
Size, Loss,
when
are Given
^= CM XV ex 21.6
etc.,
.X
(4)
Formulae are frequently given for calculating sizes of conductors, where the load, instead of being given in amperes, is stated in lamps or in horse-power. It is usually advisable, however, to reduce the load to amperes, as the efficiency of lamps and motors is a variable
It is in
terms of watts.
sometimes convenient, however, to make the calculation It will readily be seen that we can obtain a formula
expressed in watts from Formula I. To do this, it is advisable to express the loss in volts in percentage, instead of actual volts lost. It
must be remembered
that, in the
above formulse,
represents the
volts lost in the circuit, or, in other words, the difference in potential
circuit,
and
is
not
the
applied E. M. F. The loss in percentage, in any circuit, is equal to the actual loss expressed in volts, divided by the line voltage, multiplied
by 100;
or,
P=
From
this equation,
^X
100.
we have:
y^ PE 100
example, the calculation is to be made on a loss of 5 per cent, with an applied voltage of 250, using this last equation, we would have:
If, for
= 5X250 - V
Substituting the equation
= ,.
in
,^ 12.5 volts.
V= PE
^
Formula
we haver
KLECrUIC WUtlNG
r
\t
27
C X Dx
100
21.0
C X D X C X D X PE
This
W|iiati()ii
it
21.6
100
PE
2.100
.should
he reinemherwl,
the
i.s
oMprt'.ssttl
is
in
tenn.s of
ajiplieil vollaiijf.
Now,
.since
pjwer
in
watts
it
= EC),
E
C' xD X C'xD
\\\ sul)stiiutint; this value of
C
. ,
in the e([uation
.
given above
M
I
iMOUv l-MO Uv
p-= PE
tlie
, fornuila
is
)
^ir
expresseti \n
of current, thus:
_ W'x D X
2.160
.-X
in
which
II'
= Power
=
I.cngtii
in
watts transmitted;
J)
way)
tliat
is,
P= E*=
In
loss;
voltage.
making calculations
it is
usual to
make
the
and
in three
In-
.shown.
it
In a three-wire circuit,
is
usually a.ssuinel in making the cidon the two sides i)f the
is
it
neutral conductor; and, as the |>otential acnt.ss the outside conductors douhle that of the corresponding poti-ntial acrt>.ss a two-wire circuit,
is
si/.*- <f
lo.ss in
volts
coulil
witiiout increasing the jM-rcentage of loss in lamps. as the load on one side of the neutral c<tnductor, when I'urtlu'rmore,
is
U-
douMnl
the sy^lcin
halaix cd,
is
virliially
is
in
.series
rei|iiired
l.y
;dl
llie
lam|s.
In Ki>riiiuln>
usually one-half the sum of the If (' l>e still taken as the total
1
*NoTr..
llinnoiiitM<r timl
I'
In Knrtntiln 8
n'prtwiKM
tlii<
appili')! vnliiiKo,
28
ELECTRIC WIRING
is,
the
sum
to divide this current by 2, the lamps) to use the formula for calculating the two outside conductors for a three-wire system. Furthermore, we shall have to multiply the lost in the lamps by 2, to obtain the voltage lost in the two outvoltage side conductors, for the reason that the potential of the outside com
Formula
1,
we
shall
have
ductors
is
will
become
21.6
(6)
lamps on both
sides of
which C = Sum
of current required
by
of
i.
all
of the
D=
V=
is,
any one
e.,
Loss allowed
in the
making
made
as
were a two-wire
number of lamps supplied, at system, by taking one-half the total one-half the voltage between the outside conductors.
It is
Formula 6
understood, of course, that the size of the conductor in is the size of each of the two outs de ones; but, inasmuch
as the Rules of the National Electric Code require that for interior wiring the neutral conductor shall be at least equal in size to the outside
conductors,
conductor.
it
is
It
system where the neutral conductor is made equal in capacity to the combined size of the two outside conductors, and where the two outside conductors are joined together, we have virtually a two-wire
system arranged so that it can be converted into a three-wire system In this case the calculation is exactly the same as in the case later.
of the two-wire circuits, except that one of the two conductors is split This is frequently done into two smaller wires of the same capacity. where isolated plants are installed, and where the generators are wound
for 125 volts
and
it
may
ELE(jriUC WIRING
29
MliTMOI)
Tlif ln>i
llif (lata
Ol-
A INSIAI.LAIION
or
PLANMNd
IkMNO
to ^'atlier all
tlu'
>iij)
it)
is
iiidiri-ctly
.system of
installed.
wirinj;
and
maiiiiiT in wliicli
tjic
coiKluctors are to
U*
(jf
These data
will iiulude:
Kind
of l)uildin<r; c-onstnietion
Wuilding;
space available for conductors; sjurce and systenj (jf electric-current supply; and all details wlii'li will determine the method of wiring
to Ir' employetl.
These
last
items materially
all'ej-t
work, and are usually deterniini'd hy the character of the huilding and i)y commercial considerations.
jMcthod of Wiring. In a mo<lern fireproof huilding, the only system of wiring to he recommended is that in which the contluctors
are installed in rigid conduits; although, even
desirable,
feetler
in
such
ca.ses,
it
mav be
and economy may Ije effected thereby, to install the larger and main conductors e.\jK).se<l on insulators using weatheq)ro<jf
is
slow-burning wire.
only where there
This latter method should be u.sc<l, however, a convenient runway for the conductors, so that they will not be crowde<l and will not cross pipes, ducts, etc.. ?.nd
many bends
For
on cleats or insulators
are usually to be recommende<l, although rigid conduit, flexible conduit, or armored cable may be desirable.
In
finishe<l
buililings,
and
for
extensions of existing
iutlets,
where the wiring could not readilv or cniivenientlv be concealetl. moulding is generally u.se|, particularly where cleat wiring or other
ex|osed
methixls of wiring would be objectionable. However, as .said, moulding shoidd not Ih' emplovnl when* therv
any
liability to
dampness.
In finished buildings, particidarly where they are of frame coiistniction, flexible steel conduits or arinore<l cable are to be rect)m-
mende<l.
While in new buildings of frame construction, knob ai.d tuU* wiring are frecjuently employel, this mcthol shouM U' us<'l )nK
when* the
(|uestioii of first cost is of jirinic ini|M)rtance.
.'id
\Vhilearmonil
(o |(M(
30
ELECTRIC WIRING
is
so
is
much
safer that
it is
strongly
recommended.
Systems of Wiring. The system of wiring that is, whether is usually deterthe two-wire or the three-wire system shall be used If the source of supply is an isolated the source of supply. mined
by
two-wire generators, and with little possibility plant, with simple of current being taken from the outside at some future time, the
be laid out on the two-wire system. If, wiring in the building should the isolated plant is three-wire (having three-wire on the other hand, or two-wire generators with balancer sets), or if the curgenerators,
rent
taken from an outside source, the wiring in the building should be laid out on a three-wire system. It very seldom happens that current supply from a central station
is
arranged with other than the three-wire system inside of buildings, because, if the outside supply is alternating current, the transformers
is
are usually adapted for a three-wire system. For small buildings, on the other hand, where there are only a few lights and where there would be only one feeder, the two-wire system is used. As a rule,
is
it is
best
supplymg
the current,
and
to
As a matter
done
any event, in order to ascertain the proper voltage for the and for the motors, and also to ascertain whether the central lamps for, if these station will supply transformers, meters, and lamps
in
are not thus supplied, they should be included in the contract for the
It is
A set of
plans,
if
A careful study should then be made by the and the Engineer, or some other person qualified Architect, the Owner, The location of the to make recommendations as to illumination.
from the Architect.
outlets will
depend:
First,
of the
room, which determines the aesthetic and architectural effects; second^ of fixtures to be used, which shoula upon the type and general form decided on; third, upon the tastes of the owners or be
previously
FLECTUic wiiiixn
occupiUits
ill
:n
rt'ijaril
to illiiitiiiiatiuti
in
jjcntTal, us
it
is
fouiul that
and
kiiul of illiiiiiiiiation.
The
at eaih.
ami the
iiuiiiImt
(f
li^'hts re<|uirei
having
marked on
tiie
the j)laMs.
The
Im.-
centers of distriliution, the available jM)ints for the risers or fettlers, ami the available space for the branch circuit coinluctors.
In re<;ard to the rising fMint.s for the ftcdrr.t and mahut, the lowing precautions shoidd Ik- useil in selecting chases:
1.
fol-
The space
mains
but
it
likly to rise at
is
amply large to acfomriodate all (lie feeders and that j;ivcn f)oint. This seems trite and unii' the most usual trouble with tha-ses for risers. Foniierly a; ...;
sliould be
paiil little attention to the refiuirements for chjuses for electrical
in
.s
and builders
work; but
these later days of 2-incii and 2i-inch conduit, they realize that and mysterious jis the force they serve to dis-
when twenty or more such conduits must be stowed away where no special provision hits been made for them. 2. If possible, the space should be devoted solely to electric wiring. Steam pi|)es are objectionable on account of their tem|)erature; and these and
other i)ipes are objectionable in the same space occupied by the electrical conduits, for if the sjjace i)roves too small, the electric conduits are the first to Ik* crowded out.
all
The chase, if possible, should be continuous from the cellar to the roof, This i.s neces.sary in ortler to avoid unnecessary bends or or as far as needed. elbows, which are objectionable for many reasons.
In .similar manner, the location of
c(//-<<///
cabintfs or ditlrihuling
centers .shoidd fulfil the following re(|iiirements: 1. They shoukl be jicce.ssible at all times.
2. They should be |)laced sufTicienily do.se together to prevent the circuits from being too long. 3. Do not place them in too prominent a position, as that is obje<*tionable from the .Architect's point of view.
4.
They should be
placeil as near
a.s
po.s.sible
to the
risking
ch.'uses. in
of outlets
Having determiiHMl the .system and meth(Hl of wiring, the l(H-ation and distributing centers, the next step is to lay out the liranch
various outlets.
Heforc starling
to lay
out the branch ciniiits, a drawing shwing and showing the space In'tween the top of the
JM-ams and ginlersand the flooring, should Im* obtitineil fmiii the Architect. In f -proof buildings of iron or sl'el constnK'tion. it is almost
the invariable jmicticc, where the W(rk
is
to Ik* co^lX'all^l, to
nin
<lu'
32
ELECTRIC WIRING
conduits ove^ the beams, under the rough flooring, carrying them between the sleepers when running parallel to the sleepers, and notching the latter
when
them
In
wooden frame
buildings, the conduits run parallel to the beams and to the furring (see Fig. 32); they are also sometimes run below the
Finished Floor^
Kii^mmm^ss^i^^xm.'iiii'i^j^sMfZ'mss&mssms^^^mim!^^^^
JRoia.gh Flooring/
Fig.
31.
in Fireproof Building:.
beams. In the latter case the beams have to be notched, and this is allowable only in certain places, usually near the points where the beams are supported. The Architect's drawing is therefore necessary
in order that the location
on the plans.
The
number
circuit.
first
the
of outlets
and number
The
Rules of
be wired on any one branch the National Electric Code (Rule 21-D) require
of lights to
lamps requiring more than GGO watts, whether grouped on one fixture or on several fixtures or pendants, will be dependent on one cut-out." While it would be possible to
that
set of incandescent
circuits supplying more than 660 watts, by placing various cut-outs at different points along the route of the branch circuit, so as to subdivide it into small sections to comply with the rule, this
"no
have branch
method
is
in factories or mills.
not recommended, except in certain cases, for exposed wiring As a rule, the proper method is to have the
660 watts, which corresponds to twelve or thirteen 50-watt lamps, twelve being the usual limit. Attention is called to the fact that the inspectors usually allow 50 watts for each socket connected
circuit to
to a branch circuit; and although 8-candle-power lamps may be placed at some of the outlets, the inspectors hold that the standard lamp is approximately 50 watts, and for that reason tb*?"? is always
the likelihood of a
lamp
and
their inspec-
KLECrUIC WIHIXG
tion
is
33
Imstil
rt*<|uirfnR'iits,
mi that assumption. Tlierefore, to t-omply with the an allowance of not more than twelve himps j>er hranch
made.
still
In onlinarA- practice, howcscr, it is best to reduce this number fur'licr, so as to make allowance for future extensions or to increase
For this the nuniher of lamjjs that may he j)lacetl at any outlet. the numljer of the outlets on a circuit at the is wise to rea.son, it keep
It has iK-en lowest p)int consistent with econ(mical wiriniij. pmven that the best results are obtainel by limitinj; the by actual practice,
Of
course, where
lijjht
each,
tiiis
it
is
rea.sons of
economy,
to increase
miml)cr
ei<jht,
ten, and, in
some
This
ca.ses,
twelve outlets.
referred to the location
ot"
Wv have already
(|uestion
is
f;enerally settlwl
It is nece.s.sarj'
it
know
this,
however,
In'fore
Now,
as
it
little nee<l
Im?
.said,
is
Ksi.r-'
Nv-
tr.-,-
.f-
Jtfr
Wooden
stud or
Wall
BecAii.
ing
Furring Strips
Lathing
^
it
:bel
I'l^;. s-s
Framo
Uuiiaiiit;,
first
outlet,
and
havi- to
l)e
diiidiil, however,
whether
the circuits
nin at right angles to the walls of the buiKling or HKnn, or whether they .shall run direct from one point t( another,
.shall
irn"s|K'ctive
cours<',
ill
make
Of
the
.s<ime-
what
less
and
If the
34
ELECTRIC WIRING
tubes are bent, however, instead of using elbows, the difference in cost is usually very slight, and probably does not compensate for the
disadvantages that would result from running the tubes diagonally. As to the number of bends, if branch circuit work is properly laid out and installed, and a proper size of tube used, it rarely happens
that there
It
is
any difference
it
in "pulling" the
branch
circuit wires.
may happen,
in the event of
number
most
of bends, that
a very long run or one having a large might be advisable to adopt a short and
direct route.
to this time, the location of the distribution centers has
Up
made
been
solely with reference to architectural considerations; but they must now be considered in conjunction with the branch circuit work.
It frequently
happens
that, after
on the plans, we
distribution
groups
points.
may
may be changed to advantage, or sometimes certain be dispensed with entirely and the circuits run to other
see the
We now
wisdom
of ascertaining
As a
branch
rule,
circuit to
wherever possible, it is wise to limit the length of each 100 feet; and the number and location of the dis-
tributing centers should be determined accordingly. It may be found that it is sometimes necessary and even desirable
to increase the limit of length.
One
instance of this
may
be found in
It is generally desirable,
number
such cases, to control the hall lights from one point; and, as the of lights at each outlet is generally small, it would not be
Hence,
frequently exceed In the great majority of cases, however, the best limit named. the results are obtained by limiting the runs to 90 or 100 feet.
nms will
There are
on the
length of a branch circuit. To begin with, assuming that we are going to place a limit on the loss in voltage (drop) from the switchboard to
the lamp,
limit
it
it
may be
easily
to
circuits,
longer
circuits.
ELECTRIC WIRING
loss in
V()lta>,''
35
in
anv Ijianth
at
<
ircuit to a|)|)rit\iinat('ly
it
nnr
volt.
A.v
can
rtMilily
le
lc'
nuinl)er of
lijjhts
one
conne<-te(|
on a hrancli
or
in the
S. wire), is four;
having a single light each, five outlets may le connecte<l on the circuit, the first In-ing tlO feet frcrn the cut-<jut, the others
U'ing 10 feet apart.
These
circuits are
to
show
that
if
the hninch
increa.si-*!
Ih*
longer than KM) feet, the loss must more than one volt, or else the numl)er of lights that
much
l)e
may
con-
nectcil to
verj' small ijuantity, pnjvideil, of course, the size of the wire remains the .sjime.
one
circuit
must
lie
reduced to a
is
objectionable
the
first,
on the
score of regulation; and the second, from an economical standp>int. If, for instance, the loss in a branch circuit with all the lights tunie<l
on
is
lamp nn that
four volts (assuming an extreme case), the voltage at which u circuit burns will vary from four volts, depending on the
of lights burning at a time.
numlKT
lamp
it is
to
or else
burn below candle-power when all the lamps are turne<l on, to (liiiiiiii.sh its life by burning above the proper voltage when
the only
lamp burning on
is
the circuit.
Then,
too,
is
decreasc<l,
we do
not
u.se
)f
advantage th' available carrA'iiig capacity of the wire. cour.se, one solution (f the problem would Ik* to increase the
branch circuits, thus n'ducing the lrop. This, however, would not be desind)le, except in certain cases where there were a few long cin nils, >u( li as for corridor lights or other six^-ial
ontrol circuits.
In such instances as these,
it
wouM
be U'ttcr to
10
12 or even No.
H.
)f
fiauge condu<'(ors, than to incn-asc the distribution for the sjikc of a few circuits only,
S.
&
numU'r
in
of vnters
rt<duct*
order to
the nnmlK-r of lam|)s (or loss) within the limit. The melhiKl iif calcidating the loss in conductors has Ikhmi given ol.sewheir; but it must br lMrne in mind, in cjdculating the lo.ss of n
branch
circuit
.sej^inite calcu-
36
ELECTRIC WIRING
must be made for each portion of the circuit. That is, a must be made for the loss to the first outlet, the length in case being the distance from the center of distribution to the first
and the load being the total number of lamps supplied by the The next step would be to obtain the loss between the first
lations
calculation
this
outlet,
circuit.
and second outlet, the length being the distance between the two outlets, and the load, in this case, being the total number of lamps supminus the number supplied by the first outlet; plied by the circuit,
and so on.
The
If the building is
story,
an
On
the height and number of stories. this elevation, the various distributing centers should be shown
made showing
diagrammatically; and the current in amperes supplied through each center of distribution, should be indicated at each center. The
next step is to lay out a tentative system of feeders and mains, and to ascertain the load in amperes supplied by each feeder and main.
The
estimated length of each feeder and main should then be determined, and calculation made for the loss from the switchboard to
It
may be found
that in
some cases
it
be necessary to change the arrangement of feeders or mains, or even the centers of distribution, in order to keep the total loss from the
switchboard to the lamps within the limits previously determined. As a matter of fact, in important work, it is always best to lay out the entire work tentatively in a more or less crude fashion, according to
the "cut
because
may
Of
preliminaiy layout
the
first
preliminary arrangement.
TESTING
possible, two tests of the be made, one after the wiring itself is
Where
electric
entirely completed,
and switches,
cut-out panels, etc., are connected; and the second one after the The reason for this is that if a ground fixtures have all been installed.
or short circuit
is
it
is
more
no division
oi
KLECrUIC WIUING
the
re.sjM)nsil)ility,
37
as there might
lie if
the
first test
were
installe<l.
If the test
short c-ireuits l)efore the fixtures are installetl, and one does develop after tliey are installetl, the troulde, of course, is that the short circuit
or i:n)un(l
is
fixtures.
As a matter
of fact,
it is
it
a
is
wise plan always to make a separate test of each fixture after deliverctl at the huilding and l>efore it is installnl.
at liest a cruile
While a magneto is largely used for the pur|)ose of testing, it is and unreliable niethcxl. In the first place, it does
not give an indication, even approximately, of the total insulation resistance, but merely indicates whether there is a ground or sliort
circuit, or not.
let!
In
some
instances, moreover, a
magneto
-
test
If,
has
is
as
ment,
it
a lead sheathing on the cable that the will ring, indicating to the uninitiated that there isa gn)unti magneto or short circuit on the cable. This may l)C, and usually is, far fn)m
being the case; and the cause of the ringing of the magneto is not a ground or short circuit, but is due to the capacity of the cal)le, which acts as a condenser under certain conditions, since the magneto pnxlucing an alternating current repeatetlly charges and discharges the cable in opjKtsite directions, this changing of the current caiising the magneto Of course, this defect in a magneto could be lemedietl by to ring.
using a commutator and changing it to a dirc(t-<urrent machine; but as the metluKl is faulty in itself, it is hardly worth while to ilo this
portable (jalvanomeicr with a resistance Ih)X and \\heat.stone bridge, is .sometimes employnl; lii;( this nictluxl is objectionable Ix'cau.se it requires a sju^cial instniment which cannot U> useil for
nmnv
to
othtT |)uqH).ses.
Furthermore,
it
rc<|uin's
more
skill
and time
now U*
is
descrilHsl.
it
merely other puiixises, and which all engineers or contractors should |k>ss<'ss, together with The vlta l)ox of cells having a {K)tential of preferably oxer 'M volts.
rtHpiires
The advantage
of the voltmeter
method
that
H dircct-iurrcnt voltmeter,
which can U-
ustil for
many
if
is u.se|
Ik> .so
covers
t<H
wide a nmge
(sjiy
might
small as to
make
the
te.st
inac-
38
ELECTRIC WIRING
curate.
two
scales
good one of 60
say,
arrangement would be to have a voltmeter having and one of 600 which would make the
used inside of a building. If desired, a voltmeter could be obtained with three connections having three scales, the lowest scale of which
resistances.
Before starting a test, all of the fuses should be inserted and switches turned on, so that the complete test of the entire installation can be made. When this has been done, the voltmeter and battery
should be connected, so as to obtain on the lowest scale of the volt-
connection
meter the electromotive force of the entire group of cells. This is shown in Fig. 3.3. Immediately after this has been done, the insulation resistance to be tested
is
placed
in
circuit,
whether the
is
insulation to be tested
a switchor
the
board,
slate
panel-board,
and the
connections are
Fig.
34.
made
as
shown
in
is
in
proportion
first
to the difference
between the
volt-
The
will
show how
this resistance
first
may be
calculated
case
As a rub,
x^^ith
it
the internal
resistance of the battery is so small in comparison of the voltmeter and the external resistance, that
the resistance
entirely
may be
is
neglected,
and
this will
be done
In the
the resistance
on
all
and the batter}-, plus the entire insulation resistance the wues, etc., connected in circuit.
To put this in mathematical form, the voltage of the cells may be indicated by the letter E; and the reading of the voltmeter when the Insulation resistance is connected by the circuit, by the letter E'.
Let
represent the resistance of the voltmeter and Rx represent the insulation resistance of the installation which we wish to measure.
Ei.Kr'Tiac wiiiixG
It is
'.')
a fact
wliicli
the nnuler
uiul(Jiil)te<lly
F. as
proportional to the resistance: that is, the greater the resistance, the lower will l>e the reatling on the voltmeter, as this reading indicates the leakage or current passing thn>ugh the resistance. Putting this in the shape of a formula, we have from ilie theor}* of proportion:
/:
:
indicatetl
hy the voltmeter
K'
li
::
li
+ U,
W
R.
or,
E'
K' lix
li
-- i:
Transposing,
E' lix an<l
- E
E'
n=
li
{E-E'),
Rx
Or, expres.sed ance of the
= R{E-E')
E'
volt-
meter 7nultipllcd hy
the
(lifTerence
l->e-
tween the
first rea<l-
the
cells)
and
Bu3
>-Bua
Fig.
34.
reading of
lu.sulatlou
Ut.-!.l.-.t;iuco
|.
Testing.
sistance in series with the voltmeter), divided by this last reading of the voltmeter.
Example. A.s.sume a resistance of a voltmeter (/?) of 2(1.(HK) ohms, and a voltage of the cells (E) of 30 volts; and suppo.sc that the insulation
feetlcrs,
hramch
is
to
Hy
suhstituting
R (E -
E')
and
a.vsuining
tiiat
tin-
n'sistjince conne<'te<l is o,
A'
reading of we have:
,
tin-
voltmcttr with
tlic
insidation
"
JO,(KMI
".)
l(K),(M)OolilllK.
ll
tin
ic.sl .-allows
an
or a groinul or
40
ELECTRIC WIRING
process of elimination that is, by cutting out the various feeders until the ground or leakage disappears, and, when the feeder on which the trouble exists has been located, by following the same process
may be determined by
the
circuits.
Of
will
numerous the
for leakage.
course, the larger the installation and the longer and more circuits, the greater the leakage will be; and the lower
be the insulation resistance, as there is a greater surface exposed The Rules of the National Electric Code give a sliding
of current carried
the
etc.
amount
The
is
rule
depending upon by the various feeders, branch circuits, of the National Electric Code (No. 66) covering this
point,
as follows:
plete installation
all
in any building must test free from grounds; i. e., the commust have an insulation between conductors and between conductors and the ground (not including attachments, sockets, recepta-
"The wiring
cles, etc.)
Up
not less than that given in the following table: 5 amperes 4,000,000 " 10 2,000,000 " 25 800,000 " 50 400,000 " 100 200,000 " 200 100,000 " 400 50,000 " " 800 25,000 " " 12,500 1,600
to
uhms
" " " "
"
test must be made with all cut-outs and safety devices in place. If sockets, receptacles, electroliers, etc., are also connected, only onehalf of the resistances specified in the table Avill be required."
"The
the
lamp
ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS
It is
alternating-current
not within the province of this chapter to treat the various phenomena, but simply to outline the modifications
in designing
and calculating
for these
electric
light
phenomena. The most marked difference between alternating and direct curwiring
is
is
rent, so far as
induction, which
This
characteristic of all alternating-current circuits. self-induction varies greatly with conditions depending
upon
the arrangement of the circuit, the medium surrounding the circuit, the devices or apparatus supplied by or connected in the circuit, etc.
ELErnur WIRING
For
exainpli",
if
41
a resistant-e of KM)
ohms
is
iiuludetl in
tlie circuit,
a current of
with an electric
it
ampere can Ix? passotl through the c-oil of KM) vohs, if direct current is usel; wliile pressure
)iie
might
pass a current
of Mie
altenuiting-<urrent were usi-d, dejR'nding u|)on the ampere numluT of turns in tlie coil, whether it is wound on iron or some otiier
non-magnetic material, etc. It will l)e seen from this example, that greater allowance shouKl be made for self-inducti(ii in laying out and calculating alteniatingcurrent wiring,
if
be
aj)precialle.
(
)n
accovmt of self-induction, the two wires of an alteniatingIk? installed in separate inn or stivl consuch a circuit would
l)e
wound on an
iron core,
and the
self-
induction would not only reduce the current passing through the cirIt is for this cuit, but also might prinlucc iieating of the iron pijx-*.
reasfm that
t\\e
National
ing a given circuit to be placed in the same conduit, if tluit conduit is iron or steel, whenever the said circuit is intended to carrA', or is
liable to carry at
some
This dmvs
not mean, in the case of a two-phase circuit, that all four conductors nec<l Ik; placed in the same conduit, but that the two conductors of a
If, however, the given pha.se nuist be placed in the same conduit. u.se<l for a two-nha.se sv.stem, all three conductors three-wire svstem Ik*
should be placed
in the
Ik-
the ca.sc in a
cniirM', in a single-pha.se
all
two- or
be placnl
in
the .sjune
ti^ndiiit.
should
Ik
made
for s'lf-induction
when
.same circuit are place<l clo.se together in an iron conduit. When, or are .sepanitetl fnun each the conductors aire however, exposnl,
nm
In-
made
to
determine
if
the elTects
)f
.self-
induction are great enough to ause an appre<iabK' inductive tlrop. There are s<>vend metlnnls of calculating this droj lue to .self-induction
Ix'
will
de.scrilK'd.
42
ELECTRIC WIRING
Skin Effect.
is
caused
of the wire, it being a welltending to flow through the outer portion the current density decreases known fact that in alternating currents,
toward the center of the conductor, and that in large wires, the current small. density at the center of the conductoris relatively quite
The
eter, and also in direct ratio to the frequency of the alternating current. S. Gauge, and smaller, and for For conductors of No. 0000 B.
&
or less, the skin effect frequencies of 60 cycles per second, and is less than one-half of one per cent.
is
negligible
ance for
it
for frequencies above 60 cycles per be appreciable; and in certain cases, allowmay should be made in making the calculation. In ordinary
it
practice, however,
may be
neglected.
Alter-
data necessary for calculating the skin effect. The figures given in the first and third columns are obtained by multiplying the size of the conductor (in circular mils) by the frequency (number of cycles per
second); and the figures in the second and fourth columns show the factor to be used in multiplying the ohmic resistance, in order to
obtain the combined resistance and skin
effect.
TABLE
IX
X Cycles per
Sec.
ELECTRIC WIRIXG
43
nuitual iiitluction takes place. The amount of tliis iiulucetl K. M. F. ill one circuit set by a parallel current, is dejH-nilent u|K)n the cur-
up
each
tlje
other,
and
s;iid circuits.
onlinary conditions, and except for long circuits carrying high jMttentials, the elYect of nuitual induction is .so slight as to be In onlcr negligible, unless the conductors are iinj)ro[)erly arninged.
I
iider
to
to 31), inclusive,
show
l)00O Att.
.035 Volts,
o o
o o
7200
Fig.
35.
Alt.
.016 Volts.
16,000 Alt.
.015 Volts.
7200
Fig.
36.
Alt.
.0065Vo1ts.
O
Fig.
37.
16,000
Alt. Alt.
.070 Volts.
.032 Volts.
7200
o
Fig.
38.
.006 Volts.
.0027 Volts,
o
five
o
Fig.
39.
lepoo
Alt.
MS
Volts.
7^00 Alt
.CSO Volts,
(ilvliig
Vurlous
circuits;
relatively
induction
is
when
arrangc<l. as in Fig.
im.'{S, and how relatively large it may Ik- when as in Fig. '^*^. Thcs' diagrams are taken from j)ri>perlv arninged, a piil)lication of Mr. Charles F, Scott, enfitletl Pohiphasf Trausi.ssue<l
miiitum,
by the Westinghou.se
t
I'lectric
&
Manufacturing
Companv.
The clTc< of capacity is usually negligible, tnmsmi.ssion lines where high |M)tcntials art* u.s\l; no long except calculations or allowance need Im- made for capat'itv, for ortlinar>'
Line Capacity.
in
circuit.H
<t4
ELECTRIC WIRING
Calculation of Alternating=Current Circuits.
In the instruction
paper on "Power Stations and Transmission," a method is given for calculating alternating-current lines by means of formulse, and data are given regarding power factor and the calculation of both single-phase
and polyphase
ever,
it is
For short lines, secondary' wiring, etc., howmore convenient to use the chart method devised probably by Mr. Ralph D. Mershon, described in the American Electrician of June, 1897, and partially reproduced as follows:
circuits.
DROP
IN
ALTERNAT1NQ=CURRENT LINES
When alternating currents first came into use, when transmission distances were short and the only loads carried were lamps, the question of dro'p or loss of voltage in the transmitting line was a simple one,
and the same methods as
error be
for direct current could without serious
employed
practice
in dealing with
partly or wholly of induction motors render this question less simple; and direct-current methods applied to it do not lead to satisfactory' results. Any treatment of this or of
to-day
longer
it.
The
conditions existing in
distances,
polyphase
made up
circuits,
any engineering subject, if it is to benefit the majority of engineers, must not involve groping through long equations or complex diagrams The results, if any, must be in availin search of practical results.
able and convenient form.
made
if
it
drop in alternating-current lines that the reader be grounded in the theor}' the brief space devoted to will suffice; but if he do not comprehend or care to follow the
may
Most
M.
F.'s
involved, and, so far as the writer knows, there have not appeared in convenient form the data necessarj' for accurately calculating this
c(uantity.
Table
drop of alternating-current
simply an extension of the vector diagram (Fig. 40). giving the relations of the E. M. F.'s of line, load and generatoi. In
chart
is
The
KI.K("ri:it' \V!i;!\T,
45
is c,
the gfru-ratur K.
M.
1'.;
e,
the E.
M.
F, iinpresstil
1*2.
upon
M.
F.
The
coni|xjnent c is
made up of two
components at rijjht aiif^les to eacli other. One is a, tlie comjKJuent overcoming the III or hack !'. M. 1'. ihic to resistance of the Hue,
Tlie other
is h,
the
F. or
hack E. M. F.
(hie to the
field set
drop
is
the
It is
(/,
the ratlial ilistance l)etween two circular arcs, one of which a radius
c,
is
drawn with
The
as a
cliart is
ce n
The
radius of
the
which
is
taken
cent.
as
100
per
and, as
the
the
last
radius of
--d --J
Fig.
iO.
Vector Diagram.
of that of the smallest, the chart answers for drops uj) to 10 jxr cent of the E. M. V. delivere<l.
The
tenns
K.
M.
/'.,
mirtanci' ivlts,
and uarlancc K. M.
ing the back
1',.
oven-om-
M.
I'.'s
due
lo resistance
and reactance
respectively.
The
simply
resistances of 2,0(K)
fe-t
of the
values given under the heading "Keatance-\'olts, etc.," are, a part of ihem, calculatnl-fntm tables ]iublished simw time agr) by Messrs. Houston and Keimelly. The remainder
various sizes of wire.
The
The
explanation given
in
the
taltle
46
ELECTRIC WIRING
,8
.9
O
DROP
IN
lO PERCENT OF
20
E.tt.F.
30
OEUVEREO
ELECTRIC WIRING
TABLE X
Data for Calculating Drop
To
be
u-.<xl 111
47
In Altcrnatinjj-Currcnt
put;<?.
Lines
i> ''' 'tbie, palculat the /?'J<<an^<- I'o?^* un.l tinr crnt finh 1h uf tho K. M. Ijnr 111 oil tfi'- '-^'irt wli.T'- tht* VHrc.' Stjir ' ''^ 1" i>..wirtat.i..r ..r 11.. 1...1.1 111'.t tluis K. M. K. h<>rl/...m;illv iiiid
/.'.i fjri.
I'.f'i
In the
'
1.
...
...
.,,..,
:ii
It
lli
l;k ..
....
^.
...o
M. K.
ili'llvi.rfil
ttu< t-inl
uf ihe line,
whlih
(<irr'>i)>iiiiW.
48
ELECTRIC WIRING
is
(Table X)
its
use, but a
few
examples
may be
Problem.
Power
K.W.; E. M. F.
to be delivered,
2,000 volts; distance of transmission, 10,000 feet; size of wire. No. 0; distance between wires, 18 inches; power factor of load, .8; frequency, 7,200 alternaFind the line loss and drop. tions per minute.
Remembering
that the
power
factor
is
the apparent power of volt-amperes must be multiplied to give the true power, the apparent power to be delivered is
KW.
The
2,000
From
the table of reactances under the heading "18 inches," and wire, is obtained the constant .228. Bearing corresponding to No.
the instructions of the table in mind, the reactance-volts of this line
are,
which
to
156.25 (amperes) X 10 (thousands of feet) X .228 = 356.3 is 17.8 per cent of the 2,000 volts to be delivered.
the
wire,
is
volts,
From
No.
The
resistance-volts
of the line are, therefore, 156.25 (amperes) 10 (thousands of feet) .197=307.8 volts, which is 15.4 per cent of the 2,000 volts to be
delivered.
Starting, in accordance with the instructions of the table, from the point where the vertical line (which at the bottom of the chart is marked "Load Power Factor" .8) intersects the inner or smallest
circle, lay off horizontally
;
and
M.
F.
in.
per cent (15 .4) and jrom the point thus obtained, lay off vertically the reactance-E. M. F. in per cent (17.8). The last point falls at about
23 per cent, as given by the circular arcs. This, then, is the drop, in per cent, of the E. M. F. delivered. The drop, in per cent, of the genera^ tor E. M. F. is, of course,
23
100+23
current, the
percentage loss of power in the line has not, as with direct same value as the percentage drop. This is due to the fact that the line has reactance, and also that the apparent power
The
<
H.
a z < 3
:.
J ^ 5 - - ; s "l * *
> <
fr-
1
fi
^ P S > ^
|4
-J
;;
I
%-
'r
J*
X B
o
o
o: (J
Ill
<
I'UiC
WIRING
with
tlu*
49
(IfliviTttl
to
(111-
IojmI
is is
nut
iilctilical
tnu- |Ki\ver
tlmt
Ls,
the Imul
powtT
factor
'I'lie
loss
must
Ik- ul)taiia'(i
by
what amounts
by muhiplyinj^ the resistance-voUs by the current. The r'sistanee-vohs in this case are 307. S, an<l
l')("..2r)
the current
amperes.
losti is
The
lo.ss
ij
307. S
l'j<i.2.j= IS.
K,
W.
The
{HTcentagc
48.
...
, Kj.I
250+4K.1
per cent.
'
Therefore, for the j)rol>lem taken, tlie drop is IS. 7 per cent, an<l llie If the j)roblem Ik.- to find the size wire for a pvcn losn is 10.1 percent.
tlrop,
it
must
the (ln)p; the result in coiujection with the table will show the direction an<l extent of the chanf^e necess;irA' in the size of wire to pve the
re<|uire<l droj).
The
notel.
drop
.should
l)e
If there
l>e
in
the al)ove
example
given by the point obtained in laying off on the chart the M. F. (15.4) only. This point falls at 12.4 per (rnt, and the drop in terms of the generator K. M. F. would be
would
resistance-E.
12 4
112.4
desirable.
in
two ways.
One
of the.se
is
to
The
carrinl
is
di.^tance at
which the wires are snU' from swinging together in the middle of the span; in irisidi* wiring, liy the danger from lire. The other way of
into a greater mimU'r t)f is to split the copj)cr up and arrange the.se circuits so that there is no inductive intercircuits, arlion. Vnr instance, supjM)se that in the example workl out alnAe, wire, two No. 3 wires were u.setl in.stead <if one No. 'i'he :vsislanee-
reilncing reactance
volts
le.ss
would
Im-
tlu' .sjim-,
Ik*
in the nitio J
^ .03'), since
circuit ihx's,
No. 3 wire
!.>
.241,
No.
The
elT<'cl
it
al.so
shown
in tin'
example given
is
50
ELECTRIC WIRING
to No. 0000 will Increasing the copper from No. not produce the required result, for, although the resistance-volts will be reduced one-half, the reactance-volts will be reduced only in the
to, say, one-half.
ratio .212^
If,
.228*
will
amount.
The component of drop due to reactance is best diminished by subdividing the copper or by bringing the conductors closer together. It
is little affected
by change in
size of conductors.
An
drop
is
idea of the
best gotten
manner
in
affect
by an example.
Assume
distance of transmission,
M. F., and frequency, the same as in the previous example. Assume the apparent power delivered the same as before, and let it be constant, but let the power factor be given
several different values; the true
power will therefore be a variable depending upon the value of the power factor. Let the size of wire be No. 0000. As the apparent power, and hence the current, is the
same as
E.
before,
and the
M.
15.4
Li
^, or 7
M.
F. delivered.
M.
.212X17.8
228
,.
P^^
'
for a
power factor
of .4,
and deducing
the drop, in per cent, of the generator E. M. F., the value obtained is 15.3 per cent; with a power factor of .8, the drop is 14 per cent;
it is
8 per cenl.
If in this
example the
true power, instead of the apparent power, had been taken as constant, it is evident that the values of drop w'ould have differed more widely,
the current, and hence the resistance- and reactance-volts, would have increased as the power factor diminished. The condition taken more nearly represents that of practice.
since
If the line
had resistance and no reactance, the several values and 8, would be 3.2, 5.7, and 7.2 per
cent respectively, showing that for a load of lamps the drop will not
ELEmUC
l>i>
WmiN'G
that with a
k-.ss
liati,
51
l)iit
powrr
factor
is
than miity,
niw
In
.should
it
U
is
all casivs
ailvisiihle to
permit.
When
there
is
it
is
desire<l to obtain
and
line,
it
is
necessarj' to
know
the resistance-
ance-volts of
and reactance-volts of the transformer. The resistthe combination of line and transfcjnner are the .sum of and the resistance-volts of the
trans-
Similarly, the reactance-volts of the line and transfonner are the sum of their respective reactance-volts. The resistance- and
fonner.
usually be obtaiiu'*! fn)m The.M^- \htper cent.* centages expre-ss the values of the resi.stance- and reactance-E. M. F.'s when the transformer delivers its normal ///-/oaJ current; and they
reactance-E.
the makers,
M.
F.s of transformers
may
in
M.
V. of the
Consider a transformer
l)uilt for
trans-formation
Wtween
1,(KX)
and KK)
volts.
Suj)pose
tlie
resistance-
and reactance-E. M.
E.'s given
are 2 per cent and 7 per cent respectively. Then the corresjx)nding voltages when the tninsformer delivers full-load current, are 2 and 7
volts or
is
connecte<l
values, 2
to
no matter
at
Whcn
iMf^oHurc*!.
1)0 olttaincvl
nill.s.
may
Ihj
n^isiunccof
Iwith
If
.
the linoto
rnlcuhiutl
.^
'
'
uitachMf
to th lilKh-voltaKe tiTniinuls of thu traiisforiiicr, the hieh-viiHaKO roil. ;'/uj th)< rotlHtancc olxaineil l>y !
'
that of thi
Ihenitloof
I:
'Ion the
tri
III" r<
|o-M>U.4Kt' ri.il Moil JH 10. ihe ctiulvalent r<'sisian(t> rrfcrrf"! to the li r the hli;h-voltaKe roil, jtlut 100 tinieN that of (he
mra.Hiir<"<l r<iislaii<'<' iif
till'
I
of
It
liy the Mkti mi1Iii(; current the hlKh-vo|l;i nvUI.Similarly, the .ni'c of Iho low-volt.i. low-volluKe ein'iilt In 1.< .../xjlhal of lhi< hlKh voltak'i' eoll rtducrd in the w|uareof (he ratio uf (raiwformndon It follown. '' tw< rirrulla of i-ourwv fnitn ttilx. (hat the valiH>Hof the r(U(ane>-vo|lH referr'-' hear to eaeh other the ratio of (ran.tformatlon volla. itluirtTo obtain the rlrriili oni- roll of thi< tranAfonuer aii'I lhi< other roil ilN normal ciim'nl at i.
e'liiU
r<
-.taiice
niiiltlplUol
t<i
si-.';nnf-volt(i
n-frrnxl
<
aii>
' rfferrol to
tlii<
'
'
li
In il,i-N
II..
nauUa
i
.,
iiM... ,r
I..
If
(if
rliMx valiiT9*\tar\(t
\
<<
iiH
52
ELECTRIC WIRING
is
former
the strength of curoperated, since they depend only upon If any other than the rent, providing it is of the normal frequency. full-load current is drawn from the transformer, the reactance- and
resistance-volts will
be such a proportion of the values given above as the current flowing is of the full-load current. It may be noted, in that when the resistance- and reactance-volts of a trans-
known,
its
regulation
use
same way as
reactance.
line
As an illustration of the method of calculating the drop in a and transformer, and also of the use of table and chart m calculatis
given
single-phase induction
motor
is
to be supplied with 20
am-
peres at 200 volts; alternations, 7,200 per minute; power factor, .78. The distance from transformer to motor is 150 feet, and the line is No. 5 wire, 6 inches between centers of conductors. The transformer reduces in the ratio
when
delivering this
current and voltage, its resi?tance-E. M. F. E. M. F. 5 per cent. Find the drop.
The
reactance of 1,000 feet of circuit consisting of two No. 5 The reactance-volts therefore are is .204.
.204
Y^ X 20 =
20
'lO
.01 volts.
The
resistance-volts are
.627
X -i^ X
1,000
1.88 volts.
At 25 amperes, the resistance-volts of the transformer are 2.5 per 20 of this, or 4 volts. cent of 200, or 5 volts. At 20 amperes, they are
Similarly,
and
at 20
the transformer reactance-volts at 25 amperes are 10, amperes are 8 volts. The combined reactance-volts of
.61
8.61, w-hich
is
The combined
+4, or
5.88,
which
is
M.
F. to be delivered.
Combining
the drop
is
these quantities on the chart with a power factor of .78, 5 per cent of the delivered E. M. F.,
or
of the impressed E.
=
The
M.
F.
ELECTRIC >VIRING
^^^^ =
.952
in
r,3
2,100 volts,
Tahle
answer
for
in direct
(page 47)
is
made out
hut
will
any other nun>l)er if the values for n-aetanee be changed For instanc-e, to the change in alternations. j)nij)ortion
.
.
,
for
i'lir
Ifi.iMM)
alternations,
multiply the
reactances given
10,000
^
by
uiher distances hetween centers of conductors, interpolate the As the reactance values for diliVreiit sizes values triven in the tahlc.
of wire change by a constant amount, the tahle can, for larger or smaller conductors. rea<lily extendetl
if
desired, be
E.
basetl
Ix^st
on the assumption of sine currents and which practice of to-day produces machines
so closely approximate this condition that results obtaine<l by the alxne metluHls ore well within the limits of practical re(|uirements.
have far, single-phase circuits only extension of the metluHls given al)ove simple A four-wire adapts them to the calculation of polyphase circuits. transmission may, so far as loss and regida(two-phase)
Polyphase Circuits.
dealt witii.
So
Int'ti
quarUr-phase
be replaced by two single-phase circuits identical between wires, current, and E. M. F.)
with the two circuits of the quarter-pha.se transmission, providt^l that Therein lK)th cases there is no inductive interaction Iwtween circuits.
fore, to calculate
the single-phase circuit recpiirt^l to tr.msmit one-half the jM)wer at The <|Uar((T-j)hase transmission will require two the same voltage.
such
circuits.
three-wire, thrvc-phasc transmi.ssion, of which the conductors .so far as lo.ss and n-gulation are
concernnl, be replace<l by two single-pha.se cin-uits having lU) inductive interaction, and ihMitical with (he three-phase line as to Thert-fore, to calculate a size, wire, and distance In-tween wires.
three-|)hase
Inmsini.ssion, calculate a
single-phase- circuit
to
caiTj*
The
thn'c-pha.se transmis-
three-wire.
iw()-pha.sc
transmi.ssion
may
caliIaU\J
54
ELECTRIC WIRING
exactly as regards loss, and approximately as regards drop, in the same way as for three-phase. It is possible to exactly calculate the drop, but this involves a more complicated method than the
approximate one.
The
error
by
this
approximate method
is
gen-
It is possible, also, to get a- somewhat less erally small. drop and loss with the same copper by proportioning the cross-section of
the middle and outside wires of a three-wire, quarter-phase circuit to the currents they carry, instead of using three wires of the same
size.
The
advantage, of course,
is
it
will not
be con-
sidered here.
that of
an
building selected as a typical sample of a wiring installation office building located in Washington, D. C. The figures
of the plans actually used in installing the
building consists of a basement and ten stories. It is of fireproof construction, having steel beams with terra-cotta flat arches. The main walls are of brick and the partition walls of terra-cotta
blocks, finished with plaster. There is a space of approxnnately five inches between the top of the iron beams and the top of the finished
floor, of
The
The
tile
flooring
in
is
of
wood
in the offices,
halls,
but of
mosaic, or
the
basement,
toilet-rooms,
The
electric current
supply
illuminating company,
the
is derived from the mains of the local mains being brought into the front of the
basement.
As the building is a veiy substantial fireproof structure, the only method of wiring considered was that in which the circuits would be
installed in iron conduits.
The
electric current
sapply
is
direct
current, two-wire for power, and three-wire for lighting, having a potential of 236 volts between the outside conductors, and 118 volts,
ELECTRIC \VIRL\G
SwitcliboarJ.
(
65
)ii
tlu-
wuttmottTs, pnividttl by
switches
fetnlers.
ami
and
There
for
power.
iti
An
the .switchlxianl.
voltmeter
is
prcjvidtil
with a tlouhle-throw switch, and so arrangeil as to measure the jxjtential acro.ss the two outside conductcjrs, or l>etween the neutnil con-
ductor and
eitlier of
is
arningetl with two shunts, one being placeil in each outside leg; the shunts are coimected with a double-pole, double-throw switch, so
that the
to either
The
building
paper
office,
usual
There are linotype machines, trinuners, .shavers, cutters, saws, etc. also electrically-driven e.\hau.st fans, house pumps, air-compressors,
etc.
The upper
is
almost
total
entirt^lv devoteil
to
offices renteil
parties.
The
mnnU-r
of motors
su[)plit-<l
total
number
2,4(M)
Feeders and
The arrangement
centers, mains, etc., which they supplv, are. .shown diagranunatically in Fig. 41, which also gives in scluHlule the
sizes of fee<lers, mains,
and motor
circuits,
to the
cut-out panels.
.source, yet,
Although the current su|)ply was to be taken from an outside inasmuch as there was a pn)bal)ility of a j)l;int l)eing in-
some
of feetlers
to
designetl. with a
neutnd conductor
txjual
the
combined
.so
that
in
lL'0-volt
tlie
utili/ed
feeder^.
r>a.scmcnt.
ircuit
main switchlnianl.
cotmection
.sy.stem
.vning
to
provide the
nec'.s.sar}'
FCEDCRS
X ALL CONDUCTORS IN ONt CONDUIT. KX SEPARATE CONDUIT FOR EACH CONDUCTOR THIS FEEOEIR IS TO BE DIVIDED INTO FOUR (-*) ~ CONDUCTORS OFt 2000000 C-M. EACH. - EACH CONDUCTOR IS TO BE INSTALLED IN A SEP* - ABATE 3" (Inside oiam) conduit LS^LIGHTING SUPPLY " P-S.= POWER XKXX SEPARATE s'tTMSIDE DIAK^CONDUiT FOR EACH
M X X
CONDUCTOR
in
<
KLECTRIC WIUIXG
c^/~i-<F ni
57
rt<^
u i
^
-a-'
i7
P
SWITCH BOA F^C
* nn
-Q
-6"
58
ELECTRIC WIRING
messenger calls, etc., be described later.
in all the
tickers,
as will
To
in detail in the specification, and installed plan, but were described The in accordance with directions issued at the time of installation.
electric current
supply enters the building at the front, and a service switch and cut-out are placed on the front wall. From this point, a two-wire feeder for power and a three-wire feeder for lighting, are
nm
to the
of the basement.
Owing
well as the
to the
upper
The
rear portion of the building from the basement Fig. 43, and including the mezzanine floor,
floors, at the rear portion of the
and second
building
a press room for several large and heavy, modern newspaper presses. The motors and controllers for these presses are A separate feeder for each of these press located on the first floor.
utilized as
motors
troller
run directly from the main switchboard to the motor conin each case. Empty conduits were provided, extending from
is
the controllers to the motor in each case, intended for the various
control wires installed by the contractor for the press equipments. One-half of the front portion of the first floor is utilized as a news-
paper office; the remaining half, as a bank. Second Floor. The rear portion of the second
occupied as a composing and linotype room, and is illuminated chiefly by means of drop-cords from outlets located over the linotype machines
cases.
are provided for each linotype machine, the circuits for the run underneath the floor.
same being
Upper Floors.
floors,
is
shown
of the upper
respects with the exception of certain in partitions, which are not material for the purpose of illuschanges The circuit work is sufficiently tration or for practical example.
from the plan to require no further explanation. Interconnection System. Fig. 46 is a diagram of the interconnection system, showing the main interconnection box located in the
intelligible
ELF.CTRIC WIHIN'G
59
T:^:
C
II
c_j^
j_
NO POINT X
,
L'^'
?i%--^
^-.^V*:
d
z
^
p
JL-s:
i^.i..
._
^n-ai-i
fe-^^-^
tr~Tj
mJ v%
ELECTRIC
WTRIN'C;
r-^uLC
61
oFORCurra
1
r^^r
I
^
^..
r-T"
'
z^^
^ ^
4
"I
<
Q-.-.-.-.-.j
r*
*--='
?v0'
r
OCR
i^l?^v
J;-n
c.-:
?-ir^^-
-;-i
mi
A
r
.SHI
I'-::
'"I
Is
>
I
,;
rt.-.-.-.-.-.-ri
In
^
V
:-^'
J
Tyj)lral IMiiii of
ll<
11^'.
4.1.
(>'
.<tc.
.
nbore
I';..,..
..i
t.
mly
lii(uiii|>.ira(tv<<ly
FIXTURES.
ELK(n^i{i(: wiRiN'r;
03
lia.sfimiit; .idjuiiiiii;^ tliis inain Imjx is liicatttl tin- ti-riiiiiial Ihjx of llje
.si'j>arato sysU'iii
of
fit-dc-rs is
pmviiUil
tickt-r systcin,
it
as
tlii-se
insiiIatiDii, aii<l
was
tlioii^lit
owing to tlie higher potential of separate intcreonnection cahle nnis to each flK)r, for telephone anil messenger call pui-jx)ses; and a central Ih)X i.s place<l near the rising jK)int at each floor, from which nni subsidiarj' cables
to several i)<)ints
svmmetricallv
locatetl
on the various
flo<jrs.
From
nm
ways from
out
any
office in the
damaging
wooden moukling near the ceiling to accommodate Ix* run around the room without disfiguring the All the main cables and subsidiary- wires are connected with walls. special interconnection blocks numbered serially; and a schedule is in the main interconnection box in the basement, which y)r(tvideil
for a special
made
subsidiarj*
OTHER ACCESSORIES
Outlct-Uoxcs.
l)oxes
unnecess;int', and with a few extrptions were not usiil, the conduits l>eing brought to the outlet and cut olT after the walls and ceilings were plastered. With the intnKluction of iron con-
were considercnl
was
realizetl;
and the
so as to re<|uin' their use. The Riiltn of the Xatlifiial KUriric CrnU- lutw rt'|uin' outlet-lx)Xes to Im- ust-d with rigid irmi and flexible steel conduits, and with annontl
nuHlilit>tl
cables.
All
iijllot
of
nml
rule reijuiring their use is as follows: iiniion'<l calili'.s "ruust 1k> <>(|uip|M>ii nt every
it
with !in iipprnvi'M oullot-l)ox nr pinlf. "Oiitlft-pliitcN iiiUHt not l>o uw(l \vlicn>
in |)ritcli(-l>lo
to
itiHtall uiitlet-
I1UXC8.
64
ELECTRIC WIRING
"In buildings already constructed, where the conditions are such that neither outlet-box nor plate can be installed, these appUancesmay be omitted by special permission of the inspection department having jurisdiction, pro
viding the conduit ends are bushed and secured."
Fig. 47
shows a
t}^ical
form of outlet-box
\^Tien
it is
desired to
remove any
of the
quired.
fre-
quently referred to as the knock-out type. Other forms of outlet-boxes are made with
WO OPT
Pig.
47. Universal and Knocl^-Out Type of Outlet Box.
the
re-
quired
points,
this
class
stronger
sal tj'pe.
and
box will serv^e for any ordinary type of outlet-box are that one form of conditions, the openings being made according to the number of
conduits and the directions in which they enter the box. form of outlet-box used out of doors, Fig. 48 shows a waterproof
or in other places where the conditions require the use of a watertight
and waterproof
be
outlet-box.
It will
box
is
T
Fig. 48. VVater-Tight Outlet Box. Courtesy of E. Krantz Manufacturing Co., Brooklyn, N. 1
.
duits,
is
screwed on
tightly
for
a rubber gasket.
'IT/A.^DONCOUUMNA
.
R^.^
N'DCI XKna
-)_4-4-j4''-1'M-'M''t- i^^'*"
FIRST-FLOOH PLAN OF HOUSK FOR
I'rlni-llnl K""ln'i i;i MnrtllllK K<">lll." I.O' Tliriiwii I >jH'ri. I'rr>vlili'
'
W AMI INu
I
U.N.
t!
LI,
L.
i'li-I
:.f
'i-
i;
li
;r-
1*;\'!
'
^r:l^^
Iv'v.-
(It)
Ihr
ELFXTUIC WUilNf;
Figs. 49
IiKiiteti in
65
and 50
the Hikjf.
is
outlet
l)e usel
in all
is
In this ejise
threadeil, as well as the stem et)ver throujjh also, the coiuluit ojR'niiif^ ^^ hen the extension is made in the conduit to the desk or table. which
the
tl(M)r
outlet cDiuiection
flat,
is
may
In;
removed ami a
blank cover be
same.
form of
(jutlet-l)ox useil
mored cable, has already l>een shown (see Fi^. o). There is hardly any limit to the numlx'r and variety
outlet-lK>xes
of
makes of
on the market,
ada|)tel
f<jr
onlinary and
Klg.
4.
FlK. 50.
and
lUishiuKS.
The
conduits entering jimction-lM)xes, outlet-lK)xes, or cut-out cabinets., fitttil to .shall be j)ntect the wire providel with apj)ruvcd hu.shing.f,
from abnisittn.
is
This bushing Fig. ol shows a ty|)ical form of cuuduit bushing. screwjtl on the v\u\ of the conduit after the latter has Ui-n introinto the outlct-l)ox. cut-out cabinet, etc., tluTeby
jirolcc
t
ducnl
forming an
it
insulated orilice to
ciiud\iits,
lo<
liic
win- at
(Ih-
point where
leaves the
and
(
to
A
this
k-mit
tin-
conduit U-fore
ihr (i)iiduit
l(Mk-niil
iiiid
placetl
in
llic
and
>ccuiily in jxisition.
Fig.
66
ELECTRIC WIRING
flexible steei
The
and
effectually
grounded, so as
to
least
resistance
to
Pig.
51.
prevent
the
path
Conduit Bushing.
current from
finding
through any source which might cause a fire. At outlet-boxes, the conduits and gaspipes must be fastened in such a manner as to
insure good
electrical
connection; and
at centers of distribution,
the conduits should be joined by suitable bond wires, preferably of copper, the said bond wires
Fig.
52.
Lock-Nut.
being connected to the metal structure of the building, or, in case of a building not having an iron or steel structure, being grounded in a
permanent manner
Fuse-Boxes, Cut-Out Panels,
necessity
etc.
to
From
was apparent
circuits, etc.
For
metal
having a low
emof
The form
has
varied
Fig. 53. Panel-Box Terminal Bushing. Courtesy of Sprague Electric Co., New York, iV. J.
greatly. Fig.
54 shows
a characteristic form
of
what
is
known
as
the link fuse with copper terminals, on which are stamped the capacity of the fuse.
The form
although
it
is
of fuse used probably to a greater extent than any other, now being superseded by other more modem forms.
ELECnaC
Is tliat
WIUIN'G
Fi^.
'>'>.
Ch
known
as
|>or(fhiin
cut-out bliK-k
I'Mison fuse
is
sliuwn
in Fij^.
'>().
Within the
last
new form
of fuse,
known as
consitiemltle
e.xteiit.
fu.se
of this tyj)e
fu.se,
is
shown
tlie
in Fij;.
".7.
Fig.
oS
jcrives
sec--
tional
view of this
showing
ileviee
is
it
jjorous tilling
.snrrouiKling the
fu.se-strijjs,
and
al.so
the
for indicating
when
the
fuse has
Mown.
made with
can he
use<l
in
small
sizes,
mm
in
and with a jKJst screw contact in For oniinarA' low jH)tentials larger sizes. desirahlc tor currents up to '''''^ ^^''^^'
'"^
aiiiiMifs;
tioii
hut
it
it
is
a dchatahle
(|ues-
whether
is
desiralile to use
an enFig.
''.>
shows
fusc-hlocks usetl
there
is
cut-out ho.r
with
F^li.s)n
j)lug
that
no cfninection compartment
enter diR-ctly opj)osite the terminals with which they connect. for enclo-sinl fu.ses. and Fig. ()() .shows a cut-nut panel adaptinl
installetl
a cal)<iiii-
inet
having a
Klg. 57.
yJ
KuiioMHl
iir
1,11'
on the
11*;. ^-
four .sides by
.slate,
which
Imfpf
is .securetl
in the
corners
l>y
aIlgle-iI^>n^.
i>r
it
The
In-
outer
Ihx
may
(!
imn,
may
ty|M-.
of in>n.
Fig.
It will
U- Mfii that
68
ELECTRIC WIRING
the door opens only on the center panel, and that the trim covers and conceals the connection compartment. The inner side of the door
slate,
Fig. 62
and panel.
may
the
enter at
any
illus-
type of panelboard and cabinet having a push-button switch connected with each
branch
circuit
and so
the cut-
arranged that
OVERHEAD LINEWORK
advantages of overhead linework as compared with underlinework are that it is much less expensive; it is more readily ground and more quickly installed and it can be more readily inspected and
;
The
repaired.
Its principal
it
is
not so permanent as
underground linework;
unsightly.
is
more
easily deranged;
and
it
is
more
For large
cities,
and
in congested
districts,
overhead
linework
the question of permanence, and the regulations, are usually the factors municipal which determine whether o^'erhead or underground linework shall
first cost,
be used.
ELECTRIC
Tlu' principal factors to
\h:
mnixG
m
linework will
hriefly
oiitliiutl.
Placing
ot I'olcs.
As a
should
12
l>c
set fnjin
apart, which
-(|uivaleiit
to
'I'A
to
)M)les |>er
mile.
have
to Ije niolifieil;
hut
if
the |)oles are spacetl too far apart, there is danger of Uhj great jinil on the eross-arnis, pins, and
iL "^^^ "^ -*
70
Poles.
ELECTRIC WIRING
Poles should be of selected quality of chestnut or cedar, and should be sound and free from cracks, knots, or other flaws.
Experience has proven that chestnut and cedar poles are the most durable and best fitted for linework. If neither chestnut nor cedar
timber
even other poles can be obtained, northern pine may be used, and in localities where these poles cannot be obtained; but it is
last so long as those
mentionedj
Pig. 63.
Cover Removed.
and some
to rot
of the other
apt above and below the surface of the ground. The proper height of pole to be used depends upon conditions. In countn," and suburban districts, a pole of 25 to 30 feet is usually
of sufficient height, unless there are
required.
much
woods are not only less strong initially, but are that is, just quicker at the "wind and water line"
three cross-arms
In more densely populated districts and in cities where a great number of cross-arms are required, the poles may have to be
KLECTRIC WIllING
40
to
71
00
fet't,
or even
Ioii<:er.
Of
course,
tlie
loiij^er
the
|>ole,
the
greater
tlu-
|M)il>ility
of
its lireakiiij;;
or
lH-ii<liii<;;
and as the
lenfi;:th
increases, the diameter of the butt end of jxile sliould also increase.
Tiil.lcXI
iM>les,
-^ives
and
tlie U'l)th
1m-
placeil in
thegntund.
Thes*
TABLI-. XI
Pole Data
72
ELECTRIC WIRING
Before any poles are erected, they should be closely inspected for flaws and for crookedness or too great departure from a straight line.
Where appearance
is
may be used, although these cost considerably more than round poles. Gains or notches for the cross-arms should be cut in the poles before
be cut square with the axis of the pole, they are erected, and should and so that the cross-arms will fit snugly and tightly within the space thus provided. These gains should be not less than 4| inches wide,
m*i*rM!^'
Fig.
64.
With Cover.
nor
than ^ inch deep. Gains should not be placed closer than 24 inches between centers, and the top gains should be at least 9 inches
less
pole.
Pole Guying. Where poles are subject to peculiar strains due to unusual stress of the wires, such as at corners, etc., guys should be employed to counteract the strain and to prevent the pole from being
bent and finally broken, or from being pulled from
its
proper ppsition.
wiriiit^
fur flec-tric
Itells
to
In-
ojxrnti'd
liy
Imtteiies, the
ilanger of causing tires from short circuits or poor contacts does not exist as in tbe case of wiring for light and power, Ix'cause the current strengtli is so small. Neither is the bell-titter reB[K)n6ible
to
On this account, Ixdl inspectors or lire underwriters. too often done in a careless and slovenly manner, causfitting ing the a|i[aratU3 to give unsatisfactory results and to require
city
is
and inconvenience
in the
end
far
more than
offset
work.
should be taken
Hence, at the outset it is well to state that as much care in the matter of joints and insulation of bell
wiring as
If
in wiring for light or power. properly installed, the electric bell forms a reliable and yet
inexjtensive
<
means
of signaling, and
is
far
>n
this
titted
through-
ahvatly men-
tioned, care should be taken to use only reliable ap])aratus must be installed in accordance with the fundamental
which
j)rinciples
on which
its
\MRi:.
The common
Is, 20,
sizes of
wire
in
wor^
are
Xos.
satis-
and 22.
In general,
22
factory as it is usually sutliciently large, while in miny cases No. is not mechanical standpoint. strong enough from
.-i
It is
jire
<
i.m.m..m.
Kirst of staples or other wires. this the coj)|ht from |)revents It also facilJM'ing aefini U|M>n by 'he sulphur in the insulation. ilate.4 Hol I. The iuuer coating of insulutiou should bo of Ting.
tlu<
!<
tinne<|, as
74
India rubber, surrounded by several longitudinal strands of cotton, outside of which are wound several strands of colored cotton laid
on spirally.
polished by
is
This
is
wax and
friction.
A short
wire,
it is
furnished in several
different colors as this greatly facilitates both the original installation and later repairs, because in this way one line may be dis-
Moreover, a tinguished from another, taps from main lines, etc. wire having been found, it is possible to identify it at any faulty desired section of its length.
METHODS OF WIRING.
In running wires, the shortest and most direct route should, of course, be taken between the battery, bells, and bell pushes. There are two cases to be considered. The better method is that
in
is
completed, and
the wiring should be done as soon as the roof is on and the walls In this case the wires are usually run in zinc tubes are up.
^
1
Fig.
2.
^ inch
the latter.
ously, but the tubes may be put in place first and the wires drawn
in afterward, although this latter has the objection that the insulation is liable to become plan abraded when the wires are drawn in. In joining up two lengths of tube, the end of one piece should be opened up with the pliers
so that
it
may
which should
also
be opened up, but to a less extent, to prevent wear upon the tubes are sometimes substiinsulation. Specially prepared paper
tuted for the zinc.
If the building is completed before the wiring is done, the concealed method described above cannot be used, and it is neces-
sary to run the wires along the walls supported by staples, where Fig. 2 shows ordinary doublethey will be least conspicuous. pointed tacks, Fig. 3 shows an insulating saddle staple which
F.LECriilC liKLL
to
\)e
W IKING
iii
is
recoiniueiidftl.
Two
the
of
same
short
it is
staple
if it
circuits.
care
ceal tile
usually po.ssihle to conwiring l)i>hind the picture mouldini', al(n<f the skirting-iniard,
iK'side the
and
it is
door
j)Osts
hut whi-rc
it,
1
k
Fig.
3.
iinpossihh'
to conceal to
a light
ornamental
tinish
It
is
casing
match the
ho used.
to
of the room,
may
sometimes advisahle
In
use
in the same outer covering. some cases it is well to run the wires under the iKtors, laving them in notches in the tops of the joists or in holfs hored
toj)3
of the joists.
JOtNTS.
AVlien
(If.iii
making
a joint,
cari'
always he soldered to j)reveMt corrosion. The insulation should off the ends (tf llie wires to he joined, for a distance of Ih* strijped ahout 2 inches, and the wires made hright hy scraping oi sandpa-
E
nering.
iifl
^^zz^z^^y
Vv'.
1.
They should
in Fi*'. 4.
tlu-n Im-
twisted
tiirlitly
and evenly
toir^tlier
shown
Me.xt
comes the
if
is
ahsolutely
a jK-rmanent joint froni an 'leetrical necessary stand|H)int is to Iri ohtained. A jdint made without st)liler may he electrically
soun<l at
tirst,
hut
its
onition of the joint. As has already het-n stated, the wires should Immad(4 hright and clean hefore they are twisted together.
tlH'V
cause corrosiiMi
The
oi
hest
wirenuin's torch.
76
A convenient form of soldering tool consists of a small copper having a semicircular notch near the end. This bit should, of It is then heated over a course, be well tinned. spirit lamp, or
bit
wireman's torch, and the notch filled with soft solder. Lay the which has previously been treated with the flux, in this joint,
notch and turn
it
around among
the spirals of the joint. The loose solder should be shaken off or removed with a bit of rag. When the joint is set, it should be insulated with rubber tape, so that it will be protected as perfectly
as the other portions. It is often possible to save a considerable length of wire a amount of labor by return, which, if
and
using ground properly arranged, will give very satisfactory results, although a complete metallic circuit is always to be preferred. Where water or gas
mains are
tained
good ground may be obby connecting to them, being sure to have a good connection. This may be seavailable, a
cured by scraping a portion of the pipe perfectly bright and clean and then winding
this
soldered.
with bare wire; the whole is then well An end should be left to which
the wire
from the
If such
and
/'--^ J
r-h
soldered.
/|-|
available,
1/
-nny^nr^
Fig.
5.
the wire from the bell circuit, as described In the absence of above, to a pump pipe.
water and gas mains, and of a pump pipe, a ground may be obtained by burying beneath
permanent moisture
or lead, having
is
at least five
which the
connected. return wire plate should be covered with coke nearly to the surface; the hole should then be filled in with ordinary soil well rammed.
The ground
OUTFIT.
The
three essential parts of the electric bell outfit are the bell which furnishes a means of opening and closing the circuit
77
ami the
bell
itself.
these pieces of ap|iratU3 in thu complete circuit, let us take the individual parts in order.
up
A
this
is
bell
push
is
illustration
is
in
Fi{^.
ij.
In this
it brincrs the point contact with the nietul of the sprincr S in thus closintr the circuit with wiiich strip K,
presided
uj)on
it
is
connected in
series.
Normally the
accordingly open.
made
in various de-
Fig. 6.
signs and styles, from the simple wooden Ttush shown in Fig. (> to very elaborate and expensive articles. of neat apj>earance and modFig. 7 shows four cast bronze pushes
enite j)rife. Batteries.
Klectric bells are nearly always operated on the and hence the battery used is generally of the
Fig.
7.
op<Mi
circuit tyjH', such as the I^'danche cell, which in use<l very cell in which for heavy work. Tliis is n zinc-carlK)n largely except rolarinition ia water, the excitant is sal-aminoniiic di.ssolved in
of its by jMToxid** of munganese, which gives up part the hydrogen set free and fornuiig water. with oxygen, combining
preventtnl
78
principal advantage cells are really a modification of the Leclanche type, as they use zinc and carbon plates and sal-ammoniac as the exciting agent. The cell, which is one of the principal types of dry cell,
Burnley
plaster,
has an electrolyte composed of sal-ammoniac, chloride of zinc, This compound when mixed is a semiflour, and water.
stiffens after being poured into the cup. liquid mass which quickly The depolarizing agent is peroxide of manganese, the same as is
cell, this
cylinder.
The top of the cell is sealed with bitumen or some similar substance.
For very heavy work the Edison Lalande and the Fuller types of cell are best suited, while for closed circuit work
-
is
most
It is a
well-known
a coil of wire
ca-
The operation
of the
many
other
upon
is
shown
in
composed
wire.
is an electromagnet Fig. 8, in which of soft-iron cores on which are wound coils of insulated
mer
end for striking the gong. On the back of the armature is a which makes contact at D with the back stop T. The spring action of the bell is as follows: "When the circuit is closed through the bell a current flows from terminal 1, around the coils of the
its
H at
carries a
ham-
and contact point D, through the magnet, through the spring back stop T, to terminal 2. In flowing around the electromagnet the current magnetizes its core, which consequently attracts the armaWhile in to strike the gong. ture. This causes the hammer tliis the contact at D is broken, the current ceases to flow position
position hv
retH^atftl.
tlie
8j)rini^
The
hammer
K, niakinj^ contact at I), and the process is will thus vihrate and the hell continue to
is closed. ring as long as the circuit The tvp' of hell descrihed ahove
il
commonly
used.
Such
hells are
made
in a
It is the prices varying accordingly. imjortant that platinum le furnished at the contact point I), Fig. S, to prevent cortips
rosioii.
The
ill
hells
hox
hell
on the market today are of two classes, the iron A hell of the wocnlen hox tyjR' is Indl.
<rnidt hi-ll
shown
tyjK^
u-.
and a hiidier
Kig. 10.
is
shown
in
I'ells
without
cttvers
use*!,
du~t will sfttlo on the contacts and interfere with their action."
CIRCUITS.
The
possihli"
.m,
coiiiliinatiiUis of tinit
ciriMiit4 !iir
varied that
would
Ik'
80
all; in
almost every one is to a certain extent a special circuits the is, however, possible to give typical problem. of which can be applied successfully to any underlying principles
It
particular case.
in which P Fig. 11 shows a bell circuit in its simplest form, the push, B the bell, and C the battery; all connected represents at P, and hence no curThe circuit is in series.
normally open
When P
is
pressed,
the circuit,
causing
^=^G
Fig. 11.
it
^G
plained.
might be located beside the front door, the bell in the kitchen and the
the location depending on the results desired battery in the cellar; The wire between P and C may, if be met. and conditions to
with and connection necessary, be dispensed the dotted lines. and G, as shown by
made
of
to
ground
at
G
B
by means
which one
bell
HI
P"
-^
Fig. 13.
Fig. 12.
may be may be
This system controlled by either of the pushes P or P'. extended to any number of pushes similarly connected, method for ringing two bells simultaneously from one push
in Fig. 13,
is
shown
where both
bells
P.
B and B' will ring from push manner, should have as nearly as
the bell of lower resistance possible the same resistance, otherwise will take so much current that there will not be a sufficient amount
left for
of greater current of course, doubled. This is, number of bells connected in this
must be
Figs.
v-s*t**"^
IN
A DINING ROOM
<
<
3
-z.
^"
<
-J 00
^
<
^-
O o
^.
KLKCl
12 and
ruiit^
Kl(
tUAA, W
HUNG
may
or
81
Ih>
13 inay
Ih<
from any one of two or more pushes. In \ir. 14 is shown a scheme for ringin^
anil
eitlier Ih'II, li
li',
one hattery
ly
re
I'iK.
II.
wi
jiush will
S.
"When the arm (jf the switch is on contact 1, the and when on contact 2 it will riiij^ hell W.
In
Fii;.
15
is
shown
method
that
li unci li'
may
be runn from J\
bells so coniiecteU
were of the vihrating type, they would not work satisfactorily, as it would he impossihle to time them so that the vihrations would
keep
l)e
step,
hell
should
of the vihrating type, and the others should have the circuit hreakers shortcircuited,
whole
series.
Ohvi-
age
cells
than
parallel
111-
connection, ami
sullicient
ll.M.l'.
tlic
must
the
of
to
ring
Ik'IIs
hells
satisfactorily.
in
Several
may
up
he connecleil
Id the limii
this
way,
if
<
"
desired,
hattery.
(f
voltage of the
^
l"lk'>'
Oftentimes a
For
iiistanee, the
Iwll is to UIm-II
in
rung from several dilTen-nt places, an e'evator nuiy ht* rung from any one uf
S2
any one of several different rooms. In this case it is neoessary to have some device to indicate from which push the bell was rung. The annunciator furnishes this information very well. A threestation annunciator
is
shown
in
in
Fig. 16.
The connections
for an
li
the bell,
Fig. 17 where tV represents the anunthd battery, and P', P", and P^ the pushes.
pressed, the current passes through the
or instance,
when P'
is
13
tlie
pfe
i
Fig. 17.
tlie
bell rings.
is
After
its
tlie
siu;iial,
arrow
restored to
no
position
electric
is
by
pressing a lever on
tlie
ciator box.
The
tion
and
burglar alarm furnishes a very efficient protecan application of the principles already described. Tlie
of being completed
circuit, instead
by
push,
is
completed by
contacts placed on the doors or windows so that the opening of The same device may be used either will cause the bell to ring.
on money-drawers,
safes, etc.
fire alarm, the signal may be given the temperature reaches a certain degree, or pushes may be placed in convenient' locations to be operated should be protected by glass so that they The
either automatically
when
manually.
will not be
it
LIVING ROOM IN RESIDENCE OF J. R. CRAVATH, CHICAGO. ILL. A good Arrangement for Reading and General Lighting in a Small Hoom.
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
HISTORN AM) I)11\HL()I>M1:M
Tlu- liistorv of (Icitric
^villl
li^'litint;
the invfiitinii of the (inimiiic dyiiaino, liv Z. J. (irainiiif, in 1n7U, tuiiftluT with thi- iiitrothictioii of thi* Jaltlochkoir caiuilf or
li^'ht,
which was
first
aniiouiict'd to
tlif
ptil)nc-
in 1870,
and which
formed a feature of
tlie
rp
the
arc,
was known
It
to hut
few investipitors,
in
one of
Iluinphrev
Daw who,
was then
IMO, pnHluctd
first
wood charcoal pencils as elecof voltaic cells as a source of current. a powerful battery
to 1S.")9,
were taken out on arc lamps, hut these were not successful, most of them oj)erated hy clockwork, due chiefly to the lack of a suitahle source of current, since all de-
From IMO
many
j)atents
The interest in this form their ])ower. jH-nded on i)rimary cells for died down about 1S')0, and nothing; further was attempted of lij,'ht
advent of the (iramme dynamo. The incandescent lanij) was but a piece of laboratory apparatus to 1S7S, at which time Kdison produced a lamp usinfr a platiinim up as a source of Iij,'ht, the platinum beinj,' rendered spiral in a vacuum, The the passage of an electric current through it. incandescent by
until the
first
bamboo.
was made in 1S70, this filament being The names of Kdison and Swan are
intimately coimecfcd with these early experiments. From this time on, the dcvrlopmciit of electric lighting has Ihh-u and tin- consumption of incandescent lamps alone has Verv
r<ii(
ill
rapid, d several
amount
uiih
When we compare the small millions t-ach year. done by means of i-lectricity tw'nty-five years ago the enormmis extent of lighting systems and the numerous
of lighting
illumination as they an* to-^lay, the growth a|>pli<afions of electric and t|evelopm-nt of the art is se'n to Iw very great, and the valu- of
may
Im-
readily appreciattl.
While
in
many
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
cases electricity
its
is not the cheapest source of power for ilhimination, admirable qualities and convenience of operation make it by far
CLASSIFICATION
The
1.
may
be
classified as follows:
2.
3. 4.
The type of lamps used. The methods of distributing power to the lamps. The use made of the light, or its application. Photometry and lamp testing.
types of lamps used
The
1.
may be
subdivided into:
Incandescent lamps: Carbon, metallic filament, Nernst. 2. Special lamps: Exhausted bulb without filament, such as the CooperHewitt lamp and Moore tube lamp. 3. Arc lamps: Ordinary carbon, flaming arc.
INCANDESCENT LAMPS
The
used,
If
incandescent
lamp
is
by
far the
of
lamp
is
and the
principle of
is
a current /
/,
R, for a time
PR
heated, and the heat generated = t t, representing joules or watt-seconds. If the current, material, and conditions are so chosen that the
the conductor
PR
substance
may
be heated in
this
way
until
it
becomes
incandescent, and does not deteriorate too rapidly, we have an incandescent lamp. Carbon was the first successful material to be
chosen for
this
it is
formed into a
have been introduced commercially with great success but the carbon incandescent lamp will continue to be used for some time, especially in the low candle-power units operated at commercial voltages. Car-
bon
is
L The
2.
must be a conductor
sistance.
as
we
Platinum was used in an early stage of the development, but, shall see, its temperature cannot be maintained at a value high
to
enough
make
the
lamp as
efficient as
when
carbon, or a metal
liii\
in;;
than that
if
{tiatiiiuiii,
is us-(|.
Nearly
all
attempts
phuv
of <-arlMJH have
c>r
faih'tl until
rrcently,
lainj>.s
|)artia)ly
The
much improved
()Ver the
first
l>e
A\anufacturc of Carbon Incandescent Lamps. J'n pardlitm vf the rHiiiiuiit. (illidosc, a chemical compouml rich in carlM^n, is
cotton with zinc chloride in pnper prepared hy treating ahsorltent It is customary projjortions to form a uniform, <,a'latinc-like mass. to stir this under a partial vacuum in order to remove huhhles of air
in
it
and destroy
"
its
uniformity.
This
through
Fit;.
1.
Fiirni.s
of Filuniriit.s
now
in I'.so.
Thi'sc threads in^' lu harden the soft, transparent thread>. are then tiioroughly washed to remove all trace of the zinc chloride, dried, cut to the desired lengths, wound on forms, and carbonized by
alcohol >cr\
away from
air.
)uring carbonization,
transformed into pure carbon, the volatile mattT being flriven off by the high temperature to which the Hlaments an- subjectitl. The material becomes hard and stilV, assuming a permanent frm,
shrinking in both length and diam'tcr the form being s|M'eially constructed so as to allow for this shrinkage. The forms an- made of
in
carbon.
The
crucibles,
fitting
white heat,
at
allowed to
ehangeil to carlH)n, and then .Xficr cooling, the filaments are removeil, lueasund,
the few jlcfcctive ones di.scardinl.
and
insjM'cted,
and
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
In the early days, these filaments were made of cardboard or
bamboo, and
later, of
the different shapes giving a slightly different distribution of light. As here shown they are designated as follows: A, U-shaped; B,
single-curl; C,
single-curl
anchored; D,
double-loop; E,
double-
are
After carbonization, the filaments Mounting the Filament. mounted or joined to wires leading into the globe or bulb. These
wires are
far as
made
known,
with
will not
be melted
in the carbon.
substance expanding at a different rate from the glass cannot be used. Several methods of fastening the filament to the
leading in wires have been used, such as forming a socket in the end of the wire, inserting the filament, and then squeezing the socket the use of tiny bolts when cardboard tightly against the carbon; and
filaments were used; but the pasted joint
is
exclu-
Finely powdered carbon is mixed with some adhesive comsively. such as molasses, and this mixture is used as a paste for fastenpound, Later, when current is sent through ing the carbon to the platinum.
the joint, the volatile matter
is
driven
off
This makes a cheap and, at the same time, a very efficient joint. Filaments, prepared and mounted in the manner Flashing.
uniform in resistance, but it has been found just described, are fairly that their quality may be much improved and their resistance very
a layer of carbon closely regulated by depositing filament by the process of fashing. By flashing
filament to a high temperature
meant heating
the
when immersed
in a
through the filament in this process to accomplish the heating. Gas used, rather than a liquid, to prevent too heavy a deposit of the carbon. Coal gas Is not recommended because the carbon, when black appearance. The effects of deposited from this, has a dull
flashing are as follows:
1.
The diameter
its
of die filament
is
resistance
is
decreased.
The
process must be
FI.Kr'rUK
u
I.KiHTING
is
(liscoiitimiftl
lii'ii tlit-
cK-siri'il
resistance
reueljed.
Any
little
irrepi-
We eliminated since the smaller sections, l>ecome hotter than the remain<ler
(Jeposited
having the
is
more
rapitJIy
at these
The
is
changed from a
dull
is
and
c<)mj)arativcly soft
Mack much
and
After flashing, the filament is sealed in the bulb Kxhauisi'uKj. and the air exhausted through the tube .1 in Fig. 2, which shows the
lamp
is
manufacture.
The
exhaustion
accomplished by means of mechanical air pumps, supj)lementcd by Sprenglc or mercury j)umps and chemicals.
now
and,
to take
StuKCx
III
I'Uiiip Muiiufu<'iur(<.
2.
3.
To avoitl oxidization of thi- tilniiipnt. To rcililcc the heat Cdiivcyi'il to tin- jtIoIm-. To prevent wt-iir on tlir filament iliu- to ciirn-nts
.1 is
or ciMics in the
(lie
cart.
sealed olT
and
lamp lom-
means of plaster of I'jiri.s. pIcUil for testing by attaching the base by < shows some of the forms of completed incandescvnt lamps. FJL'.
\
ty|M'
vary
those of .several humlrcd caiidlc-jiower. though flic lallcr are very The more common vjdues for the canillc-power are seldom used.
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
8, 16, 25, 32,
and
depending on the
use to be
made
of the lamp.
The voltage will vary depending on the method of distribution of the power. For what is known as parallel distribution, 110 or 220 volts are generally used. For the higher values of the voltage,
long and slender filaments must be used, if the candle-power is to be low; and lamps of less than 16 candle-power for 220-volt circuits are
not practical, owing to difficulty in manufacture. For series distribution, a low voltage and higher current is used, hence the filaments may be quite heavy. Battery lamps operate on from 4 to 24
but the vast majority of lamps for general illumination are operated at or about 110 volts.
volts,
Fig. 3.
Several
Forms
of Completed I^amps.
Efficiency. By the efficiency of an incandescent lamp is meant power required at the lamp terminals per candle-power of light Thus, if a lamp giving an average horizontal candle-power given. of 16 consumes \ an ampere at 112 volts, the total number of watts consumed will be 112 X \ = 56, and the watts per candle-power
the
will
be 56
16
3.5.
The
efficiency of such a
lamp
is
said to be
3.5
Watts
economy
efficiency.
lamp depends on the temperature at which In the ordinary lamp this temperature is between 1,280 and 1,330 C, and the curve in Fig. 4 shows the increase of efficiency with the increase of temperature. The temperature attained
efficiency of a
is
The
the filament
TivTRir
on
tin-
i.I(;htin(;
nKHatt-d and the
is
l)V
lilaiii.
..i
...
jM-iitls
rati-
at wliicli
lii-at
is
amount
of
powir
suj)|)li(il.
pn)[Mjr-
tioual to
tlu- art'a
of the filaint-nt,
tinnHratiire,
and
from
Bv
einis-sivity is
units <-mitte(l
unit surface per (U'jree rise in tcm[)<Tature al)ove that of surroundiiifj The hri<,'lit surface of a flaslied fihiment has a h)\ver emisIxxlies.
sivitv
than
tlie
(hill
surface of
U'ss
is
enerjjy
is lost
in licat railialioii
and
increased.
As soon
much more
1400
is reached, the illumination increases than the emission of heat, iience the increase in rapidly
as incandescence
ELECTRIC IJGHTING
neighborhood of 800 hours. To obtain the most economical results, such lamps should always be replaced at the end of their useful life. In Table I are given values of efficiency and life of a 3.5-watt,
110- volt carbon
lamp
on the lamp.
that a
These
The
curves
life
show
3%
an
increase of voltage
increase of
value.
by
one-half, while
6%
life to fall
to one-third its
normal
The
effect is
From
this
we
lamps are
of the
to
on the system must be very good if high be used, and this regulation will determine the
be
installed.
lamp
to
Selection of Lamps. Ordinary Carbon Type. Lamps taking 3.1 watts per candle-power will give satisfaction only when the regulation of voltage is the best practically a constant voltage maintained at the
TABLE
3. 5-
Standard
Vo'.TAQE
Watt Lamp
FTF< lUIC
LUiUriNG
17C
Ic
151.
14C
13C-
ISO
IK
IOC
9C
8c
70-
6c
1-itr.
I^ife
Lamps
rt 1^1
latioii is
|>
of 4 walls per canclle-powiT should \>c installed wlu-n the 22()-volt Tlu-se valiU'S are for llO-volt lamps. poor.
I'lMI
sjiuuld
to give a long
life.
This
is
on
FIk.
fi.
I.lfc Ciirvif)
of Iiican(l<>wMit
Ij>iii|m<.
account of the fait that, for the same candle-power, the 2'JO-volt lamp must he eoiistruete<l with a filament whi( h is long and shnder com1()-vult lamp, and if such a filament is run at ti to that of the
pare<l
iiigh
1
tc-mperature
its life is
short.
it
The
is
consi<|erall' extent
ahroad hut
United Stales.
of alMinl
I
10
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
Lamps
should always be renewed at the end of their useful
life,
being termed the smashing-point, as it is cheaper to replace Some recomthe lamp than to run it at the reduced candle-power. mend running these lamps at a higher voltage, but that means at a
this point
reduced
life,
and
it is
this.
Fig.
7.
ril..n-.ei.t.
of incandescent lamps. Fig. 6 shows the life curves of a series These curves show that there is an increase in the candle-power of some of the lamps during the first 100 hours, followed by a period during which the value is fairly constant, after which the light given
by the lamp
power.
is
80%
FT
rrTRir lighting
In
Vi}^.
1
11
Distributiun
filamriit.s iisi-d in
u\
lA^hl.
iiuaiMK-scrnt lamps, and Figs. 7 and 8 show the distribution of lij,'lit from a sin|,'N'-l<M)[) filament of cylindrical crossFij,'.
section.
)flij,'lit
in a vertical position,
and
Fig. 8
shows the
dis-
o N
(VI
FIr. S.
Vcrllcul DiHlrllmtInn
Purvc
horizontal |)lane
By chaiipng the shape of the iilament .\ mean of the reatlings taken in forms the iiiftiii horizontal raiidli-jMnnr, and
is
varied.
is
f(r tlu*
)nlinary
of the readings tak'n in a verti<l plane itnandesceiit lamp. us tin- mean vertical candle-power, init this value is of little use. gives
mean
12
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
Mean
Spherical CandIe=Power.
which
give an entirely different light distribution, the mean horizontal candle-power does not form a proper basis for such comparison, and the mean spherical or the mean hemispherical candle-power is used
instead.
By mean
be taken
is meant a mean value of The methods for determining this up under photometry. The mean hemispherical candle-
spherical candle-power
directions.
all
power has
tal
plane.
The Gem Metallized Filament Lamp. When the incandescent lamp was first well established commercially, the useful life of a unit, when operated at 3.1 watts per candle, was about 200 hours. The
improvements in the process of manufacture have been continuous from that time until now, and the useful life of a lamp operated at that efficiency to-day is in the neighborhood of 500 hours. Experiments
in the treatment of the
to the intro-
gem metallized filament lamp. This lamp should not be confused with the metallic filament lamps, to be described later,
duction of the
is
As a
result of
special treatment the carbon filament assumes many of the characteristics of a metallic conductor, hence the term metallized filament.
The word
TABLE
*
II
Data on the
Qem
Metallized Filament
Lamp
Watts
<
O Q < 2 O
o = < o
rt
-a
S,
flj
Q
IS
as
o
bh
OS
bl
(/}
o X
1=)
o o
K Z
C3
a
a
:3
<
tt
J-7.
<
c'_
3 - =c e a E ^
i I--
s s
cs
r "
-r
<
5
:^
-i
=
it"?
111
K
1
it
EI.KCTUir T.KillTIW;
\Micii a tilaim-iit, as
tn-ali-il in tlie
tlii-re
i.s
13
onlinary iiiuniKr,
is
run at a
iilaincnt,
hut
it
was
Jiscoveretl that,
if
thi-
tlie
suhj<-ctetl
thr extrt-inily hiijh tfnijRTatnrc of tlie eh-etric resistanee furnatr at atmospheric pressure, the 3,IMM) to .S,7(K) (lefj^rees C. physical nature of the carlK)n was chanjjed and the n-suUinj; fihiinent coull Ije
to
lamp ami
a hi^'hcr efficiency,
i4
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
The for the decrease in candle-power of the incandescent lamp. metallized filament lamp is operated at an efficiency of 2 5 watts pei
candle with a useful
life
of
The change
in candle-
in voltage is less than in the ordinary lamp on power with change account of the positive temperature coefficient of the filament. These low candle-powers, owing to the lamps are not manufactured for very
difficulty
of
treating
very slender
fila-
made
in sizes con-
Table
in
II
connec-
The
made
in a variety of
shapes
and
of the
The general appearance does not differ from that of lamp the ordinary carbon lamp. Fig. 9 shows
reflectors.
Metallic Filament
Lamps.
first
The Tan-
talum Lamp.
The
of the metallic
filament lamps to be introduced to any considerable extent comDr. Bolton of the Siemens mercially was the tantalum lamp.
&
Halske Company
metal
tantalum.
slender filaments
first
discovered the methods of obtaining the pure This metal is rendered ductile and drawn into
for
incandes-
cent lamps.
tensile strength
point,
Fig. 11.
110-volt lamps must be long and slender, and a special form of support. Figs. 10, 11, and 12 show some interesting views of the tantalum lamp and the fila-
ment.
This lamp
is
operated
at
the
efficiency
of
watts per
ELFXTniC T.UillTINC
(aii(llr-|Mt\Vfr,
witli
15
lift-
(-iiiii|>aral)l<-
l<i
(hat of
tiit*
urditiary Iam|>.
Hy
sjH'cial
trratiiu-iit
it
is
hhiiiH'iits
so
in
^
J
i
H
Knuiu' Sliowini;
Klluiiiont.
FiB. 12.
Filanioiit
Ur>ki'ii
the
this
first
of
tlie
taiitahini
lamps.
It
life
of
lamp on alternatin<;-eurrent eireuits is somewhat uncertain; it is mueh more satisfactory for operation on direct-<urreiit 'I'ahles III and 1\' ^ive some "general data on the tantalum circuits. lamp, an<l Ki;:s. !.'{ and 14 show typical distrihution curves for the
type of
units as installed at |)resent.
TAiu.i;
111
Data
III)
lai)t;iliirn
Ci
l.nmp
i
,
(iKNKUM- KI.KITIUC
MKTKS.
Sick or IIui.h
RrniTi.Aii
Ui>rM>
16
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
T/vBLE IV
Data on the Life
of a
25 =C. P. Unit
IN TUIC I-KHITING
17
to OIK' of
tuiig-sti'ii
tiiii<jstt
II.
srcoiid iiiftlKxl
foii'sist.s
of the
list-
of
jMi\vtli-rfl
and
cases metallic.
iiiatiTJal,
The
powderctl
tiiiijjsten
is
in otln-r
hindinj^
the paste stjuirtetl into fihiiiieiits, and the hindinjj material is then expelled, usually \>y the aid of heat. Another metluxl <)f manuconsist.s of securinj.; tunijsten
facturt
in colloiilal
form,
s(|uirtinf,'
it
so"
A^c'i
*0'
JO
^PO"
10'
O*
/O*
PO^
JO
riK.
U.
Dl-Htriluitioii
Curves
for Tiuituliim
I.i
nip
N".
I. -lO
Wuttji:
No
2. sii
Wniin
iiitii
lilainents,
and
(ln'ii
form
Ity
passinj^
The
tungsten
laiiip
lias the
comwatts
now
ijive
l((
in um-,
ahout
life,
1.2.')
a normal
and lamps
lamp
i>f
for this
same
volta^je ap|M'ars to
hi;;h
a |ossil)ility.
The
units intr<Hhiccd at
first
were of
candle-
power
lilanient."
18
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
The advantages of these metals, tantakim and tungsten, for incandescent lamps are in the improved efficiency of the lamps and of the light, white or nearly white in both cases. the
good quality
In either case the change in candle-power with change in voltage is The less than the corresponding change in an ordinary carbon lamp. lies in the fact that the filaments must be made long and disadvantage
slender,
fragile, for
to
be used
Fig.
15.
Multiple Tiingsten
Lamp.
Fig.
6.
Series
Tungsten Lamp.
on commercial voltages.
structed for lower voltages and are used on commercial circuits through the agency of small step-down transformers. Improvements in the
process of manufacture of filaments and of the method of their supcandleport have resulted in the construction of 110-volt lamps for
powers lower than was once thought possible. Figs. 15 and 16 show the appearance of the tungsten lamp, and Figs. 17 and 18 give some
rilT'I-KK
LK.IITINC;
and
10
tvpic-al
a-s it is
(listriliiitioii iir-.s.
TaMfs
(
\'
\'I
pve
nianufaclurfil at
prt'sriit.
40'
FIk. 17.
f.
l".
Distrilnition
I'liils
IncandetK-ent
with
CurveR of 10()-Watt fien. Klecv Tungsten 11-3, r-3, and I)-3 Holophanew.
of
tlie
cuits, in
its
tungsten lamp is to incandescent street lif,'liting on series cirwhich case the himp may l>e maile for a low voltajje across
mav
l)e
made comparativelv
I
short
and
90*
BO'
70'
60'
^'^
In.
wllh 10
r.
(ion.
KIw.
TiinRrtcii
Uiiiipiind Kiillal
Wuvo
1{<>11><
lor.
heavy.
I'.iitiry
The
tungsten lamp
is
laiMji,
tin-
laiuji.
ihe
Osmin lamp, etc.. are all tungsten lamps, the filamenls laiMp, heing prepand lv sonjc of the gt'tieral methiMls alreatly ilescrilxd or
nKxIilicalions
<>f
iln-m.
20
ELECTRIC EIGHTING
TABLE V
Tungsten Lamps
MULTIPLE
Watts
KLEfTHir LKJIITIXG
TABLt
McltinK Point of
VII
21
Some Metals
Mir*
1.
22
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
ing process forming the filament or glower material of the lamp as represented by the lower white line in Fig. 23. The more recent
glowers are
made hollow
instead of solid.
The
and platinum
ter-
minals attached.
The attachment
is
an important process
facture
of
in the
manurecent
the lamp.
The
discovery of additional oxides has led to the construction of glowers which show a considerable gain in
efficiency over those previously used.
The
being required.
when
necessary to bring
perature at
up
to a
tem-
which
of of
will conduct.
Two
used.
forms
heater
have been
them consists of a tube shown just above porcelain the glower, Fig. 23, about which a
platinum wire
is is
One
fine
wound;
the
wire
Two
or
more
of these tubes
are
directly over the glower, or glowers, and serve as a reflector as well as a heater. The second
mounted
rod
of
refractory
material
is
about
wound,
a cement.
This rod
is
the wire again being covered with then formed into a spiral which surrounds the
is
icafer heater,
universally employed in the Westinghouse Nernst lamp with horizontal glowers. The wafer heater is bent so that it can be
now
mounted with
F.I.KrTlUr I.KiirilNr,
23
Thf
is first
lu'atiiij;
(levicf
i.s
c-unnf<tc<l ut-ross
tlit*
circuit
when
the laiiip
tunu'(| on,
and
in
it
become
con(luct<rs
enerj;_v
consuraetl
l)V
the
Fig. 21.
Lamp.
cul-out
life
of ihr licater.
The automatic
flows throujih this ma<,Miet as .soon as the j,'lower l)ecomes a conductor, ami contacts in the heater circuit
are oi)cne(I
<-ontacts
in
ly
this
ma<;nct.
The
the
The
increa.se.s
perature
tive
if
it
the
tial
the
current
and
to
rise
woiihl
contimic
.stroyL'l.
T"
prevent
current
llunifT.
24
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
from increasing beyond the desired value, a ballast resistance is series with the glower. As is well known, the resistance of iron wire increases quite rapidly M^ith increase in temperature, and
used in
is
the resistance of a fine pure iron wire so adjusted that the resistance of the
circuit of the
combined
ballast
becomes constant
temperature of the glower. The iron wire must be protected from the air
to
temperature
reason,
filled
it
and,
for
this
is
mounted
for
tliis
in a glass
bulb
with hydrogen.
inert gas
Hydrogen has
purpose because
xi
been selected
Fig. 23.
Westinghouse Nemst Screw Burner with Globe Removed, Showing Glower and Tubular Heater.
it is
e
an
to
ii
^i
ballast, are
All of the parts enumerated, namely, glower, heater, cut-out, and mounted in a suitable manner; the smaller lamps have but
to
fit
in
while the larger types are constructed at present with four glowers
i:
r.ECTRIC LIGHTING
25
Tlu- injvantatjfs
laiiiHMl
li^'lit;
fur
tlu-
N'rn>t
lamp
an-:
Ili^'li
tfli-
<,'o(k|
distrihiitioii of
li-;ljt
without the
of rdifitoi
series
its
a
i.f
loll-;
life
iiiaiiitciiaiicf;
ami a
eoiiij)li'te
sizes
of
to
thus aliowiui;
a(la[ttioii
The
lamj)
is
constructi'il
for
Ixith tlirect-
and
alternatin;,'-curniit
and 220
volts,
commonly
called
converter coil, Fig. 2o, is utilizi-d to raise the volta<,'e at the lamp ter-
Fig. J5.
CoiivertCT Coil.
volts.
Data on the Xernst lamp in its present form are piven in Table ^I1I, and Fif;s. 2() and 27 show the form of dislrihution curves.
TABLn Mil
General Data on the Nernst
Lauil.s
lamp
K .ITINO Wattb
26
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
given, approximately 3.1, 2.5, 2, L25, and L2 watts per candle respecThe figure of L2 watts per candle for the Nernst lamp is tively.
based upon the mean hemispherical candle-power and it should not be compared directly with the other efficiencies. The color of the light in all of the above cases is suitable for the majority of classes of
illumination, the light from the higher efficiency units being somewhat whiter than that from the carbon lamp. All of these lamps are
current.
constructed for commercial voltages and for either direct or alternating The use of the tantalum lamp on alternating current is not
60'
Pig. 26.
75'
SO'
75
60'
Lamp.
cases.
always to be recommended as the service is unsatisfactory in some The minimum size of units for 110 volts is about 4 candle-
for the carbon lamp, 20 candle-power for the metallic filament lamp, and 50 candle-power (mean hemispherical) for the Nernst lamp. Some of the metallic filament lamps are constructed for a consumption of as high as 250 watts, while the largest size of the
power
The
is
light distribution of
any of the
flectors,
i:t.I"(
I'l:!*'
iK.iiriN^;
_:
tor.
Tnu
ti(
(f
lii^li
caiulli'-jxjwiT use-
n-
curves of
Int'ii
life
shown
all
in
tin-
ile.scri|>tion
The
of
of
a.s
.satisfactory.
The
mitiimitm
iHtween
.'(M)
.(KKI
hours.
On
in the metallic
filament
60*
FIk'.
7p
9p
7p
60'
.'!,
-7.
I>isirii>iitii)n
8' (.'lear
of LiKht fnuu Multiple-Glower West In kIiou.sc Nornst I.anip!i lih 4 Glower. No. 1, 2 Glower: N'o. J, :5 Glower: No. Globes.
made
for
low canille-j>owcrs
at
commercial
vol-
introduction of transformers for the purpose of chaiij^in^ ta;,'-s. the circuit voltafjc to one suitaMe for low candU'-power units has not
The
hecome
SPIXIAL LAMPS
The
country
is
.Mcrcur_\
|iiit
\apor
llic
I.
amp.
Tlic
in
this
and
it
is lieiuf^'
the Cooper-Ilewitt l-'.lcctric Company Ity used to a considcralile extent for industrial illumination.
on
market
In this
form
l>een
consists of a long glass iul>c from which the air ha.s exhausted, and which contains a sniall ain>unt of carefully The mercury is held in u large lull> at one end of inelidlic UKTcury.
lhi>.
lamp
28
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
The
and forms the negative electrode in the direct-current lamp. is formed by an iron cup and the connections between the lamp terminals and the electrodes are of platinum where
the tube
other electrode
this connection passes through the glass. Fig. 28 gives the general appearance of a standard lamp having the following specifications: Total watts (110 volts, 3. .5 amperes) = 385
reflector)
= 700
Length of tube,
total
= 55
in.
45
in.
Height from lowest point of lamp to ceiling plate = 22 in. For 220-volt service two lamps are connected in series.
The
First, the
mercui-y vapor, at the start, may be formed in two ways: lamp may be tipped so that a stream of mercury makes
contact between
trodes
the
is
two
elec-
and mercury
vaporized
when the stream breaks. Second, by means of a high inductance and a quick break switch^ a very
i\igh voltage sufficient to
Fig. 28.
Lamp
is
ii
xi
'
formed.
The
tilting
method
of starting
is
preferred
and
this
tilting is
lamp
lamps
as
brought about automatically in the more recent types of for automatically starting two Fig. 29 shows the connections
in series.
A steadying
resistance
shown
in this figure.
is
constructed in rather large units, The the 55-volt, 3.5-ampere lamp being the smallest standard size. is objectionable for some purposes as there color of the light emitted
is
an
and
the light
is
practically monochro-
illumination from this type of lamp is excellent where contrast or minute detail is to be brought out, and this fact sharp has led to its introduction for such classes of lighting as silk mills and
matic.
The
cotton mills.'
On
account of
its
ELFXTRIC T.ICIITINC
wlit-re play windows 1)V tlii" color of
tlu* j;<km1s tin- li^jlit.
29
shown
It
will not
t
U-
clian^if*! in a|i|M'arc-xtt-nt in
anrc
is ust'l
a ronsidiTaMc
work on ut-connt of tlu- artinir proix-rlirs of llir li^'lit. pliotoj^rapliif SiK-iial reactanir-s must Ik* providt-tl for a nu-rc-ury arc laujp opiTdting
on
circuits. sin^'K--pliasr, aiti'rnatiii^'-ciirrcnt
Lijjht.
The Moore
vacuum
tulx"
as a source
iijiht
(f
makes use
of the
discharjje
electricity
through a
of illumination.
The
jiractical application
amount
FIk. 29.
wiring DIuctuih.
Two
11
AuUmiutii-
of consistent research on the part of the inventor and it has now heen that several installations have lM>tn made. lroUf,'ht to such a staj,'e
The svstem
dianutiT
is
has
manv
interestiii'' features.
^'lass
tuhe
inches in
up hy
connectiii},'
standard lengths of
is
^las-s tuhinjj
lop-ther until the total desired lenj^th tniM-, which forms the .source of lij,'ht
reachel,
in
and
this
continuous
o|Kration, is mounte<i In in the desired j)osition with rcs|)ect to the jilane of illumination. manv ca-scs the tuhe forms a lar^'e rcctan^jle mounted ju>t U-nealh
the ceilinjj of the rooni to
id>h- len^'lh. acdijil
Im- li^dited.
'I'll*'
when
tidx*
may
Ik'
of
any
reasin-
"J'JO feel.
In onler to
30
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
provide an electrical discharge through this tube it is customary to lead both ends of the tube to the high tension terminals of a transformer, the low tension side of which may be connected to the alternating-current lighting mains. This transformer is constructed so that the high tension terminals are not exposed and the current is
led into the tube
electrodes.
by means
electrodes are about eight inches in length. The ends of the tube and the high tension terminals are enclosed in a steel
The
casing so as to effectually prevent anything from coming in contact with the high potential of the system. As stated, the low tension side
of the trans-
former nected
Tube dtatributed in
ccny
is
conthe
to
usual
60-cycle
mains.
lighting
If direct current
is
required.
Any
is
is
of
One other dethe light emitted. vice is necessary for the suitable
operation of this form of light and In order to maintain a constant presas the regulator. sure inside the tube, and such a constant pressure is necessary for its satisfactory operation, there must be some automatic device which
this
is
known
will
it is
in operation. The regulator accomplishes this purpose. Fig. 30 shows a diagram of the very simple connections of the system and
Fig. 31 gives
its
of
which and
by the transformer, tube, and reguan enlarged view of the regulator, a description method of operation is given as follows:
and its bottom end main lighting tube.
is
piece of |-inch glass tubing is supported vertically contracted into a f-inch glass tube which extends to the
Ill
i:<
ruu iJianiNO
-^1
At the {Hiitit of contraction ut tht- huttoin of tin- {-inch tube tlu-rv U M-aliil by means of ccnu-nt a J -inch crliun j>hij;, tin* |K>rc>fiity of which in nol nn-iii enuugli to allow mercury to jiercolalc throuf;h it Lul which will (NTniit gmnsa ea-sily to pasD, due to the hi);h vacuunt of the lif^hting tube connected to the lower end of tin{)liii:, and approximately atmospheric jjressure ubnve it. This carbon I'luK normally completely covered with what wouM correspond to
i-s
a thimbleful of mercury which 8imi)ly seals the pores of the carbon \>\ug, and therefore haa
nothing whatever to do with the conducting pri)j)erties of the gas in the main tube which Partly immers<'d in the pri)duces the light. mercury and concentric with the carbon plug, is another smaller and movable glas.s tube, the upi>er end of which is filled w ith soft iron wire, which acts as the core of a small solenoid connected in series with the transformer. The
action of the solenoid
is
to
lift
the concentric
glass tube partly out of the mercury, the surface of which falls and thereby causes the
minute
This expo-sure
is
to
allow
n .small amount of gas to i-ntiT the tube, the current fleereases .slif^htly, and the
earhon
The
process
j)laee at
intervals
is
when
the tube
in
The
eolor of the
lij^ht eniitteil
by the
tube dej)ends Uj)on the pas u.sed in it. The re^ilator is fitted with .some chtnii<al
is
adinittrd to
when
is
the lube
is
in oj)era-
tion.
Nitrof^en
employi-d when
(he
(iilu-
and the
light
KiVuI.ttliiK Vnlx-o.
emitted
in color.
when
the tuU-
and carbon
Tabli'
dio.xiile is employed when a white light is desirttl. IX gives gem-ral data nii tin- MMre tuU' light. The
(xilor,
and
32
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
TABLE
IX
i:ij:(
TKic LK.nTixr.
33
Hire tla- turri'iit is a.ssuined u.s pus-sing from tlit- tp mrlxm to \\f (iiid, in the thf bottom oiu* as iiulicati-d by the arrow ami sigius. direct-iurniit arc, tliat the most of (Ik- li},'ht issues from the tip of the
and this portion is known as the cralrr positive carl)on, or electnxle. This erater lias a temperature of from .'i,(KJ(J to3,o()() C'., of the are.
ho%
the temperature at whieh tlie carbon vaporizes, and gives fully S() to The negative carlnin In-comes of the light furnished by the arc.
one is hollowed out to form pointed at the same time thai the positive the crater, and it is also incandescent but not to as great a degn-e as
the positive carl)on.
light, the arc proper,
is
is
band of
-
violet
r-i
rrr
The
nish
200
more than
5%
of the light
carl)on
30O
emitted
when
pure
arc
The carbons
away
or
worn
the
"^
consumed
of
l)y
passage
positive
the
current,
the
carbon
being
con-
y\
<ina
sumed about
twice as rapidly
as the negative.
^lK 33.
.\rr
vertical
plane,
it is
is
shown
in Kig. 33.
Here
maximum amount
of light
the vertical, is given olT at an angle of about alP from carbon .shutting oil' ilie rays of light ihai :irc thrown directly liownward from (he latir. current is usel, the upper carbon U'comcs positive If
(
the negative
alternating
and
n<-galive alternately,
and there
rate.
is
<haine
for a cniter to
U*
same amount
of light
aii.l
consumed
an
at
The
light distril)Ution
Ining curve of
nltrnuitiiiff-riirrrnt nrr is
slu)wn in
l"'ig.
31.
Arc-Lamp Mechanisms,
in a praclital
the arc. Iut also nieans for su|>only a |)air of carbons for producing suitable arrangements for leading these carl)ons, together with |M)rting
34
the current to
apart.
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
them and for maintaining them at the proper distance carbons are kept separated the proper distance by the
into contact, to start
to
The
The carbons must be in contact, or be brought when the current first flows. 2. They must be separated at the right distance
1.
immediately afterward.
Fig. 34.
Lamp
(Vertical Plane).
The carbons must be fed to the arc as they are consumed. The circuit should be open or closed when the carbons are consumed, depending on the method of power distribution.
3.
4.
entirely
The feeding of the carbons may be done by hand, as is the case some stereopticons using an arc, but for ordinary illumination the It is made striking and maintaining of the arc must be automatic.
in
so in
all
cases
or against springs.
by means of solenoids acting against the force of gravity There are an endless number of such mechanisms,
ELl-XTUU: Ll(.illlN(j
liiit
35
\n-
ilfscrilKtJ jierr.
'riity
may
Ix,-
roughly divided
into throt'
1.
Sliiiiit
riiochani8inH.
2.
3.
Si-rics mi'diaiiisiii.t.
DifTerential
iiiL'chuiii.sni8.
Shunt
Mrrli(nii.iin,H.
is
In shunt lamps, the oarlMias an- h.ld apart turned on, and tlw cirfiiit is closed through a
-V
gap so formed. All (jf the current must pass through this coil at first, and the plunger of the
is arranged to draw the carhons together, thus starting
^AyWwUvWWW
solenoid
the arc.
The
j)ull
of the solenoid
and
that of th
justed U)
proper length.
laO
ohms
or
more
and are
They
in
it:j
Serici
Mtch(nil.sm.s.
With
FIk. 35.
D C
An-
the
.series-lamp
mechanisin, the
is first
I^iiiip.
flowing in the series coil, sej)arati's th' electrodes, striking the arc. When the arc is too long, the resistance is increased and the <urrent
Inweretl so that the pull of the solenoiil is weakened and the carlH)ns This type of lamp can Ih" nsetl only on constantfeed together.
potetitial systems.
I'ig. 3')
diagnim
factured
is
.shows a diagram of the conni-ction of such a lamp. This illustrative of tin- eoiuiecliun of one of the lamps maiuithe
l>y
for use
on a
dirvct-currerit,
36
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
The symbols + and refer to the termiconstant-potential system. of the lamp, and the lamp must be so connected that the current nals
flows from the top carbon to the adjustable for different voltages
R is a series resistance, F and D B and are the controlling solenoids connected in series with the arc. C are the positive and negative carbons respectively, while A is the
bottom one.
by means
of the shunt G.
switch for turning the current on and off. // is the plunger of the solenoids and / the carbon clutch,
this
being what
is
closed,
KJ
the
current
is
is
excessive,
and the
plunger
drawn up
carbon
until
and carbon.
G must be so adjusted
that this point is reached when the arc is at its normal length.
Mechanisms. In Differential the differential lamp, the series and shunt mechanisms are combined,
start,
Fig. 36.
the carbons being together at the and the series coil arranged
Differential
1).
Mechanism
for
C.
Arc Lamp.
so as to separate
them while
the
shunt
coil is
arc, as before, to prevent the carbons from being drawn too far apart. This lamp operates only over a low-current range, but it tends to aid
the generator in
Fig. 36
its
regulation.
shows a lamp having a differential control, this also being the diagram of a Western Electric Company arc lamp for a direct-
Here S represents the shunt coil current, constant-potential system. and the series coil, the armature of the two magnets and A'
A being attached to a bell-crank, pivoted at B, and attached to the carbon clutch C. The pull of coil S tends to lower the carbon while that of
M raises the carbon, and the two are so adjusted that equilibrium
is
ELECTRii ij(;irnN(;
n'aclinl wlu-n
lit(f<l
tlit-
arc
is
with an air
tla.sli|)ut,
of the All tf the projxT li-n^'tli. lamps are or some datiiping di'vice, to prevent too
j)art.s.
the
The rnetiuMJ.s of supporting,' tin- carl)oijs and arc mav he divided into two classeij:
1.
feeding them to
Roil-fcotl mocliatiiRtn.
Curboii-fecil
tnuclmnUm.
Lamps
the
usin<; a rtxl
carl)oiis
feed have
supj)orte<l
upper hy a eonductinfj
re<,'ulating
rixl,
and the
acts on
mechanism
the rod
contact.
rangement of
The
rod
shown
at R, the
sliding contact at R,
and the
carbon
at C.
is
These lamps have the advantage that carbons, which tlo not luivc a uniform crosssection or
smooth
exterior,
may
rod.
The
hmI imist
to
als)
be
a
Fli;. :^7.
k<
|)f
clean so as
make
Koil-Fco.1
MivhaiiUwi.
In carlM)n-feed lam|)s
tin*
contntlling
me<'hanism acts on the carbons diredly through some fortn of eluleh such as is shown at (' in Fig. .'{S. This damp grips the carlMni when
it
is lifted,
it
when
(he tensitm
type of feed llu- carlton nuist U- stniight have a uniform eross-scrtion as well as a smcM>th ext'rior.
is
relea.sed.
this
and
The
curn-nt
.short
mav
be h d
lo the
carbun bv means of a
carbon holder.
38
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
TYPES OF ARC LAMPS
8
Arc lamps are constructed to operate on direct-current or alternating-current systems when connected in series or in multiple. They are also made in both the open and the enclosed forms.
By an open
arc
is
in
is
exposed
an inner or enclosing
Fig.
:iS.
Enclosed Arc
Lamp
globe surrounds the arc, and this globe is covered with a cap which renders it nearly air-tight. Fig. 38 is a good example of an enclosed arc as manufactured l)y the General Electric Company.
Open Types of Arcs for direct-current were the first to be used to any great extent. Wlien used systems thev are always connected in series, and are run from some form of
Direct=Current Arcs.
KLKCTRIC LIGHTING
sjx'cial
39
found
l>c
iti
*'Tvpe3
of l)viianio Elfftric
MachiiuTV."
in the
nei<,'hl)orh(>o<l of 50 volts for its operancjiiirt's ami, since the lamps are connected in series, the voltajje of tlje svstein will depend on the nuniher of lamps; therefore, the numlnrr
Kach himp
tion,
of lam|)s that
may l>e etjnnected to one machine is limite<l hv the maximum allowahle volta^jc on that machine. Hy sjxH-ial construction
many
as
12'>
is
as
tiiis
si/e
not so eflicient as one of i;reater capacity. Such j^nerators are usually wound for ().() or 0.() amperes. Since the carlHjns
of [generator
are exposed to the air at the arc, they are rapidly consumed, rajuiring that they Ik> renewed daily for this type of lamp.
Duiibh'-carboii
arcs.
life
of the early
form of arc lamp without usinfj; too long a carbon, the douhle-carbtjn This type uses two sets of carhons, Ixjth si-ts ty[>e was introduced.
licing fed l)y
trodes
all
one mechanism so arranged that when one pair of the elecconsumed the other is put into service. At present nearly forms of the open arc lamp have disappeared on account of the
is
by the enclosed
arc.
Enclosed arcs for series systems are constructed much the same as the open lamp, and are controlled l)y either shunt or dilferential
They require a voltage from OS to 7') at the arc, and are constructed for from o to (i.S amj)eres. They also rerpiire a usually constant-<urrent generator or a rectider outfit if used on alternatingcurrent circuits.
Coti.ffanl-potcniial arcs
series with
mechanism.
in
them
is
to
This resistance
keep the voltage at the arc at its pro[>er value. made adjustable so that the lamj)S may be used on
any
circuit.
shown
in Fig. 3K,
one
coil
U-ing
{(Mated alK)Ve, the other below the operating solenoids. Alternating-Current Arcs. These do not dilfer greatly in eonstriKliiiii
fniiii
When
parts are used in the controlling mechanism, they must Ik> laminated or so constnu'ted jis to keej) down induced or e<ldy eurnnts which For this reason the metal s|mhIs, on which might lie s't up in them.
the solenoids are
wound, are
slotted a(
some
point to prevc-nt
them
from funning n
oid winding.
On
40
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
down
the
voUage
at the
Interchangeable Arc. Interchangeable arcs are manufactured which may be readily adjusted so as to operate on either direct or alternating current, and on voltages from 110 to 220. Two lamps may be run in series on 220-volt circuits.
The
different
distribution of light,
and
lamps just considered, will be taken up later. Aside from the distribution and quality of light, the enclosed arc has the advantage that the carbons are not
consumed so rapidly as
in the
open lamp
because the oxygen is soon exhausted from the inner globe and the combustion of the carbon is greatly decreased. They will burn
from 80
to
TABLE X
Rating of Enclosed Arcs
ELECTRIC LKillTING
41
Full Arcs, 2.(XX) cniHlle-jKiwer taking 9 5 to 10 uinjxi. or 450- ISO watt*. Half Area, 1,200 caiulle-power taking Co to 7 ainiM. or 325-350 watu.
These
lii^li,
atul
run more
point of inaxiiiuiin intensitv ami Ifss than this if tht> mean sphrrical candlf-powt-r Ik* taken. For tliis reason, the ampere or watt rating is now use] to indicate the
iR-arly 1,2U()
7lM, resjK'ftivfly, f<r tlic
ami
fM)Wcr
c)f
the hinip.
It
is
now
f()r
street lighting should he hased upon the illumination pnxluced. This point is considered later under the toj)ic of street lighting. Enclosed
arcs use from 3 to 6.o amperes, hut the voltage at the arc is higher than for the open lanij). Tahle X gives some data on enclosed arcs
on coastant-potential
Efficiency.
circuits.
The
efliciency o* arc
lamps
is
given as follows:
Direct-Current Arc (enclosed) 2.9 watts per candle-power. .Mternating-Current .\rc (enclosed) 2.95 watts fier candle-power.
Direct-f'urrent .Arc fojwn) .G-1.25 watts
jx-'r
candle-power.
Carbons for
from a
j)roluct
.Arc
Lamps.
Carbons are
either
moulded or forced
as petroleum coke or from similar materials such as lampblack. The material is thoroughly dried by heating to a high temj)erature, then ground to a find powder, and combined with some substance such as pitch which binds the fine particles of carbon
together.
known
The
j)owiler put of a paste, when the necessary pressure is a|)plied to the moulds. Kor the forced carbons, the powder is formed into c-yliiiders which nrv
in steel
is again ground it is ready for moulding. moulds and heated until it takes the form
placed in machines which force the material through a die .so arrange*! 'I'iie force*! carl)ons are *)fti'n made
with a core of .some special
niat*'rial, this
(inl^lnij.
can-fully
is
baked
volatile matter.
;iiid
*"n>s.s-
carbon
is tin-
i|uali(v
.se<'tion,
f*'e<|
and
lamp.
ty|M> of carlxxi which nuist Ik* us*'*! in the *'arlHmTh*- a<l*ling of a *i)re of a lin'*'r*-nt mat*>rial seems t*'
ehang*' the
the are
|UJility
of light,
from wandering.
of arb*)ns with
*'*>p|MT
I'laling
ni*>uld*-*l
.sometimes
n'.sort*"*!
t*>
for
42
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
The Flaming Arc. In the carbon are the arc proper gives out but a small percentage of the total amount of light emitted. In order to obtain a light in which more of the source of luminosity is in the
arc
itself,
made with
The
been
to
market the flaming arc lamps and the luminous arc place upon of high candle-power, good efficiency, and giving varilamps lamps ous colors of light. These lamps may be put in two classes One class
the
uses carbon electrodes, these electrodes being impregnated with certain salts which add luminosity to the
arc, or else fitted with cores
which
contain
the
required
material;
lamps which do not employ carbon, the most notable example being the
covering
PorceZairt
Afeial
magnetite arc which uses a copper segment as one electrode and a magnetite
stick
as
the
other
Economize f
electrode.
Fig. 39.
Diagram
of
are
One
placed at an angle, and the other in which the carbons are placed one above the other as in the ordinary arc lamp. The term lumi-
nous arc is usually applied to arcs of the flaming t}^e in which the electrodes are placed one above the other. The minor modifications as introduced by the various manufacturers are numerous and include
such features as a magazine supply of electrodes by which a new pair may be automatically introduced when one pair is consumed; feed
etc. The flaming arc presents a special since the vapors given off by the lamp may condense on the problem glassware and form a partially opaque coating, or they may interfere with the control mechanism.
Bremer Arc. The Bremer flaming arc lamp was introduced commercially in 1899, and since some of its principles are incorporated in many of the lamps on the market to-day, it will be briefly described
here.
in Fig.
39
illustrates the
main
features of
Kl.lXTUK LKillTING
this laiii|).
I'lii'
13
an angle and an
fltftrt>-
nuignt't
is
plac*'*!
creeping up
alnivf the are for the pnr|)4is4> of keeping the arc from anil injuring the economizer, an<l also for the pur|M*se of
spreading the are out and increasing its surface. The vajxir from the arc is condensed on the economizer and this coating acts as a reflector,
throwing the
light
downward. The economizer senes to and thus increases the life of the elecwas suggested hv the
tHMles.
The
impregnated carbons a slag was formed which gave trouble when the electrodes were mounted in the usual maimer. By
fart that in the
using
the
electrotles
in
rectly
downward
from
\
o'
/o'
the arc.
compounds
strontium,
etc.,
of
calcium,
magnesium,
as boracic
so'
j(
as
well
acid.
Electro<les as
in
tile
em-
ployed
various
lamps
Some
teri.ils,
to-day
u.se
ditfer
FIr. 40.
eo'~9o*' BO'
Dlstrll)iitlr)ii
greatly in their
make-u|).
impregnated
witii
maof
some
ca.ses.
The
life
electnxles for flaming lamps is not great, (lej)ending ujioii their length and somewhat upon the ty|tc of lam|). The maximum life t)f the
treateil
carbons
is
in the
neigliborhood of
l2l)
hours.
is
The
cium
from
th'
flaming an-
yellow
when
cal-
salts
njajority of (he lamj)s installed us(> electrtnles giving a yellow light. more strontium, a wA or pink light is pnMluceil, while By
employing
eflicieiit
if
:i
white light
is
wanted, bariunt
most
service
The
distrilmtion curves in
44
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
Modern
it is
more than
15%
of
customary
as a core to the pure carbon sticks. The electrodes are made of a small diameter in order to maintain a steady light and this partially accounts for their short life.
The
anisms.
They may be
This
in
is
Fig.
a clock mechanism.
ferential
mechanism
which the
to feed
in con-
the series coils separate them to the proper extent for maintaining
a suitable arc.
is
fed
by
gravity,
structure.
Gravity feed
also
Fig. 41.
for
sufficiently
reduced by In the
is
and expansion of this wire is balanced against a spring and the arc is regulated by such contraction or expansion of the wire. Such a lamp is suitable for either direct or alternating current. In the motor mechanism, as applied to alternating-current lamps, a metallic disk is actuated by differential magnets and its motion is transmitted
to the electrodes to
force exerted
by the series or shunt coils predominates. Magnetite Arc. The magnetite arc employs a copper disk as
'^
V.HH
m 3 O X
I/)
I
ee
< X U
0.
(is
o
< J
in
.
.
z " "-
a i
-3
< ^
c
is Ou
>
::
_3 >J zz ee o Ku
""
tid
,::
>-
K U
Id
a z <
KLKC rUK
one elcctnKlf, and a
t
LKiirriNO
45
inaffru'titr stick
fornittl
is
by forcing
ma^jiietitc,
a<ltlc<l,
is
used as
tin-
other eleetrtMh-.
This lamp
a luminous are of
not corLsumitl as rapidly the treate*! carlions with the result that magnetite latn[>s do not as Tin- life of the magnetite electro<Jc require trimming as frc<jurntly. A diagram of as at present manufactured is from 170 to L'(M) lujurs. the connections of this lamp as manufactured hy the General Klectric
ij(Kxl
Starling /
'
Magnet
tV
^^^
Pig. 42.
ItlaKrniii f C^mnertloiiK for
Tornpanv
The magnetite electnnle is phuvd U'has just the prop<T dimensions to prevent low. The coppiT electrode its luing destroy<l hy the arc and yet i( is not large enougli to cau.se Direct curn-nt must U> u.sjti undue conden.sation of the arc
is
shown
in Fig. 42.
vajxir.
with this lamp, the current |)a.ssing from the copper to the magnetite. Tahle XI gives some general data on (lu- (laming arc, while Figs.
Tin- alvaintages of the 14 give typieal dislrihulion (ur\es. arc over lamps tising pure earhon ileclriKles an-: Miglj eflillaming heller color of lighl for some eiency; Utter light distril)Ution; and
I.',
and
46
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
A
is
greater
amount
of light
The
disadvantages
lie
in the frequent trimming required and the expense of electrodes. Flaming arcs have been introduced abroad, especially in Germany,
to a
much
TABLE
XI
ELF.rTRIC LIGHTINn
any iuhiiIht of fircuits can Ik- run from om? machine or ami apparatus can Ik* l)uilt for any voltage aiul cjf any
customary, however,
to build transformers of this tyjx* set of
size.
bus bars,
It Is
not
having a capac-
43
60'
Fig. 43.
75'
90'
75'
ec
Lamp.
greater than one hundred (l.Ci-anipere lamps tx'cause of the high voltage which would have to be induced in the secondary for a larger number of lamps.
ity
gram
of a
of the
connection
traas-
singleH'oil
in
fonner
service.
The
tran.s-
constant-<'urrent
o' 10*
so'
former most
in
u.sc
for
20'
30'
Flictric
Com40'
I''ir.
50' 60'
DlHtrii'MM
50'
:rM
.
^O'
4'l.
.1
4-
Aiiiivnv
Mi
shows such
cas**.
a transformer (tlouble-<-iil
ty|>')
when
rtinovrd
frniii
(he
Referring to Fig.
are comiecteil
acro.s.s
Hi,
.1
movable
48
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
There is a repulsion of the coils B by the the current flows in both circuits and this force is bal-
A when
anced by means of the weights at W, so that the coils B take a position On light such that the normal current will flow in the secondary. loads, a low voltage is sufficient, hence the secondary coils are close
(^
ARC AMMETER
heavy \Mien
magnetic
all
leakage.
of the
lamps are
CURRENT TRANSFORMER
OMIT FOR
on, the coils take the position shown when the leak-
25 LIGHTS
age
first
is
voltage a
close together.
circuit is
the
coils
a position
RESISTANCE
FUSE
on the
line.
POTENTIAL
TRANSFORMER CFUSE
BACK VIEW
Fig. 45.
PRIMARY
heating.
Diagram
for Single-Coil
The
efficiency
is
AViring
Transformer.
load.
The power
load, and,
full
the effect of leakage being the same as the effect of an inductance in the primary the power factor is greatly reduced, falling
load
owing
50-light transformers at full factor of the system is from 76 to 78% on full to the great amount of magnetic leakage at less than
to
62%
at I load,
44%
arcs,
at ^ load,
and
24%
also
at i load.
Standard
and 100-6.6
ampere enclosed
made
\'.)
I
t c
s
50
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
the neighborhood of 3.3 amperes for incandescent lamps. The low factor of such a system on light loads shows that a transformer power should be selected of such a capacity that it will be fully or nearly
fully
loaded at
all
times.
be constructed
for
as follows:
25 light transformer, 2,300 volts. 35 3,200 50 4,600 75 light transformer, 6,900 volts. " " 100 " 9,200
The
50-, 75-,
and
used in
series,
on the 100-light
system,
machine.
The second
used
on
the
for
system, allowing
83
volts
series
which
automatically regu-
or decreased, in order to keep the current in the line conthis reguvaried by the moveor less iron in the magnetic
is
stant.
Fig. 47
The
inductance
ment
more
Since the inductance in series with the lamps is high on light loads, the power factor is greatly reduced as in the constant-current transformer; and the circuits should, preferably, be run fully loaded.
circuit.
60
to
65 lamps on a circuit
is
the usual
maximum
limit.
same systems,
Ki.Kc-niic LKMITlXr;
for
51
<K-.si,'mtl
descent systems.
The
ricHjur
direct current for their operation has led to the use of the
in
connection
with
series
circuits
is
on alternating-c-urrent
used to regulate for the
the
lamp
for
first
circuit.
In the
recent
outfits
in
the rectifier
oil
tubes are
immersed
cooling.
While
C.P. STEP UP OR STt-PCXDWN TRANSFORMER
this rectifier
was
introduced for
the operation of luminous arc lamps, there is no reason why it should not
re(|uiriiig
is
kicking
CI RCCU
With
this
LATOR
constructed for
circuits.
2.')-,
50-,
and
To-light
effi-
~ll-'\ riif\
UCHTNINC
arrester:
jj^
[MJ
ciency, transformer
of
S')'^l to
rectifier tube,
70%.
Fig. 40
gives
.
diagram of the
,f.
circuit
and
fir. .is. wiring niain^m .siiowIhr intnxluctloii of tlio Current Utvulator.
rectifier
tunc
ollttlt.
A\uhiplc-Sc'rics
Series-Multiple
tlu-.se .scries
Systems.
These combine
and
groups
in mulliple, or .several
.scri-s,
Iam[>s in nuiltiple and these multiple groups in Thcv li.ivc bill ;i limited a|>|>lir,iti()ii.
rcsp'ctively.
numlM-r of lamps
tribulioii.
Multiple or Parallel Systems of I)istril)uti>n. Uy far the largest in .service are connectel to parallel .systems of tli.sIn this .system, the units are conncct-<l acros,s the lines bars at the station, or to the .secondaries of ctnFig.
'>()
staiit-potcntial transformers.
connected
in
parallel.
The
52
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
in service, the vol-
tage of the system being kept constant. Inasmuch as the flow of current in a conductor
\//o-^zS AC Bt/sses
is
Tube Tanff
lamps
of the
Arreslir/^?Tiynefe-r corl-
r^
maIa^t^wv^
@ ShoT^ Circtyii
^myrteier-
, SwiJcnes
Load
at the
end
system shown
will not
:^M
tV
V
v>
have as
voltage
high
impressed
a-nd
foT- &0% 7zor?.
upon
those
them
Load Con yicc*
nearer
as
the
ma-
chine.
Fi/sts
This
Ifiaaliififl
5i^7ic?3 'e%
Fig. 49.
weiring
Iiitrixluc-
and The
systems
1.
may
be classified as
2.
'.i.
4.
Cylindrical conductors, parallel feeding. Conical " Cylindrical anti-parallel feeding. " " " Conical
ductors,
In the cylindrical conductor, parallel-feeding system, the conA, B,C, D, Fig. 50, are of the same size throughout and are
fed at the
at the
same end by the generator. The voltage is a minimum lamps E and a maximum at the lamps F; the value of the
voltage at any lamp being readily calculated. By a conical or tapering conductor is meant a conductor whose
diameter
is so proportioned throughout its length that the current, divided by the cross-section, or the current density, is a constant
II
< I
I'HIC F.KMI'IMNC
Xi
Miiaiitilv.
^IIlalI^^
Swell a
oiuliHiur
i-.
.sizt'.s
of win- as
In
un anti-paralUI
n|i|)<)site
Multiple
W ire
S\stcms.
power to the li;:htinf; einuits, three- and have been intriMJueed, the three-wire .system U-ing
In this .system,
thri'c-
to a
verv
lar^'e extent.
eonduetors are
neutral
the
conductor
as
for
a
Fig. 50.
.same
Fi{^.
this.
Bv
en
fi
this
number
)f
lamps
the
is
from
KIg. 51.
.Viitl-pan-llel Ki-cilInK
ve-si.\tcenths to three-
System.
eighths of
required
tribution,
amount
depending on the
t
riint -
iri-
S: <v\i
ductor.
The saving
of
is
with the disadvantages of the .system copjH-r together treatcfl in the paper on "Tower Transmi.ssion."
more
fully
ILLUMIN.ATION
Illumination
may
l'
which
color.
aiils
in
and
bnl
ilie
ipuility
and
the
arrangement
the units,
must be
unit
of
illumination
is
the
/<<>/-
ramlli
and
it-
value
is
the
amount
of light falling
on a
.surfatv at
distance of one foot from a soun e of light one candle-iMwer in value. frtun a of inverse I'll.- law namely, that the illumination
given
^urct,
.sourcj-
.sf|uan's varis inversely as the scpnire of the distinuv fnun the shows thai the illumination at a distanc- of two feet fn>m a
54
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
candle-power
unit
is
single
.25
foot-candles.
sideration of the law of inverse squares, see "Photometry." Illumination may be classified as useful when used for the
ordinary purposes of furnishing light for carrying on work, taking when used for decorative lighting the place of daylight; and scenic
such as stage lighting, etc. The two divisions are not, as a rule, distinct, but the one is combined with the other.
Intrinsic
Brightness.
By
intrinsic
amount of light emitted per unit XII gives the intrinsic brightness
Intrinsic Brilliancies in
TABLE
XII
Source
ELECTRIC LICIITING
I
55
)itl'iis((l
rifltiiii)M
is
virv importaiit
li|;lit
in
tin-
.>tulv
of illuniinatidn
inasniiK'h as diirusttl
interiors.
'I'liis
plavs an
form of
Light
is
also tlitTused
rcflettion is seen in many photometer sereens. when passing through semi-transparent shades
or screens. In considering reflected light, we find that, if the surface on light falls is coloreil, the reHe<ted light may l)c change<i in nature l>y the absorption of some of the colors. Since, as has Ixt-n
which the
its
will
and
Whenever
light
is
reflected
amount of light is absorbed by the surface. amount of white light reflected from different
TABLE
XIII
Whito hlottinu
puiH-r
s-j
^\'l^itl cartri(,lj;c
pink pajHT Yellow eanlhoard Light l)lue cardboard I'riH-rald preen paper
Lifjhl
so G2 50 40 36
.U)
Jo
Dark brown
pafjer.
.
IS 13
1_'
Verrnili<jii paf>or
IJ
r
,)
1
IMaek cloth
l?l!i(k
-'
velvet
i(
is
papers
reflect the
light well, but of the darker colors only y'llow has a companilivelv Black velvet has the lowest value, but high c(M-fIicient of reflection.
this
only holds
when
the material
is
free
fnm dust.
H(H>ms with
In-
dark walls
seen hiter.
Usi'ful
re|uire a greatT
amount
be
illumination
may
considered
heads:
5G
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
1.
2.
3.
Offices,
etc.
RESIDENCE LIGHTING
Type
of
Lamps.
incandescent or Nernst lamps varying in candle-power from S to 50 per unit. These should always be shaded so as to keep the intrinsic brightness low. The
intrinsic brilliancy
namely,
its
Arc lights are so powerful as to be uneconomical for shading. small rooms, while the color of the mercury-vapor light is an additional
objection to
its
use.
Plan of Illumination.
as to give a brilliant
is
Lamps may be
selected
in a
and
fairly
uniform illumination
an uneconomical scheme, and the one more commonly employed is to furnish a uniform, though comparatively weak, ground illumiand to reinforce this at points where it is necessary or desirable. nation,
The
all
cases
and
the
more eco-
of units of different
power
is
to
be recommended,
should not be used for lighting As an exaggerated case, the use of arc with incandescent lamps might be mentioned. The arcs being so much whiter than the incandescent lamps, the latter appear distinctly yellow when
lights differing in color
same
time.
Calculation of Illumination.
tlie amount of remust be considered for the given location of the lamps. Following is a formula based on the coefficient of reflection of the walls of the room, which serves for preliminary calculations:
flected light
c.p.
=
I
=
= =
Illumination in foot-candles.
c.p.
/;;
Candle-power of the
unit.
feet.
rr.ECTRIC LKJIITING
WluTf
fiiiiiiiila
57
st'Vcral
:
units of
tin-
Naiiir
aiiilir-jMiwrr art-
iisitl
lhi.s
lM'(()mt-<
III
1
1
1
1
or,
r.p.
=
^
"
"^
^/=,
iP
^
rf^,
"^
1
it
where
rf, (/j, d.,, ttc, e(|ual tlic (Jistanc-es from the point consiih-red to the various li^ht sources. If the lamps are of dilFereiit eaiulU'-|>o\ver, the ilhiniinatioii inav be detenniiicd hv eoinbiiiiii'' the ilhiiniiiation
from
is
eacli
An
e.\anij)Ie of calculation
given
uiitler
"Arrangement
metluxl
is
of
Lamps."
The above
ande
not strictly accurate because it does not at whicji the li<rht from each one of the
If
the ray of
cor-
= -^givcs
rect values.
drawn from
then
the
(/ is the angle which the ray of light makes with a line the light source perpendicular to the assumed plane,
fornmla becomes
'''^'
^^'2'^^^"
'
1'''refore.
by
multiplying the candle-power value of each light source in the dire(tion of the illuminated jioint l)y the cosine of each angle a, a more
readily .seen that the elTcct of reflecteil light from the ceilings
that
of
/;.
from the
floor of a
room.
,
The
value
of
formula, will ^ary from ^\{Yy^ to \{)^[ but for riHtms with a fairly light finish ')()^l may be taken as a goinl average value. The amount of illumination will dejM-iid on the use to U- made of
the
room.
<
)nc
illumination
for
easy
reading,
nation of
cienl
foot-candle on a plane
feet
illumi-
a sufli-
ground illumination. The illumination from sunlight fnm whil' clouds is from L'O foot-<-andles up, whih- that lue
light
is
rellwteil
to iiuhmi-
in iId*
nei^hborlxMMl of
.().'{
fiH>tH-andles.
It
is i,ot
ixwsibh* to
58
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
amount
of energy that
great
difficulty of
The method
light
the light distribution curves of the units, and the value of k, have been Under these conditions the calculations becarefully determined.
One method,
makes which gives good results when from the light sources the basis of calculation of the the flux of light
applied to fairly large interiors,
average illumination.
as the
in order to
measured in lumens and a lumen may be defined foot of surface light which must fall on one square a uniform illumination of an intensity of one footproduce
is
candle.
and placed
source of light giving one candle-power in every direction one foot radius would give an
illumination of one foot-candle at every point in the surface of the and the total flux of light would be 47r, or 12.57, lumens since
47r,
or 12.57, sq.
ft.
lamp giving
one mean spherical candle-power gives a flux of 12.57 lumens and the total flux of light from any source is obtained by multiplying its
mean
it is
spherical candle-power
to
by
12.57.
In calculating illumination
determine the illumination on a plane about 30 floor for desk work, and about 42 inches from the
goods on counters.
number
of
lumens
falling
on
this
the area of the plane, we obtain the average illumination in footcandles. This of course tells us nothing about the maximum or
minimum
by other methods if they are desired. Reflected light, other than that covered by the distribution curve of the light unit including its reflector, is
We may
usually neglected in this method of calculation. assume that in large rooms the light coming from the
of 75 degrees from the vertical reaches the plane In smaller rooms this angle should be reduced to
about 60 degrees.
FT.FrTRIC LUiHTING
uii^'U-
59
is
desc-ribttl hiter,
should
Ix*
drawn.
source within
tiic
diagram tlie avi-rage candle-[X)W'er of the light angU' assumed may Ix* readily determined and tliis
muhiphed hy 12.57, will give the flu.x of light in lumciLS. This metluKl of calculation, together with some guides for its rapid M<-ssrs. Cravath and Laasingh in the application, is described hy
vahie,
mean
I'.MJS."
The
same
To
j)er
as follows:
LAMPS
Tungsten lamps rated at 1.25 watts per horizontal candle-power; clear prismatic reflectors, either bowl or concentrating; large room; light
ceiling;
feet
.25
20
Tungsten lamps rated at 1.25 watts per horizontal candle-power; prismatic bowl reflectors enameled; large room; light ceiling; dark walU; lamps pendant, hoiglit from S to 15 feet
Same with
29 23
Gem
lamps rated at 2.5 watts per horizontal candle-jMiwer; clear prismatic reflectors either concentrating or bowl; large room; light ceiling; dark walls; lamps pendant; height from S to 15 feet. ... Same with very light walls Carbon filament lamps rated at 3.1 watts per horizontal canille-power;
clear prismatic reflectors either
.
55
45
bowl or concentrating; liglU ceiling; .65 dark wali.s; l.n m; lamps pendant height from 8 to 15 feet 55 Same with very 11Bare carbon fdament lamps rated at .3.1 watts |)er horizontal candlcix)wer; no rrflcctors; large room; very light ceiling and walls; 75 to 1 .5 height from 10 to 14 feet .25 to 2.0 Same; small room; me<lium walls Carbon filament lamps rated at .'5.1 watts fn-r horizontal c opal dome or opal cone reflectors; ligiit ceiling; dark 70 room; lumps [x'tidant; height from 8 to 15 fe't GO Same with light walls
; . . .
>
LAMPS
5-am()ere, encloMj-d, din-ct-current arc on lU)-vult circuit; clear inner, opal oiitrr globe; no n-di-rtor: large room; light ceiling; medmiu walls li.iglK from 9 to 14 feel
50
.\ii
uf the
numU'r
of units repiired,
and the
inartistic cfTcct.
Wc
arc
60
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
limited to chandeliers, side lights, or ceiling lights, in the majority of cases, with table or reading lamps for special illumination.
form of
and the
is
some
to
be recommended.
In any
ceilings
is
less
than
40%,
it is
more economical
uniform, being a maximum in the neighborhood of the chandelier and a minimum at the
corners of the room.
liers
By combining chandeit is
generally possible to
f|
*
'
IV)^^^ ^ satisfactory
<M
"
arrangement of lighting for ^ small or medium-sized rooms. "* As a check on the candle-power in lamps
- required, we
T
For
brilliant
allow
one candle-
two square feet of floor space. In some Fig. 53. Diagram Showing Po^'^r per Method of Calculatuig particular cases, such as ball rooms, this may be Room Illumination. increased to one candle-power per square foot.
for four square feet of floor space, aid of special lamps as required.
For general illumination allow one candle-power and strengthen this illumination with the The location of lamps and the height of
ceilings will
modify these
figures to
some
extent.
As an example
assume a room 16
feet
<e-
square, 12 feet high, and with walls having a Consider first coefficient of reflection of 50%.
the illumination on a plane 3 feet above the when lighted by a single group of lights
at the center of the
If
floor
mounted
candle
is
room
3 feet below
.5
the ceiling.
minimum
(first
1
value of
foot-
we have
method outlined)
-X
c.
..1
1
p-
12.8^
.5
1 '^'
Since d
Fig. 53)
=i/8'
8'
6'
9 Q
/'see
^
^'^'
^"*
Diagram
Side Wall.
for
Four
8-c. p.
I-amps on
<
>:
> z
=>
s
fa
o p u H '^ < Q Ko
Cfi
b]
}'
.ti
%^'
..
fl
s < H U o < s
.3
>
Q
o o K a z z o
^3
o o
p.
<,
>-
^
/.
a
art
-r
= '^ =
u
e<
*^
a.
< z o
r!^ a
<
?^8
Q
0.
<
Aid
n 'a
J
FLKfTIUr
Solving the
c.
icMTlvr;
(f r.
gi
valm.5
p.,
we have
41
p.
=_
'
H2
=--
Thre<'
well.
Uj-euiulU'-jxnver
this
pur|)ose very
Deteriiiiiiiiifj
tin-
lamj).
we have:
()-
..)
.ib
lainj)s
Fij^'.
Calculating: the
room on
we have:
^
^ =
1
^
^~8Q
8'
"^
"^
^
"^89
"89"
5-
Hi)'
T^Ts'
rf
+
S
=
4
8!)
04
+
2
25 = 89
.72 foot-carulles
The
room wouM
^
he-
"
^^W^W^ -Mo
)
'
343
.4")
1-..)
= 8(-J- + -7^
<S9
.j4.)
fiH)t-<andles.
In a similar
in the
manner
tht-
illuiuinatit)n
may
nK)m, or a series of points may Im- taken and curves ploC(c<i \H>\ul the distribution of the li^'ht. as well as the areas having the siiowin^ same illumination. Where re(iiu<l calculations are desire<l, the di-trihution curve of the
lamp must
Ik- usvi\
')')
jM)Wer
tin-
in dilFcrcnt ilin-'tions.
Kij;.
Meridian lamp as manufacture<l ly the (Icncral Klectric Com2"> or 'I'liis is a form of nllector lamj) made in two sizes, pativ.
.'<>
eandlc-[M)wcr.
I''ij:.
'>(
^ives
the
distribution curves
for
tin*
.'(>-
hunps
ar*-
now
Im-imj:
62
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
Table XIV gives desirable data in connection with the use of the Meridian lamp.
Fig. 55.
Lamp.
TABLE XIV
Illuminating Data for Meridian
Lamps
,1
' :
n\c ur.HTiNo
tini)f
very ar-mai.
inetluxl.
...m,\
.\licii
sysU'in
fteii
illiiniiiiatioii aiitiuLs
of this
OiluT
iiutliiMis
an-
.simpler
and
sufiicieutly act-urdte
FiR.
5ft.
Distrllnitlon
Curve
f<r
ii
G. K.
riO-c. p.
Meridian I^iiip.
Dr.
lighting:
T-()ui> Hell
gives
tlic
TABLE XV
Residence Lighting Data
.
Ruuu
Hall, 15'
20'.
Lihriiry, 20'
2U'_
l.V
.<
Uccfpiioii
ri)()in,
X
.
1 l.V..
2.">'
20'
X X
20'.
15',
10'
l.V.
lO'Xlo'
.1
10'
IV
1.V
10'
(Vlliir
64
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
LIGHTING OF PUBLIC HALLS, OFFICES, ETC.
Lighting of public halls and other large interiors differs from the illumination of residences in that there is usually less reflected light,
and, again, the distance of the light sources from the plane of illumination is generally greater if an artistic arrangement of the lights is
to
be brought about.
object
is,
This
The primary
however, as
produce
a fairly uniform ground illumination and to superimpose a stronger illumination where necessary. An illumination of .5 foot-candle for
the ground illumination may be taken as a minimum. In the lighting of large rooms it is permissible to use larger light units, such as arc lamps and high candle-power Nernst or incan-
descent units, while for factory lighting and drafting rooms, where the color of the light is not so essential, the Cooper-Hewitt lamp is being introduced. High candle-power reflector lamps, such as the
tungsten lamp, are being used rooms.
to
work.
the type of
lisj;ht
lamps are
fully
be preferred to the arc or vapor lamps, though the latter are often the more efficient. AMien arcs are used, they must be care-
shaded so as
shadows due
to portions of the
intrinsic brightness.
doing away with the strong lamp mechanism, and to reduce the Such shading will be taken up under the head-
ing "Shades and Reflectors." Arcs are sometimes preferable to incandescent lamps when colored objects are to be illuminated, as in
stores
and display windows. In locating lamps for this class of lighting, much depends on the nature of the building and on the degree of economy to be observed. For preliminary determination of the location of groups, or the illumination
ciples outlined
is assumed, the prinunder "Residence Lighting" may be applied. It has been found that actual, measurements show results approximating
when
fairly high,
twenty
ceilings
when used
and the
are high. They should be supplied with reflectors so as to utilize Wlien used for drafting-room the light ordinarily thrown upwards.
I! I'C'IMMC
'(
MI'TIW;
r-^'i
work,
tlu'V
slioiihl
Ik*
susjM'iulnl
inu.st In-
from
twi-lvr to
fiftiH-rj
feet alxive
the floor,
ami
s[M-<ial
rare
taken to
arraiifjetl
IrieuiKleseeiit latnj)s
lij,'hts
may
Im-
in
arranged u.s a frieze running around the HMiin a fiw feet Ix-low the eeiling. The la.st named arrangement of lights is one that may Ik- made arli>tie, hut it
may
is
Kelleitor lights may he useil fur this style of uirk and tiou oiilv. the lights may b<' entirely concealed from view, the reflecting proputilized for distrihuting the light erty of the walls iK'iiig
where neede<J.
reflectors,
prcfcraMy he supplied
with
some
extent.
Bv
indirect
we mean a svstem af illumination in which are coiuealeil and the light from them is reflected to
njom hy
the
are wal.'s, or ceilings, or other surfaces; or in which the light sources above a difVusing panel. In the latter case the diffusing plate plaied In some ca.ses the walls them.selves apf ^ars to Ix' the .source of light. are shajx'd ami constructed .so as to form the refliH:tors for the light uni 5 (cove lighting), hut in others all of the reflecting surfaces, except
the side walls
Tables
lai
i|)S
portions of the lanij) fixtures. data on arc and mercury-va|x)r give Table XVII refers to arc lights as for lighting large rooms.
ceiling, are
and
made
ac'Mallv installf<l.
66
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
*
00
o o o
to
00
'^ _; CI t- ^3 5? "' to CO to
b "
CI
CO
O
CO
B<
to t^ ro
"
{J
<J<
-H
-H
o
r->
<
o CO
in c^
to CO Tf Tl* "O
^ O
-3 0> S ^ CO
C3
^ I o b r
Q
a n
00
<:
3 o lO S O o
.
o o 00 o (M
IN
CO CO
<K CSI
00 CO CO C)
O O
o
'
Li
to
C)
is
o
O C5
to
1-
(N
^ o ^
CO
C-J
CI _; 1^ C5 Q, CO "o ,ir
Q5
o
o
'-'
o * 00 M o
2oo
a
E
cs
2 a
I
CJ
wo u to
"3
t^
CJ "*
_;
CI
CJ C) rt CO CO JC"
01
jd O) "^
.J
O
C)
> <
o
w S
O
uo CI
C)
-<)
< Q
G
JS
> a < o
w o
SKYLIGHT
Tlie
WORK *
upper
illustration
curb measures
G'
G'
0* X 7' 6",
line.
shows the layout of a flat pitched .kylight whose tiie run of the rafter or length of the glass being
Five bars are required, making the glass 15 inches AB and CD is shown below.
0*
on a horizontal
wide
It will
AR
tiie
tliat
the flashing
is
locked to
the roofing
this the
inside of
bolt being
capped and soldered to avoid leakage. The same construction is used in the section through
tion, that
in the
when the flashing cannot be made in one manner indicated, over the fireproof blocks.
itluiitratiou referred to will
placed
The
Ihia pa^*-
coMSTnucTion drawing aHowiriG layout OF FLAT .5KYL1GH.T ARD i^lLTMOD OF FA5TEnin.G FLASamG on AnGLE.
mon
GOA5TRUGTIOn.
^1 l>-shmG,
Condensas-tion'
vSecTion
\T.n<2-.
u.pper
end
C-D
rhrou^h
of
curb
Secrion
i;hrouo,h lov/<s,r
SHEET METAL
WORK
SKYLIGHT WORK
\Mere formerly skylij^lits were cnmstructe*! from wrod^lit iron or wood, to-<lav in all the larj^e cities thcv are lein;j maderif ^alvaiii/xil
sheet iron anil
c)[)j)er.
Sheet metal
skylif^hts,
having hy their
jieculiar
construction lightness and strength, are superior to inm and woollen lights; su|)erior to iron lights, inasmuch as there is hardly any exjjansion or contraction of the metal to cause leaks or hreiikage of glass;
su|)erior to
and wooden lights, because they are fire, water and condensation* proof, and being less clumsy, admit more liglu. ^riic small Ix^dy of metal usetl in the construction of the bar and
densation,
curb ami the provisions which can be made to carry off the inside conmake slieet metal skylights superior to all others constructed from diiferent material.
CONSTRUCTION
The
if
the
is
oped.
For example,
in
the
bar
shown
Fig.
14.')
consists of
or
which rep.\
amount of
weight.
A
Fig.
1 J.'i.
I
ig.
un.
warm
ci>lil
surface of
while
]\ ]\
In Fig.
li(j,
shovv the rabbets or glas.s-rest for the glasA. C is a re-enforcing strip, which is imn1 to li(ld
tJic
134
two walls
together and impart to it great rigidity. When skylight bars are required to bridge long spans, an internal core is made of in Fig. 147, which adds to its sheet metal and placed as shown at
O O
weight-sustaining power.
In
this figure
B B
laid
on
a bed of putty with the metal cap C C C, resting snugly against the
glass,
rivet or bolt
D.
Wliere a very
in Fig. 148 is
large span
is to
be bridged a bar
similar to that
shown
and B.
In
bars
the various
AB
C
Fig- 147.
in Fig. 149,
which
is
fastened to
the
wooden frame
D E.
condensation gutters C C in the bar b, carry the water into the internal gutter in the curb at a, thence to the outside through holes In Fig. 150 is shown a sectional provided for this pm-pose at F F. view of the construction of a double-pitched
The
shows the ridge bar with a core in B the center and cap attached over the glass. shows the cross bar or clip which is used in
skylight.
glass in
where it is impossible to get the one length, and where the glass must r" be protected and leakage prevented by means of the cross bar, the gutter of which conducts
large skylights
the
main
bar,
thence outside the curb as before explained. C is the frame generally made of wood or angle
iron
flash-
shows the skylight bar ing as shown at F. with core showing the glass and cap in position. E is the metal curb condensation being let out against which the bars terminate, the
through the holes shown. In constructing pitched skylights having double pitch, or being In other words it is one-third hipped, the pitch is usually one-third.
^uv.KT Mrr\r
a
wmi-k'
i::.'
of
tlu- >|iiiii.
If
.skyliji;ht
weif
IL' fet-t
wiile
Im.*
rttiiiirftl.
tht> rise in
When
11
Hat
.skyHj,'ht
made
tlie
is
skylight
use<l
over
it.
The
jjlass
in
the construction of metallic .skyor lijjhts is usually J-inch rough rii)l)cd glass; hut in some cases
heavier glass
If for
is useil.
any
rea.st)n
it is
desired
to
know
Square
out.
Thickness
in inches.
i-
i iV
Weight
2.
^-
^-
^-
'
^-
in
2\.
|)ounds. 3\. 5. 7.
S'..
10. 12",.
B^
Y
FiR. 160.
136
In the smaller shops the bars are cut with the hand shears and formed up on the ordinary cornice brake. In the larger shops, the for the bars or curbs are cut on the large squaring strips required
shears,
on what
is
known
on a
single table,
This machine consists of eight foot presses each press having a different set of dies for the purpose
The bars are then of cutting the various miters on the various bars. formed on what is known as a Drop Press in which the bar can be
formed
in
two operations
to
METHOD EMPLOYED
The method
IN
be employed in developing the patterns for the various skylights is by parallel lines. If, however, a dome, conservaor circular skylight is required, the blanks for the various curbs, tory
bars,
and
in
Sheet Metal
represents the glass resting on the shows another form of cap which covers
BB
Fig. 152.
Fig. 153.
the joint between the bar and glass. Fig. 152 gives another form of bar in which the condensation gutters and bar are formed from one
piece of metal with a locked hidden
seam
at A.
Fig. 153
shows a bar
on which no putty is required when glazing. It wall be noticed that it is bent from one piece of metal with the seam at A, the glass B B on the combination rabbets and gutters C C. D is the cap resting
which
is
fastened by
means
of the cleat E.
These
about
and riveted
Iirir MI'.TAL
WOUK
t
Mil
at F;
tlifii
tlifii
a >lot
is
cut into
tin-
caii
as sluiwii from
};la.<>!
to h in Ki^;. I54;
the cap is pressed lirmly onto tlie down whicli holds the cap in |M)sition.
ami the
ch-at
tiirne<l
When
ijuiretl,
a skvH;;ht
is
constnictetl in
which raising
sash to he
as
shown
and
obtained when
whicli
is
This
is
shown
in
Fig.
in
15<),
AB
Thus
AA
Fig. 154.
FiR.
1)
1.55.
and the stationary half cover the jomt between the glass F F are the half caps soldered at a a to the bars C (' which bars.
protect the joints between the gla.ss
II
11
EE
and
tlic
bars
C.
lo7,
I'vS
and
1.'>M
are
shown
flat
which are
with
I.')7
in
cnne<'tion
.\
skylights.
in
Fig.
one
|)ii'<'e
with a joint
at
B. while
.shows the cap, fastt'tUMl as previously tlescrilM'<l. ".\" .shows the height at the lower end ^f the Mirb wh'cJi i.s ina<ie ns high lis the
glass
i.s
thick
and allows
tJie
wuter
U>
run over.
In Fig. LVS,
A b
138
SHEET
INIETAL
WORK
another form of skylight formed in one piece and riveted at B; a shows the height at the lower end. In the previous figures the frame on which the metal curb rests is of wood, while in Fig. 159 the frame is
Fig. 157.
Fig. 158.
Fig. 159.
of angle iron shown at A. In tliis case the curb is slightly changed as shown at B ; bent in one piece, and riveted at C. In Figs. 160, 161; and 162 are shown various shapes of curbs for pitched skylights in addition to that shown in Fig. 149. A in Fig. 160 shows a curb formed
in
Fig. 160.
Fig. 161.
is
Fig. 162.
rest
slightly modified shape A, with an offset to AMien a skylight is to be placed over an opening whose walls are brick, a gutter is usually placed around the wall, as
In Fig. 161
shown a
on the curb at B.
SIIFI-T
MKTALWORK
139
sh()\\ni in Fi^'.
102, in
which
a fitter, H,
to b to
c.
hung, formed from one piece of metal, a.s shown from a On top of this tlie metal curb C is sohlereil, whicli Ls also
i.s
fonnetl from
lot-k
seam
at
/.
To
stiffen this
curb a
FrtMu the iasile coninside as shown at I). slippeil densation gutter / a 14-oz. copjier tube runs through the curb, shown
wooilen core
at d.
the gutter r in
tiic
tlie
gutter
out of
veyed
to tlie
c-on-
In Fig. 103
shown an enlarged
C D
in Fig. l.").
I) the .side
103 shows the ridge bar, H the .sections of the bars explaine<l in connecin Fig.
loO.
K F
in
103
shows
the
upjjcr
fit-
On
the upper
are riveted at
E and
I,
which
allow the
.sash to raise
or close
fitting
Holes are
allow
the
to
TIk. U>3.
the hinge II a hood or cap is placed which prevents Fig. KM .shows a .section through .\ H in Fig. 1(17 and repleakage. resents a hippe<l skylight having one-third pitch. Hy a skylight of
C)ver
one-third pitch is meant a skylight whose altitude or height .\ H.isetpnil to one-third of the If the skylight was to have a pitch if .span C I). one-fourth or one-lifth, then the altititde A H would espial oni-fourth
"
O.
a
hipj)etl .skylight
The
with
ridge ventilat)r
which
will
FF
be briefly descriln-d. (' 1) is the curb; F. K die outside ventilator forming a cap over ihc
140
SHEET
IVIETAL
WORK
glass at a.
KK
common bar on the rabbets of which the shows the condensation gutters on the bar J,
Fig. 164.
at M, thus allowing the drip to enter the gutter and discharge through the tube P. The foul air escapes under the hood as shown by the arrow.
Fig. 165.
PARIS, FRANCE
i u 3
i.
o K
IT
:
V.
o z
a = >
Q - r
S =
<
a
a
SIIKKT MK'I'M
\
\\(
i!;K
HI
AkIOtS STYLES
sluiwii wliat
In*
Ol
>KM.l(im>
and
is
In Fi^. H'u)
plact-il
is
on
:i
curl>
made
jiitcli.
Fig. 160.
on
the
ilhi.s-
tration,
ami made
to
.set <>n
a \\(MKlen
FiR. 107.
roof, the
\\'ntilation
is
obtainetl
l)y
raising
one or more
means
l.V).
FJK.
l(i.H.
142
shows a double-pitch skylight. Ventilation is obtained louvres at each end as shown at A. Fig. 167 shows a by placing with a ridge ventilator. The corner bar C is called the hip skylight
bar; the small bar D, mitering against the corner bar, is called the jack bar, while E is called the common bar. Fig. 168 illustrates a hip monitor skylight
with glazed opening sashes for ventilation. These sashes can be opened or closed separately, by means of gearings similar to
those
shown
in Fig. 177
In Fig. 169
is
raising
Fig. 169.
etc.,
the
shows a view
made
In Fig. 171 is shown a flat extension skylight at the rear of a store or building. The upper side and ends are flashed into the brick work and made water-tight with waterproof cement, while the lower side
rests
to
which
it is
fastened.
SHEET
gutter
is
MirrAI.
tlir
WORK
it
143
up hy
and
is
usuully niiule
2(>-o/..
skylight,
two inches
j^lank
'I'he
when
\7'^
on a metal curh
tnav he
slu)ws a hij)j)ed skyli;;ht without a ridfje ventilator, .set in which louvres have Keen place<l. These lou\Ttts
stationarv or movahle.
made
When made
' '
Imr. 170.
con.structed as
|{
shown
closetl,
in
Fij,'.
'
17
I,
in
which
open. They are o|)eratel hy the tpiadrants attached to the upri|^ht hars a and h, which in turn are j)uIUn| up and down hy cords or chains work-d from hclow. ^^hen a skylight
(
shows them
and
lias
iti
Ki^'.
17.">, it
is
constructeil as
shown
in Fijj.
repres'nts a T-hcam which ean he tru.vsiNl if ne<t'.s.siiry. Tliis construction allows the water to cseap<* from the lM)ttom of the
17(i, in
which
.A
up|MT
li^'ht
curh
of the iijiper
fittinjj
144
A
the
shows the side view of the metal or wooden sash partly opened,
Fig. 171.
shaft,
and
main
shaft to
shows the quadrant wheel attached to main the upright or rafter. shaft and E is the worm wheel, geared to the quadrant D, communicating
motion
to the
whole
shaft.
is
main
sash.
ples involved
the
hip bar,
and
cross
common bar
in
hipped skylight. princiare also applicable to any other form of light, whether flat, double-pitch, sing-le-oitch. etc.
ples
These
145
shown
half
.se<'tii)n,
fjiuirtfr
phiii,
ami a
of a hip har, inthuhnj; the patterns for tle curh, ami coinnion hars. '^Tlie method of niakinjij tliese drawinpi hi|), jack, will l>e exi)lainetl in detail, so that tlie student wlu) pays close attention
Fig
wn'll
173
have no
tlie
difficnlty in laying
pitch of
skylight
may
out any patterns no matter what the or what angle its plan may have. be,
line
its
First
off
C 4', ef|ual
have one-third
FlK. 171.
pitch, tlicn
CI)
e<|Ual to
1
S inches which
is
onMhird
of 21 inches,
asei'tion of
[larallrl
li>
1
>
I.'
theconnnon
)
shown
l>y
1'^
shown fn)m a
to (i at the top.
At
146
of the outside vent shown from hio I and the pleasure draw the section hood shown from mtop. X represents the section of the brace resting on i j to uphold the hood resting on it in the corner o. The condensa-
Fig. 175.
common
bar
e f oi the curb and pass out of the opening indicated by the arrow. Number the corners of each half of the common bar section E as shown, from 1 to 6 on each side,
lines
parallel to
4' until
they inter-
bottom as
shown by similar numbers 1' to 6', and the inside ventilator at the
top by similar figures 1" to 6". This completes the one half-sec-
From this tion of the skylight. section the pattern for the com-
mon
Fig. 176.
4'
draw
and at right angles to I J, draw lines, and intersect drawn at right angles to D 4' from similarly numbered intersections V to 6' on the curb and 1" to 6" on the inside ventilator. Trace a line through points thus obtained then A* B* C^ D' will be the
them by
lines
;
SUKKT MKr.\L
piitterii
\\T)HK
147
liippeil skvli^jlit.
'I'lie
same
inetluKi
would
l(f
employe*!
pitili li^lit.
From
r aiitl
a pattern were ilevelope*! for u flat or a loul)lethis same half section the pattern fjr the curh is
if
if
tiie
curb,
'.V -I'
il
/.
and
|lacinj^
AB
as
shown
by similar
angles to
letters
A B
C
and figures. Through these divisions and draw lines which intersect with lines drawn
jKiints in the curl> section a
/ a will
j.
at rij^ht at right
angles to
the curl)
to
'IVace a line
shown
tlie
he punched into
light.
As
{x)rtion
pattern between each light of glass in the skyd turns up on c 4', u.se r as a center, and with
I'^g.
177.
the radius
.v
shown.
punch the hole \. Before the patterns can l>e obtained for the hip ami jack bars, a i|iiarfcr j)lan view nnist Ik- constr\icte<l which will give the jxiints of
intersections
vent, or ridge bar,
between the hip bar and curb, between the hip bar and and between the hip and jack bar. Therefore, fnun
j)oint on the center line .V B as K, draw K 1/ at right angles to A B. the skylight forms a right angle in plan, draw from K, at an angle of 4.'), the hip or iliagonal line K \'\ Take a tra<Mng tf the ctmunon
any
.Vs
with the various figures on same, ami j)la<t" it on the hip <"tme dinn'tlv on the plan >o that the ]Hiin(s hip as shown by K'. Through tlic various figures draw lines parallel to K 1
bar
se<'tion V.
line
K P
in
1^
OF JACK BAR
END
Fig. 178.
SlIKirr MK'IAI.
WORK
IW
A
ore-lialf
of which are
iiiterse<'tt*<l
l>y
to
(5'
1" to 0*
on the
interse<-tions 1 to
and
to
0''.
It shoulil he untlersto>d that the opposite intersection as shown. section E' iti ])lan does not indicate the true profile t>f the hip bar
(
whichinust heohtained
later),
hut
is
tlie
hori-
zontal distances in j)lan. In laying out the work in practice to full size, the up[)er half intersection of the hip bar in ])lan is all that is ret|uiretl.
It will
j)oints
section
of intersections in j)lan and one half if the student will carefully follow
each point the method of these projections will become apparent. Having obtained the true j)oints of intersections in plan the next
step is to obtain a diagonal elevation of the hip bar, from which a true To do this draw any section of the hip bar and pattern are obtained.
line as
j)arallel
to
K 1.
4'
G^'
This base
line
and
V to
Now measuring in each and every crossing the line R indefinitely. in the half section take the various distances instance from the liiu' (
'
.")"
and
(i"
at the top,
and
to iK)ints
1' 2'
3' 4'
">'
and
the biJttom, and place them in the diagonal elevation meason the similarly uring in each and every instance from the line R iiumberc<l lines drawn from tlie plan, thus locating respectively the
G' at
|X)ints
tlie
N r
and
2^ 3^ 4^
l)ottom.
^ and G^ at the top, and 1'' 2'' 3'' 4'" ') and tr at Through the points thus obtaine<l draw the miter lines
to
G'"
and c-onnect tlie various j>oints by lines as .sliown, which completes the diagonal elevation of the hip bar intersecting the curb and vent, or ridge. To obtain the true section of the hip bar,
to G'
1'"
it
in the |>osition
shown by
1'
Iv\ being careful to j)lace the j)oints 1 4 at right angles to ]' as shown. From the various j)oints in the se<-tion K' at right
til
Rnglf^
r r draw
munberi'd lines
siile.
in tlie
<iiagonal elevation as
jK)ints as
shown from
will
In
"
mi either
ConiUH-t these
shown; then V/
Note
the di (Terence in the two profiles; the normal l''.' and the modititnl K'. Having obtaine<| the (rue profile F' the pattern for the hip bar i:
oiitairnil
line
1'.
150
Through
O P draw lines which intersect by lines drawn at right angles to 1^ 1^ from similarly numbered points at top and bottom, thus obtaining the A line traced through the points tlius points of intersections shown.
obtained, as
shown by H*
J^
K^ L^
will
For
be the pattern for the hip bar. a tracing of the section of the
common
bar
and place
it
shown by E^
being careful to
and 4
It is immaterial how far the section E" is placed from the corner 2 as the intersection with the hip bar remains the same no matter how far the section is placed one way or the other. Through the various
draw lines
secting one half of tlae hip bar on similarly numbered lines as shown by the intersections P2^3'^ 4^ 5^ 6^ and 1^ 2"^ 3-^ 4^ S*' andG'^; also inter-
secting the curb in plan at points 1^ to 6^. The intersection between the jack bar and curb in plan is not necessary in the development of the pattern as the lower cut in the pattern for the common bar is the
same
intersection
shown
in plan to
make a complete
angles to the line of the jack bar in sections with the hip bar, erect lines intersecting similarly numbered Thus from the various interseclines in the section as shown.
tions
to 6^ in plan, erect vertical lines intersectshown from to 6^. In ing the bar in the half section at points shown from similar manner from the various points of intersections 3'', 5"^, and 6"' in plan, erect lines intersecting the bar in the half section at points
shown by 3"' 5'^ &. Connect these points in the half section, as shown, which represents the line of joint in the section between the hip and jack
bars.
For the pattern for the upper cut of the jack bar, the same stretchcan be used as that used for the common bar. Therefore, at rio-ht out
angles to
D 4' and
P 2^
3''
4^
5''
and 6^
draw
numbered
in the
lines in the
common
one half
draw
lines at
as
shown by
3'^ 5"^
Trace
lines
from point
to point,
then the
SIIKKT
cut
MKTAL WORK
151
and the cut shown from I" to () in the pattern will The represent the cut for that part shown in plan from 2*- to 0'', lower cut of the jack bar remains the same as that shown in the pattern.
plan from
to G'
,
is
The half pattern for the em nf the hooil is shown in Fij;. 17'.>, ami obtained as follows: Draw any vertical line as A H, Ujxjn which
I
place the stretchout of the section of the hood m n o p in Fij^. 178, as in Fi{^. 17!>. At right angles shown by similar letters m nop on A to A B and through tlie small letters draw lines, making them e<jual in
\'>
line A B) to jM)ints having similar letters from the center line A B. C'omiect jxjints measuring shown in Fig. 170, which is the half j)attern for the end nf the hood. For the half pattern for the end of the outside ventilator, take tJie
length, (measuring
from the
I J
2*1
Tl
A"
op]
G HALF PATTERN
FOR END OF
INSIDE
VENT
B
Fig. 179.
Fig. 180.
I
Fig. ISl.
it
stretchout of A
Fig. ISO as
lines
/;'
in Fig.
on the
vertical line
.\
in
draw horizontal
the points as shown in Fig. 181 is .shown the half |)attern for the end of Uie inside ventilator, tlie stretchout of which isobtainetl from F 1" 2" 3" l" II (I in Fig. 17S.
measuring from A H, ecpial t> similar measuring from the center line .\ H. Connect In Fig. ISO which is the desire<l half pattern.
the jjattern l>eing obtained as explained in connection with Figs. 17l) ami ISO.
When a skylight is to be constructed on which the bars are of such lengths that tlic glass cannot be obtained in one length, and n cross bar or clip is re<jniad as shown by B, in I'ig. l.*)(), which miters against the
main
bar, the j)attern fnr this intersecting cut
is
obtaineil as
shown
in
152
Let Fig. 182. represent the section of the main bar, B the elevation of the cross bar, and C its section. Note how this cross bar is bent so
that the water follows the direction of the arrow, causing no leaks because the upper glass a is bedded in putty, while the lower light b is
capped by the top flange of the bar C (See Fig. 150). Number all of the comers of the section C as shown, from 1 to 8, from which points
draw horizontal
At
main bar
A at points
1 to
8 as shown
2 3
8
4
C
-_Z^^
13";
e"i
E
Fig. 182.
place the stretchout of the cross bar C, shown by similar figures, through which draw horizontal lines, intersecting them with Unes
drawn parallel to D E from similar numbered intersections against the main bar A, thus obtaining the points of intersections 1' to 8' in the Trace a line through points of intersections thus obtained pattern.
which
will
be the pattern
is
for the
In Fig. 183
turret sash
shown a
in Fig.
carefully
shown
168 at A.
SHEET METAI.
means of
tlie
^VOI{K
VA
the pjvot on which
ct>rds,
insitle,
shown hy
11
in Fig. 1S3.
htitt
for these saslies will l>e patterns miters which tlie student will have
vitling
tion.
This
will
\>e
mmle
clear
hy
I
on
same, as shown
as
In
1.^
shown
at
This upindicated by f in per part Fig. 1G.S, over which the gutter B is in Fig. placed as shown by C. 183. represents the lower part
soldering.
AB
'
is
XUY
of
fits
tlie
which
is
over
indicated by
Fig.
in
Fig. lOS.
in
lua_-.
H
183
represents
the
muUion
seaiiie<l at o.
This mullion
'r
joine<l
to
V.
the bot-
-i)^
FiK. 1S.1.
represent a butt miter the slant line i j. Before forming up this mullion the holes against shoulil be punched in the sides to admit the U .'^. These mullitns
j)ivot
tom
wouM
are
shown in position in Fig. KJS bv E etc V ( in Fig. 1S;.3 represents the .section of
I'^.,
tlie
the j)ivot T. Notice that tliis lower half of tlie siile of tlie siush has a lork attachment which h(X)ks into the flange of the mullion E at F.
While the
|)ivot
.side
of
tlie
sash
is
bent
in
one
piecx;,
.1
T,
omitted as shcwti by
K.
'llius
when
lus
tiie ."MLsh
((pens, the ujper half of the sides turn toward Uie inside
.shown by
154
the arrow at the top, while the lower half swings outward as shown by the arrow at the bottom. When the lower half closes, it locks as shown
a water-tight joint joint; but to obtain IVI, into which the used, partly shown by upper This cap is half of the side of the sash closes as shown at M. upper fastened to the upper part of the mullion E with a projecting hood /
at F,
for the
a cap
is
which
is
opened
will have placed at the same angle as the sash as shown by e e' and d cV or by the dotted lines.
when
it
is
The
is
shown
in Fig.
168 at H.
The pattern for the side of the sash has a square cut at the top, mitering I I at the bottom, in Fig. 183, the same as a square miter. with Note where the metal of the bottom of the sash. the section
represents
is
doubled as at
h,
on the
with the rabbet against which the glass rests in line which stiffens it. beaded edge is showTi at
This lower
both ends.
shown
in Fig. 168
by
NO
in Fig.
shown
in Fig.
168 by F.
183 shows the section of the top of the sash The flange in Fig. 183 is flush with the out-
the glass to slide into the grooves in the sides of the sash. After the
glass
is
is
tacked at n.
to the gutter
A leader
is
attached
Fig. 168.
construction
IE
11
10
^^'
'
have aimed
knowing
own
to arise.
illustrations. Figs.
In the following
184 to 187,
it
will
be explained and
bars in a hipped skylight, no matter what size the skylight Using this rule only one set of patterns are required, as for
example, those developed in connection with Figs. 178, 179, 180, and If, however, a skylight 181, which in this case has one-third pitch. was required whose pitch was different than one-third, a new set of
patterns would have to be developed, to which the rule above mention-
155
woulil also be iipplicaltlc for .skyli^lits nf tlmt particular pitcli. Using tliis rule it sliould l)c unclt'rstM)d tliat tlie size of the curb, or
tlie
frame, forms
basis fur
all
mejisuremeiits,
line of the
lines
or l)endsoftlie barshoulil
meet the
in Fig. 17K,
where
curb c
tlie
line of the
4' at 4',
and the
ri<li:e
K^
10^
12
i>nhiiliiililil.ii l.iilii.l.iil.i.l.i.Li^1r>>^ 11 10 9 6 7 6 5 -^ 3 2 1
Fig.
185.
out the lengths of the bars, they would have to be measured on the line 4 of the l)ar E from 4' to 4" on the patterns, as will be e.xplaineil as we
proceed.
of the
bars.
The first step is to prepare the triangles from wliich the lengths common and jack bars are ol)taine(l, also the lengths of the hip
After the drawings and j)atterns have been laid out
full si/e
according to the principles explaineil in Fig. ITS, take a tracing of the triangle in the half section 1) C 4' and place it as shown by A 12 O, in
Fig.
will
IM.
Divid.- ()
IJ,
which
a'-o'-
be 12 inches
inches,
rule, as
X
In similar
for
jack
size skvliirht.
for
I'
anv
in
>>(
1!
the
12 ()
diagonal
in
elevation
in
as
shown by H
tin*
Fig.
1S.'.
The
bar
length 12
tlien
in a skvlight
whose
i)ars meiusure.s
12 inches
156
" IN
NURNBERG, GERMANY
is
End
Ivower Right,
is
Railing of Gallery underneath Red-Tiled Roof In the Niche over the Fountain at the a Statue of King Adolf von Nassau.
^ii
A
i
'^r^.
.11:
Lkk
Aut:<'l<^!*'
*-'''
Sr<i
Klrnt,
and
Srciuil
Kloor I'lan*
Shown
SIIKKT MinWI.
est sitle of
Work
leiij^th witli
frame)
-r-
=-
feet.
We
whicli
and hip
Imrs.
of the
eominon har
amount
( )
in Fij;.
1x4, while the length of tlu- liip liar i> e in V\^. IS*), will l)e njual to twice the amount of H () in Fij;. ISo. Referrinj; to Fif;.s. isfi and Is? the
Iti
tlie
jack bar
in Fijj. 1S4,
and 4 inches
e<|ual to 4 ();
hip bars will be .shorter in Fig. 187 because a ventilator has been used, while in Fig. ISO a ridge bar
The
common and
was employe) 1. To obtain the lengths of the common and hip bars in 4 inches (widtii Fig. 187 use Rule 3: 4S inche.s (length of short side) ^ 44 inches; and 44 inches -r- 2 =22 inches or of inside ventilator)
the length of the conunon bar c' d' mea-sure<l with a rule will be e<|ual to A <) in Fig. 1S4 and 10 () atldetl together, in Fig. and the length of the hip l)ar v' }' in Fig. Is7 will be e<jual to H
1
foot 10 inches.
Then
I80 and 10*0 added together. Use the same method where In laying out the patterns al parts of an inch occur.
fraction-
and
ISl, being
careful
j)atteni.
will
be
wc always
liij),
mea.s-
connnon,
line 4
.slant
and jack
the
bars.
Tins
F*
is
in
jrofiles
K and
come
on the
line
WluTc
and from which the true lengths were obtained. a curb might be us'd, as shown in l*'ig. ISS,
which would bring the bottom line of the bar ]\ inches toward the inside of the frame h, all around, then insteaci of using the size tf 4 x S feet as the basis of measurements deduct .{
inches on each side, nuiking the basis of measuremeiMs
.\
."?
TiR. ISS.
ft.
'.
inches
ft.
'.
inclies,
and
158
ROOFING
A good metal covering on
dation.
a roof
is
as important as a
for this
good foun-
The rigid body, or the plate or what is commonly called roofing tin. base of roofing tin, consists of thin sheets of steel (black plates) that are coated with an alloy of tin and lead. AVhere a first-class job is
desired soft and cold rolled copper should be used.
is
The
soft
copper
generally used for cap flashing and allows itself to be dressed down well after the base flashing is in position. The cold-rolled or hard copis
per
or
steel
used for the roof coverings. In some cases galvanized sheet iron is employed. No matter whether tin, galvanized iron, or
copper is employed the method of construction is the same, and will be explained as we proceed. Another form of roofing is known as corrugated iron roofing,
be covered by what is knowm as flat-seam roofing, and should be covered (when tin or copper is used) with sheets 10 x 14 inches in size rather
than with sheets 14 x 20 inches, because the larger number of seams
stiffens
weather.
the surface and prevents the rattling of the tin in stormy Steep roofs should be covered by what is known as standing-
seam roofing made from 14" x 20" tin or from 20" x 28". Before any metal is placed on a roof the roofer should see that the sheathing beards
are well seasoned, dry and free from knots and nailed close together.
Beforelayingthe tin plate a good building paper, free from acid, should be laid on the sheathing,or the tin plate should be painted on the underside before laying.
Corrugated iron
is
usually laid directly upon the purlins in roofs, and held in place by means of clips of hoop iron, which encircle the purlins and are riveted to the corrugated iron about 12 inches apart. The
buildings.
It is
method of constructing
flat
and double-seam
we
proceed.
TABLES
The
material required to cover a given
following tables will prove useful in figuring the quantity of number of square feet.
SIIEtrr
METAL WORK
H()<)FI.\'(i
l.VJ
FL.Vr-.SEA.M
mil
wit
...
tl>e
H
.
Hjofing.
8ln-it of II
.'
ll
M|uare inches.
"
In
following
all
full
160
SHEET
ISIETAL
WORK
STANDING-SEAM ROOFING
Table showing the quantity of 20 X 28-inch tin in boxes, and sheets required to lay any given standing-seam roof.
SQ.
FEET
SIIKKT MKTAI.
WoUK
ir.l
NKT WKKWIT
]'.<
I
I'KU
II
Trade term
80-lb.
-lb. 90-lb.
8B
,90
DMb.
WelKbt per
Sl
r.f
Im>x.
tl>.
'm
lOU
162
known
as metal slates
and shin-
ments so that no solder is required in laying the roof. Fig. 189 shows the general shape of these metal shingles
which are made from tin, galvanized iron, and copper, the dots a a a a
representing the holes for nailing to the wood sheathing. In Fig. 190, A
represents the side lock, showing the first operation in laying the metal slate
or shingle
nail.
on a
roof,
a representing the
B, figure, shows the metal slate or shingle in position covering the nail b, the valley c of the bottom
in the
^'s- ^8^'
same
slate allowing
the water,
if
any, to
in Fig. 189.
In Fig. 191
is
slate
the ridges a a a keeping the water from backing up. Fig. 192 shows the style of
roof on which these shingles are employed, that is, on steep roofs. Note the construction of the ridge
Fig. 192,
roll,
5HEATH/NG
BOAR D
IJ
pl
and
in
which
at a a etc.,
jSb
SHEATHING BOARD
Fig. 193
shows
^^S- 190hip covering which is laid from the top downward, the lower end of the hip having a projection piece for nailing at a, over which the top end of the next piece is inserted, thus
roll
%
Fig, 191.
view of a valley with metal slates, showing how the slates A are locked to the fold in the valley B. There are many other forms of
RHKI-n^
MriWL WORK
163
netiil
sliiii^'les,
hut
tlie
tlie
Cortright patents.
TOOLS
er; starting at the left
RI:QI
IRHD
re<[ulrel
we have
A^-,
B
ImK. 192.
21
stretch-awl, .shears,
hammer,
is
aiul dividers.
In addition to these
hand
ii;.
]'.:{.
sheets,
(piired
and
r<M)(ing
folders
are
rellat-
for e<lging
the sheets in
seam
and
roofing,
r(X)fing
roofing.
lai.
standing-seam roofing
hanil
diiiilile
if
the ri>of
is
not
to
steep.
ROOr Mi:\SlR\TI()\
While .some mechanics imdiTsiand tlionughly
llie
metltods of
164
not understand
kinds of roofing, there are some, however, who do laying the various how to figure from architects' or scale drawings the
with
its
Fig. 195.
rious intersecting roofs, forming hips and valleys, render it necessary to on roof measurement. In Figs. 196 to 198 ingive a short chapter clusive are shown respectively the plans with full size measurements
for a flat, irregular,and intersected
of the hips
and
The
drawn
6'0'
illustrations
a scale as architects' drawings will be, but the measurements on the diagrams are asto
tia
ed
i
sumed, which will clearly show the principles which must be applied when figuring from scale drawings. Assuming that the plans from which
- A2-0"
we
drawn
to
a quarter-inch
scale,
Fig. 196.
then when measurements are taken, every quarter inch represents one foot. ^ inch = 6 inches, ^^
If the
inch
= 3
inches, etc.
to
a half-inch
= 6
A B C D in Fig.
as
shown hy ab
12.5
c d.
196 represents a flat roof with a shaft at one side In a roof of this kind we will figure it as if there
was no
The shaft is
6 feet
Thus 64 feet X 42 feet = 2,688 square feet. - 75 feet = = 75 square feet; then 2,688 feet
1G3
of
rH)lii4i;. ti)
wlikh must
l>e uiitlwl
iiii
allowaiife for
turning up
is
In Fig. 107
iH'ing
shown a
sitle,
one shaft
^
roof.
ilar to
The
sim-
x x x
feet
in
hcde.
is
Thus
9.25
.\
H C
1)
= lOS
4.')
X9^
feet
which
^
O
o
c
.'
scpiare feet.
sliaft,
To
bisect
xx and
and ohtain a
feet,
a,
and
412
X
d e
t*
1.
an.l
The
entire roof
feet
the shafts
\,s{'A)
square
minus 777.'S7o =
9-3
_1
JC
A 5-0"
^^'K-
4,aS2.G25
.sf|uare feet
is
''"
In Fig. 198
.shown the plan, front, and side elevations of an in.\ H (' 1 ) represents the j)lan of the main build-
SIDE
ELEVATION
lie
ing intersecte<l
1S
by the wing
1''
<
II.
We
the main
roof as
if
tlierc
sputY luken
166
up by the intersection of the wing. While it may appear difficult to some to figure the quantities in a hipped roof, it is very simple, if the As the pitch of the roof is equal on four sides the rule is understood. of the rafter shown from O to N in front elevation represents length the true length of the pitch on each side. The length of the building at the eave is 90 feet and the length of the ridge 4S feet. Take 2 = 21. Now either add 21 to the length of the 90 - 48 = 42, and 42 edge or deduct 21 from the length of the eave, which gives 69 feet as shown from S to T. The length of the eave at the end is 42 feet and = 21, as shown from T it runs to an apex at J. Then take 42 feet -^ 2 to U. If desired the hip lines A I, J B and J C can be bisected, obtaining respectively the points S, T, and U, which when measured will be of similar sizes; 69 feet and 21 feet. As the length of the rafter O N is 30 feet, then as follows: 69 X 30 = 2070. 21 X 30 = 630.
multiply
Then 630
2,070
2,700,
and multiplying by 2
gives 5,400 square feet or 54 squares of roofing for the main building. From this amount deduct the intersection F in the plan as follows:
EL
feet
6 inches and
it
intersects the
main
shown
at
E L F.
Bisect
V, which when measured will be 12 feet 3 inches or one half of HG, 24 feet 6 inches. The wing intersects the main roof from to F' in the
5,179.5.
220.5.
feet 6
inches at the ridge M, and 21 feet 6 inches at the eave F G, thus =27 feet 6 inches. The length of to making the distance from
the rafter of the wing is shown in front elevation by P R, and is 18 feet. Then 18 27.5 = 495, and multiplying by 2 (for opposite side), gives
995
sq.
ft.
in the wing.
main roof and 995 square feet in the wing, making a total 6,174.5 square feet in the plan shown in Fig. 198. If it is desired to know the quantity of ridge, hips, and valleys
feet in the
tlie roof,
in
the following method is used. the plans by adding 48' + 33'6" = 81'
the hip I
until
it
taken from
distance I
D in the
by
which
in the plan. Multilength of the hip I will give the amount of ridge capping re-
lo:
This
lengtli
hcij,'ht
liij)
tan also
Ik* obtaiiietl
from
tlie
plan by tak-
of the roof 1
I'
in the elevation I to
right angles to I
in the plan, as
shown, from
from
I-
to
length.
For
tlie
F
it
in tlie plan,
drop a
Take
the distanc"e
line
F L in
tlie
shown from F to L,
tlie
and draw a
from
T^ to F*,
which
is
valley
shown hy
tlie
LF
in the plan.
Multiply
this length
retjuireil
nund>er of
by taking the
I^ Ut
shown by
I'^
FL
in tlie plan,
from
P, ami draw a
L
at
F which The
is
ri.AT-SEAM ROOFING
lirst
iHHifing
is
scam shown in
Fig. 1!>0
is
\)ox,
the shawled
corners a a a a representing the ctjniers which are notchetl on the notching machine or with the shears.
^"
oil'
the.se
corners not
otherwise
tlie
well,
and not
much,
off
show
at tlie corners
when
to
To
fiiul
the correct
**' proceed us follows: .\ssuming that a l-inch e<lge is ilesireil, set the dividers at \ inch an<l .scribe the linens h a and c on the .sheet .shown in Fig. 100, ami,
amount
be cut
where the
lines intersect at a,
draw
which reprasents the true amount and true angle to be cut off on each corner. After all the sheets have been
notchetl, they are etlged as shown in Fig. 20(), tlie long sidesof the .sheet being bent right and left, tis shown at
a,
sitle
is
bent as .shown at
lus
b,
making
CJises
the
at
c.
In .some
after the .sheets are edgtl the contract retpiires that the
sheets
1); on the underside before laying. This is usuallv piiintetl d)ne with a small bru.sh. bring careful that tlic etlges of the .sheets
168
are not soiled with paint, which would interfere with soldering. Before laying the sheets the roof boards are sometimes covered with an
oil
or rosin-sized paoer to prevent the moisture or fumes from below from rusting the tin on the underside. As before mentioned, the same method used for laying tin roofing would be applicable for laying
have
copper roofing, with the exception that the copper sheets would to be tinned about 1^ inches around the edges of the sheets
after they are notched,
In Fig. 201 is shown how a tin roof is started and the sheets laid when a gutter is used at the eaves with a fire wall at the side. A repre-
Fig. 201.
sents a galvanized iron gutter with a portion of it lapping on the roof, with a lock at C. In hanging the gutter it is flashed against the fire
wall at J
after
D D is
Where
water discharges at G, the sheets are laid in the direction of the arrow H, placing the nails at least G inches apart, always starting to nail at the butt e e, etc. Care should be taken when nailing that the nail heads
are well covered
flashing D D
in
W, by
a.
it
is
placed, allowing
go into the
wall as at
O.
mi
iiiftluMis eiii|iluve(l.
jiiittiiij^
ill l)ii.se
two
Fig.
202
is
shown a
ami
jaraj>et
wall.
A sh)ws the fhishing turning out on the nwjf at H, with a lock C, uttache<l and flashtnl into the wall four courses of hrick al>ove the rtxjf line,
as
shown
at
I),
-^^
are usetl to paintskins or roofer's cement make a tight joint. Flashings of this be i)ainte<l on the kind shoiiltl
always
brick
underside, and
l)etween
the
paper
slujiild
lie
j)la(ed
apt to
in
I'ifi.
20J.
flashing
is
new work,
l>ecause
to settle
when
and when
this
new, the walls and beams are liable D tears out of the wall, and tlie
result
to
is
When
a new roof
is
be placed on an old building where the walls and ctipings are in beams have .settled, there is not so much place and the brick work and
in flashings
of the metal and the settlement of tlie expansion and contraction building is shown in Fig. 203, in which A shows the cap flashings,
When the ma.s4in has coats of paint bcfon* using. painted with two built his wall up to four courses of brick iibovc the roof line the ca|>
flashing
.\.
is
j)laced
and
.\.
ct>])ing finislutl;
the
base
In |>racticc the cap fhisiiing is cut 7 inches, then bent at right angles through the t*nter. (lashing making each .side (t and h 'i' inclcs. Tlic lase flashing H is then
is
then
tlipp-d
a.N
shown
at
(\
170
is
desired,
it is
They
last longer,
do not
rust,
base
flashings.
down
well
by means
heavy mallet,
with slightly convex faces, after which the roof is readv for soldering. When a base flashing
P"b
is
required on a roof which abuts against a wall composed of clap boards or shingles as shown
in Fig. 204, then, after the last course of tin
A
is
Fig. 205.
j^g^g
been
boards D.
before
it is
flashing should always be painted and allowed to dry placed in position. In the previous figures it was shown
left.
The
how
the sheets are edged, both sides being edged right and
In
Fig 205 is shown what is known as a valley sheet, where the short
sides are
shown at a a, and the long sides right and left as shown at bb.
Sheets of this kind are used
when
the water runs together from two Fig. 206. directions as shown by in Fig. 206. By having the locks a and a turned one way the roof
is
laid in
both directions.
Fig. 207
the flashing
B CDE
shows a part plan of a roof and chimney A, around which is to be placed, and explains how the corners C and D are double seamed,
whether
The
first
Thus
it.
it
operation is shown at a and Fig. 207. the final operation at b. will be seen that the water flows past the seam and not against
flat
seam roofing
for the
especially
when copper
is
used, allowsheets.
made
SIIERT
Care should
ill
MKTAL WOUK
lirectly tlir>Uf,'h
171
l)c
the sheet as
is
shown
\V.
Fi},'.
201.
r<H)Hn<;,
on a gH)d joh, as
should he
I) in Fij;. 2()S
tised.
To show how
sheets.
The
A and H
is
ii
at
b c
and
often as retjuired.
1^
B
D
Fig. 2(is.
In this
maimer
for expansion havin; a nail driven into tlie sheets, thereby allowing cleats are placed, tlie and contraction of the metal. The closer these
will hold.
By
using
fewer cleats, time may be .saved in laying the rt)of, but double this time is lost when soldering the seams, for the heat of the soUiering copper
Imk.
JO".).
.S4>ldering
ami
re<(uire
causing a succession of buckles, which retard When the seams are 10 [)er cent more .solder.
it
luiiled
or
cleaite<l clo.se
lays flat
is
ilone
soliler.
is
When
a connci-tion
to
method .shown
Fig. 2(K)
is
employnl.
This
line
illus
The heavy
ah c d
172
represents the gutter lining, which is usually made from 20-oz. coldis of stone, the stone cutter cuts a If the cornice rolled copper.
as at B, dove-tail in shape, after raggle into the top of the cornice which the lining abcdis put in position as shown. Then, being careful that there is
no water or moisture
it is
in the raggle
it is
cooled
dressed
the caulking chisel and hammer. By having the dove-tail cut, the lead
holding down
the edge of the lining and the cornice be of terra cotta this raggle
it is
baked
in the ovens.
Fig. 210.
is
the
to
be flashed.
be
in
made tight,
WTien a flashing between a stone wall and roof is to then instead of using molten lead, cakes of lead are cast
for this purpose,
molds made
as
shown
The most important step in roofing is the soldering. The style of soldering copper employed is shown in Fig. 210 and weighs at least 8 pounds to the pair. WTien rosin is used as a flux, it is also employed
in tinning the coppers, but when acid is used as a flux for soldering zmc or galvanized iron, salammoniac is used for tinning the coppers. It will be noticed that the soldering coppers are forged square at the ends,
filed in
at A. When the copper turned upward the groove should be filed toward the lower side within J inch from
is
when
the groove
is
placed
it
upon
^*g- 211-
the seam, as
shown
in Fig. 211,
acts
the copper as the latter is drawn along the seam. The groove a being in the position shown, the largest heated surface b rests directly on the seam, "soaking"
it
as a guide to
pounds
of ^
As the heat draws the solder between and h solder are required for 100 square
tin
fta
x 20-inch
The
acid
seams in a
tin roof is to
be avoided
foming
Ml.
COCYAftC'lTC^
r
i'
1
t
Kj
z.
- '\^i
r.*^
^.-.-r-f'iT
Al.IFORNIA
SlIKI-rr
MKTAI.
WOUK
are
folle<l
173
lijire
ed^'es
tlie slieeLs
ami seametl
t>-
jjetlier, will
We will now consider the soldering of upright seams. The solderas shown in Fig. ing copjier to l>e emj)lovel for this purj)ose is shaj>e<l 212. It is forge<l to a wedge shaj>e, alxnit 1 inch wide and \ inch
3Fig. 212.
and
is
tlie .solder,
tinned on one side and the end only; if tinned instead of remaining on the tinned side when
soldering,
iie<l
t
)
paretl,
would flow downward; hy having the soldering copper tinon one side only, tlie remaining sides are black and do not tend draw tlie solder downward. The soldering c^)pper being tlius pretlie upright seam, shown in Fig. 21.?, where the .sheet R overlaps
the .sheet
1", is
soldered by
first
make
it
lay close,
then tlioroughly soaking the .seam, an<l tlien placing ridges of solder across it to strengthen the same. In
using
should
shown
be held
)-
wliidi allows the soll)y C, der to flow forward and into the
y" ^
./
seam, while
a.s
if
shown by D, the solder would flow backward and away from the
solder
tlie
/ '^^^D
seam.
Vifi.
213.
directly over
part, so
that
tlie .solder
between the
makes no
dilTer-
vl\(^' where this cross joint o<curs; the same methods are usctl. The riM.f being comj)leteil, the rosin is si-rajHtl oiT the .seams
ami
tlier(M)f cleaiie<l and painted with good iron oxide aiitl linseetl oil paint. .Some roofers omit the s<Ti[)ing of rosin nnd paint dirwtly over it. If the Tliia is the cau.se )f rusting of se^uns which sometimes occurs.
174
paint is api)licd to the rosin, the hitter, with time, will crack, and the rain will soak under the cracked rosin to the tin surface. Even when
is dry, by raising the cracked rosin, moisture be found inulerneath, which naturally tends to rust the plate more and more with each storm. If the rosin is removed, the entire
by
paint.
One
of the
most
difficult
As
jobs in flat-seams roofing is that of coverthe roof in question is round in plan and taperit
ing in elevation,
is
necessary to
know
the
method
sheets.
In Fig. 214 shows the elevation of a tower to be covered with flat seam
roofing, using 10
ABC
As-
10 feet 6
obtained
3.141G
inches.
which
As
divide the
30
to-
equal spaces. B or B C gether with the length of the rafter in elevation, will be the basis from which all the
Fig. 214.
patterns for the various courses will be laid off. At any convenient place in the shop or at
the required
length, tacking
the building, stretch a piece of tar felting of the four corners with nails to it at
keep tlie paper from moving. Upon the center of the felting strike a chalk line as A B in Fig. 215, making it equal to the length
of the rafter
AB
or
AC
in Fig. 214.
B D
one half of the 13|^ above referred to. From the points draw lines to the apex A (shown broken). As the widtli of the sheet used is 10 inches and as we assume an edge of f inch for each side, thus leaving 9j inches, measure on the vertical line A B
C and
A is reached,
leaving
siiKirr MF;r\i.
wohk
'I'limu^li tlie |M>iiiLs
iiitrr statin;;
tliiis
the
liist
slut't at
tlii'
(ilttaiiinl oil
I?
the hues
I
<"
ami
lie
l) JUS shtiwii.
i)atterii.s
'
the variiiis
.^lla|Ms
marketl
.'{
etc. will
the net
for siniilarlv
iminhered
courses.
jtatterns
re(|uiretl.
on the
felting
No.
For example, take the j)aj)er pattern 1, place it on a sheet of tin a.s shown in
I'ig. 21t),
tlie tin pattern "No. 1, 21> more", as 'AO sheets are re(julrel to go arouixl the tower, and cut 29 more for course No. 1. Treat all
of the paper patterns from No. 1 to tiie apex in similar maimer. Of course where
the patterns become smaller in size at the top, the waste from other patterns can he used.
In Fig.
217
is
.shown
how
the sheets
should he edged, always being careful to have the narrow siile towards the top with
the edge toward the outside, the
flat
same
as in
tlie
seam
roofing.
Lay the
sheets in
u.sual
manner, breaking joints as in general As the seams are not sohlered |)ractice.
care must be taken to lock the edges well. .\fter the entire roof is laid and before closing the seams with the nudlet
tin'
lead,
then
close
with
the
mallet.
This
>
will
make
.\fter
a water-tight
job.
the
r(M)f
is
176
as
if
To
those the wi-iter would say that the curve would be so little on a small pattern, where the radius is so long, that a straight line answers the purpose just as well in all practical work; for it would amount to
considerable labor to turn edges on the curved cut of the sheet, and there is certainly no necessity for it.
WTien
tin roofing to
ters,
copper copper tubes to galvanized iron gutor zinc flashings in connection with copper linings, care must be taken to have the copper sheets thoroughly tinned on both sides where it
any
electrolyto roofers
It is
known
that
ly,
we take
two clean
strips,
a glass jar and fill it with water and place it in separateone of zinc and the other of copper, and connect the
electrical action is the result,
and
if
the
connection remains for a long time (as the action is very faint) the zinc
it
may
same
was
wood
fire.
Therefore,
the copper
not tinned, before locking into the other metal, and the joint became
wet with
electrical action
of the
is
for
any
required around
a pipe passing through a roof of any pitch, as shown in Fig. 218, in which A represents a smoke or vent pipe passing through the roof B B, If the roof B B were the metal roof flashing being indicated by C C.
level the
But where the roof the opening in the flashing becomes an ellipse, whose minor pitches axis is the same as the diameter of the pipe, and whose major axis is
true circle the
C would
simply be a
^'TTFF'I'
MKTAL WoUK
i.s
1~7
ttjiial
taii)el
lo
till'
pitch a
h.
ji
In
I'ig. L'l'J
()l>i>|>c>nin^ is
by
tlie
use of
few
nails, a strinir.
ami a
pencil,
which the
rfM)fer
will
then
make
[iroper
line.
A W representing the >lant of the roof, and the pipe of the <lesireil size passing through this line at its angle to the roof
draw the center
of
'
."^
Xe.xt
line
the
t
.shown.
all
h e
pipe, as po n t
i
where
tlie
this
line
I, F.
intersects
r>of
line,
and the
and
<"
points where
intersect
1)
(J
B.
and
I
II r'-
spectively.
Through
and
1
draw
.\
KL
at right angles tn
H.
making
cipial
to
KI
each
of the
j)ipc.
lished the
II.
made by
half the
tak-
ing
II,
III-
axis, as a radius,
'*^-
-''
tersecting the
major
axis, at iM)ints
M
K.
ami N.
.string to
in
jM)ints
and attach a
in sui-h a
shown by
|K)int
i>
K M
it
X.
way
that
when
j)encil
placnl
string,
ill
the string
it
will
reach
Move
keeping
Nt>te
h,
taut
all
II
(i
it
is
ol>-
tained.
a,
th'n
how
when
reache."
etc.
SI
\\IHN(i-Sr:AM kOOl
rooliiig is that
less
l\(i
known
\
as standing seiun.
\
than
pitch, or
the withh
hori/jontal
of the building.
whose
cni.-vs tir
M-am
nwiling,
and who.se
178
220
229 inclusive.
Assume
and
220,
making
sides only, as shown in Fig. by the sheet 13 x 20 inches. After the required number of
on the 20-inch
of the pitched
30
feet,
then as
many
sheets are
locked together as will be required, and the seams are closed with the mallet
In practice these strips are prepared of the required length in the shop, painted on the underside, and when
Fig. 220.
and soldered.
dry are rolled up and sent to the building. If desired they can be laid out at the buildrolling
ing,
and transportation
After the necessary strips have been prepared they are bent up with the roofing tongs, or, what is better and quicker, the roofing edger for standing-seam roofing. Tliis is a machine into which the strips of
tin are
in Fig. 221,
bent up
Or
the machine
will, if
^'^- ^'^^^
desired,
doubled seam in the first case and a 1-inch seam in the second. WHien laying standing-seam roofing, in no case should any nails
be driven into the sheets.
I"
This applies
to tin,
A cleat should
-k
which also shows the full size for laying the sheets given in Fig. 221. Thus it will be seen in 222 that \ inch has been added over the measureFig.
in Fig. 222,
^XCLEATN
Fig. 222.
ments
These
shown
in Fig.
222 are
made from
scrap metal; they allow for the expansion and contraction of the roofing and are used in practice as shown in Fig. 223,
which represents the first operation in laying a standing-seam roof, and in which A represents the gutter with a lock attached at B. The
SIIKET
la.^itncti
MKTAL WORK
170
j;imii
lock
li
the same as
its
Ihim;^'
in
|)Ositinn
in flat
.scam nxdiiig
the
stamiiri;; y^aiu
it
.stri|s
arc
lock
laiti
follows:
Take
the strip
('
ami lock
222
tijijhtly
at 1),
A its shown, ami place the cleat sliown in Fig. the upright lientl of the strip C in Fig. 2'2.'i a^ shown anti fasten it to the roof by means of a 1-inch roofing nail a.
)f
the "gutter
a},'ainst
Fig. 223.
Press the strip C firmly onto the roof and turn over e<lge b of the cleat I). This holds the .sheet C in position. Xow take the next sheet H,
|)rcss
it
down and
holds
in jKJsition.
against the cleat 1) and turn over the e<lge d, which The.se cleats should be j)laced about IS inches
Fig.
-JJ-I.
Fig. 225.
it
aj)art
will
be
sitMi that
no nails have
Ikhmi driven
through the .sheets, the entire roof being held in positi)n by nieans cf the cleats onlv.
The
.second operation
is
.shown
(>r
in
Fig. 22
I.
By means
at .
of the
and mallet
made
as
shown
The
third
and
.shown in Fig. 22') where by the n.se )f tlte .same operation In Fig. '2'2^) is .shown how the tools the doubled seam a is obtained.
last
finish is
made
tin*
(oj).
The
.sheets
A A A have
180
single edge as shown, while the opposite side B has a double edge turned over as shown at a. Then, standing seams hhh
down
is
to
e.
In Fig. 227
side of a wall
is
flashed
and counter
Fig. 226.
flashed.
shows the
gutter,
and
Fig. 227.
9-s
shown
at
D.
is
flashed
up against the
wall
as high as
strip
F represents
a standing-seam
ISl
shown by
any
J J.
.Vs
the Ha-sliing J J
Ls
not fastenetJ
can
counter or cap Hashing K K K is now slep{>e<J as lines, the joints of the brick work iK'ing cut out to This is well fastenetl with allow a one-inch flange d d d etc. to enter.
the tliushing.
The
Jiown by
tiie
heavy
ith roofer's
cement. As
by the small dots, and then made waterwill be seen the cajj flashing overlaps the
covers to
a
b.
M
i,
The
is
flanged out as
shown
and soldered
()
is
as shown,
and fastened.
In the section on Flat-.^cam Roofing
it
was explained how a conical tower, Fig. 211, would be covered. It will be shown now
how
tlie
this
ing-seam roofing. As the circumference of tower at the base is 396 inches, and
1-1
assuming that
be
usel at the
x 20-inch
tlie
tin
))late
tlie
is
to
base of
tower,
nearest
17
^''^
cumference into 23 equal parts. Then the width of ITn'j inches and the length of the
rafter
AH
or
AC
be the
the pattern
standing .seam
follows:
for
which pro-
1) ill Fig. 22.S represent a 2()-inch wide strip l.icktNl and the n-cpiirnl length. Through the center of ilie strij) draw Now measure the length of the rafter .\ \\ or .V (' in Fig. the line 1'. F. 211 and place it on the line V. V in Fig. 22S its .shown from II to F. At
T,ct .\
'
soldj-retl to
right angles to 11
e<|ual
to
F on
eitluT side
draw F
and F
ITj'j
\.
making each
S\\
in'hc.s,
182
SHEE'l
METAL \WRK
right angles to
O draw lines to the apex H (shown broken). At and H O draw lines H P equal to 1^ inches and H S equal to 1 j inches respectively. In similar manner draw L D and O C and connect by lines the points P D and S C. Then will P S C D
From
points
and
HL
strip, of
which 22 more
will
be
When
the strips are all cut out, use the roofing tongs and bend up the sides, after which they are laid on the tower, fastened with cleats, and double seamed with the hand seamer and mallet in the usual manner.
If the
m copper or
would be
galva-
could be used, as
many
sheets
locked together as required; then metal could be saved, and waste avoided, by cutting the
sheets as
shown
in Fig.
229 in which
AB CD
shows the sheets of metal locked together^ and E and F tlie pattern sheets, the only waste be-
Where ing that shown by the shaded portion. in Fig. 214 sets over the tower, the the finial
flat
as
much
""
as
is
required to receive
finial, to
the
finial,
it
or small
allow
to slip over
Before closing the seams, they are painted with the standing seams. white lead with a tool brush, then clos.ed up tight, which makes a good
tight job.
It is
usually laid directly upon the purlins in roofs constructed as shown in Figs. 230 and 231, the former being constructed to receive sidings of
corrugated iron, while in the latter figure the side walls of the building are brick. Special care must be taken that the projecting edges of the
corrugated iron at the eaves and gable ends of the roof are well secured, otherwise the wind will loosen the sheets and fold them up. The corrugations are made of various sizes such as 5-inch, 25-inch, IJ-inch and |-inch, the measurements always being from to B in Fig. 232,
The
IS3
sillier and pleasing ;i|)|K'aran(i*, Imt llie lurjier rurriij(ation.s are a ^eacer tli.staiict'.thfreljy juTjiiittiiij,' the jmrliiis to |je further will span
apart.
I'ig.
230.
The
tliickne.-vs
varies from
No. 24
of the metal f;ene'-ally iise<l for roofni}; aiui siding to No. Ki gauge. Hy actual trial made by The
i-r
184
when
desiring
any
infor-
mation
to
RESULTS OF TEST
of a corrugated sheet No. 20, 2 feet wide, 6 feet long
uniformly with
fare clay.
Load
;tif.i-:t
mi"'''\'
wmrk
sUwts
.{(1^
w*
iinlifs wiJe lK-fi>re
The
is follitwiiij!; talilf
tul<ulatel for
ct)rruj;aliiig.
j:?
"1.1
I
M.'.
23 St
.018
.73
186
Should the gable have a fire wall, then let the sheets butt against the wall and flash with corrugated flashing as shown in Fig. 235, over which the regular cap or counter flashing is placed as explained in connection with Fi";. 227. Should ^
^^.^^
_
\^__
the
ridge of
the roof
butt
\^/y/yyyjmi^m\\\w///m'Mm^
ROOF LINE
used as
is
shown
in Fig.
by
either using
cap flashing or
Fig. 234.
Fig. 235.
as would
be the case at
in
Fig.
230.
Now commence
the
second course at the eaves, giving one and one half corrugations for side lap, being careful that the side corrugations center each other
exactly
and
nail with
Nail at every other corrugation at end laps, and at about every 6 inches at
side laps, nailing through top
Fig. 236.
this
manner
rule is to be observed in regard to laps and flashing if the corrugated iron were to be fastened to iron purlins, and the method of fastening to the iron frames would be accomplished as shown in Figs.
The same
Assuming that
let
are to be covered, as
shown
in Figs.
in Fig.
Fig. 237.
the cross angles on which the sheets of the clip or clamp C, which is made from
tlie
angle B, the sheets are riveted in position. In Fig. 239 is shown another form of clamp, which is bent over the bottom of the angle iron.
;HKF.T MK'IAI.
WOHK
F is riveted
'!'
\S1
Fig.
240
to the
blieet
at K,
tlieii tiiniitl
uvriiil
having
wood
filler is
'I'his
V
Fig. 2:W.
I
FiR. 239.
snow and
put down
If
sleet.
On imn
this
is
is
made
of pressed metal.
shown
in Fig. 242.
This
is
with cleats in a manner similar to standing-seam r(X)fing. tliere are hips on the roof, the corrugated iron should l)e care-
fully
cut
with
sheet
c)vered
is
hest
which
is
tlie
roofing butts.
Sheet lead
this
tlien
formed over
into
the
Fir. 210.
and
ta.stcne<l
intt
lead
being
soft,
it
can
be
worked
a valley occurs in a hippctl roof, a valley as .shown in Fii:- 21."?, being sure to give
When
into
twoa>atsof paint
make
from
n
24-intii
wide
u
jt
1
sheets,
i
lientling
ch
it
<-s
on each
.sile.
'*' "
Fit
to
lit
in
the re(|uired angh-. corrugated iroti over the vallev from (I to s in(lle^. corrugated
cut
tlu-
iron
Then
lap
tlie
When
chinmey is to Im- flashnl, a.s shown in Fig. 244, use plain and flashing into the chimney joint>, and allowing
188
the flashing to turn up under the corrugated iron at the top about 12 inches and over the corrugated iron at the bottom about the same distance. At the side the flashing should have the shape of the cor-
rugated iron and receive a lap of about 8 inches, the entire flashing
Fig. 242.
being well bedded in roofer's cement. \Vlien a water-tight joint is required around a smoke stack, as shown in Fig. 245, the corrugated iron is first cut out as shown, then a flashing built around one half the upper part of the stack to keep the water from entering inside. This
is
sheet lead
and
riveting
it
to
Before
riveting,
the
to the
bolted
and made
tight as
shown.
This construction gives room tight joint arovmd the stack. stack to sway and allows the lieat to escape.
in Fig.
FRONT AND REAR VIEWS OF RESIDENCE OF MRS. H. M. COBB, MAGNOLIA DRIVE, CLEVELAND, OHIO Watterson & Schneider, Architects, Cleveland, Ohio.
^l^
MH.
M.
1.
llHlMls,
t>l>li.
.MAi.Sviii\
i.mi.i,
I.KVKI.ANI).
OHIO
Wnitprooti
1S^
Where
and
inet't.->
at the ridge, as at 1)
and
i) in Figs. 2'.U)
^p-p_^-_
Fig. 244.
in position
a.s
exphiined in connection
witli
ridge, pressed
TiK.
21.".
corriigatnl iron,
is
riilge
jis
.sh(wn in Fig.
'2\i\.
When
a ridge
roll
i.s
rejwiri-d,
is
eniployitl.
190
by means of riveting
LAYING CORRUGATED
shown
SI
DING
Before pntting on any corrugated siding or cla])boarding, as in Fig. 24S, a finish is usually made at the eaves by means of a
Fig. 24G.
hanging gutter or a plain cornice, shown in Fig. 249, which is fastened This method is generally to the projecting wooden or iron rafters.
used on elevators, mills, factories, barns,
etc.,
where corrugated
iron,
This
Fig. 217.
and gable projections, so as to make When laying the siding commence the building entirely ironclad. at the left hand corner, laying the courses from ba.se to cornice, giving
style of cornice covers the eaves
the sheets a lap of two inches as the ends and one and one half corruga-
Fig. 248.
Nail side laps every 6 inches and end laps at every tions at the sides. other corrugation, driving the nails as shower in Fig. 250. Where the sheets must be fastened to iron framing use the same
method
In as explained in connection with Figs. 238, 239 and 240. would be riveted. If siding
the studput on the wooden studiling care should be taken to space In the same distance apart as the laying width of the iron used. ding
siii:i:r
miim.
In-
\\<)1:k'
i'.i
tliis
vase piet-es of
stiidiliti;;
sIhmiM
tlie
eml of
facli
.slu-rt (u
(\)nuneinr at the hase and necessary to use swinging scall'olds. ( 'omineiKe the course to the eave, the leii<,'tli of the scatt'ol.!. carry up
it is
and
j^ive
at the end.
Nail or rivet in every corrugation 'i inches from the lower end of tlio sheet; this allows
for settling of the huilding.
Fig.
2.").
A
to
When any
lie
structure
is
(ii\frfd
oil
two
(ir
nior'
.sides,
flat
corner casinjjs
are
made
of
iron
-diy
H, I'V-
-d.
an<l
I( i^
will
he
s.eii
that a ralihet
.sides
(I
heiit
on
lH>th
to
admit
the
finish
If
KiK
-'.''
I.
.siding.
on
a
tlu*
outside and
is
hides
to
the
rough
l.el
window opening
,
have
ral>-
at .\,
l-'ig. 'J.'l
at
II
frame.
In
I'ig.
J.'iL*
is
192
bent so that a
nailed to the
window
while b forms a flashing over which the siding will set. Fig. 253 shows the sill of a window, which has a rabbet at a, in which the siding is
Fig. 252.
;
Fig. 253.
water coming over the sill passes slipped then b forms a drip, and any over the siding without danger of leaks; c is nailed in white lead to the
window frame.
Another use
awnings.
sheets laid
to
is
put
is
to cover
sheds and
Sheets laid on
wood
on angle
Fig. 254.
In Fig. 254 is shown an awning over a store laid on angle iron supports. In work of this kind, to make a neat appearance, the sheets are cui'ved to conform to the iron bracket A.
preceding sections.
lj;iy
feet 2 inches
and
Ft
feet
10 inches wide.
I^ijm
allowed on the 3 feet 2 inch pieces and no laps on the S inch and 5 feet 10 inch i)ieces. The lookouts or iron braces are indior flanges for soldering are to
\)e
cated in the plan by the hea^y dashes making a total of 9 required. After the detail ."section is drawn and knowing the angle of the bay in plan,
the angle
vertically
is
placed as
.'i1
from
in the .section.
to place
Ls
CB on
a line
drawn
to the
Ls
vertical lines
dropped
miter line
BD
as shown.
At
right angles to
1
BC
drawn
as
shown by
to 2G, through
and
intersected
by similar numbered
line
BD
at right angles to
Now
make
the distance
The
3 feet 2 inches
and 5
feet
As
right
will
and one
be seen by the plan, two eight inch j)ifces will be required, one Nine left and two 3 feet 2 inch and one 5 feet 10 inch pieces.
l>o
(ouud oa
tlie
buck of
tliiii
imgv.
\\\\\\\v.y\\\\\\\\\v
w
a,
-r*
-^
C
o
<t^
" W o
-t^
cu to
."
>K
^ 3 O
_ -
o w < n H H
(fl
in
(0
s H
n o
a-
a H
to
O 2 O
Hi*
J
6<
H
ee
7
-^
.,-2-.e-
:,oi-s^-
SHEET METAL
I'AHT
II
WOPK
COIi^MCi:
There
is u)
WORK
ti)-<lay
trade
iti
.-.uch
Sheetrapid projjress as that of Sheet-Metal (Joniice, or Arehitectural of this braneh Metal Work. It is iKit very lun^ since the j^eiieral scope
iif
(Taftsinaiishij)
seale.
merely represented a tin-shop hnsiness on a larj^e But as things are tt)-tlay, this is changt^l. Fn)iu an enlarged
that title tin-shop business, sheet-metal cornice work, including under branch of architectural sheet-metal work, has l)ecoit'e one of tlie everA'
anv
<ther
mechanical branch
Nor
is
this
wrk
In tlie smaller towns is .>.hown the progconfined lo the larger cities. ress of architectural sheet-metal work in the erection of entire building
fronts
CONSTRlCriON
Sheet-metal cornices have heretofore,
in a great
in
measure, l>een
wood, which, in duplications of the designs commonly em|)loyed were imitations {f stone. turn, with minor modifications,
this industry,
is
however,
not
this
ca.se.
.sheet-metal corni'e
now
imitajat-
j)os.sesses
a variety
its
own.
.\'o
I lern is to) complex or too diilicult. )esigns are salisfactrily e.\tH-util which are imjM>.ssible to product' in any other material. in sheet metal free and judi'ious aj)plication of j)res>ed metal ornaments, a liy the
pn<luct
sharj)
is
and clean-<ut
For bo|dnes.s of figure, obtained that eijuals carved work. sheet-metal work takes the leail of all coimlines,
|ctitors.
In onler that there nuiy be no misimdersianding as to the various onlained in what the sheet-metal workir ealls a "cornice."
I
'
>.
in tlu-
ha.i been prepared, which giv's the nanus of all the meiMbers the architeitural name for what in Uu* .sliop ia "entablature"
194
known as the cornice. The term "entablature" is seldom heard among mechanics, a veiy general use of the word "cornice" having
supplanted
it
in the
common
language of business.
frieze,
An entablature consists of three principal parts the cornice, the and the architrave. A glance at the illustration will serve to
relation that each bears to the others.
is
show the
Among mechanics
and
for
cr
i- i
1
UJ
QUARTER ROUND
STILE
COVE
I
PANEL
V
_l UJ
PANEL MOULD
i
u
WA5H
y QUARTER ROuFTd^
'"ILLET
X o a. <
.JL.
FASCIA
DRIP
OQ O
-I
o
FASCIA
Fig. 255.
the subdivisions of the cornice, dentil course, modillion coixm^, bedmould, and croum-mould. In the modillion course, are the modiUion-
band and mod ill ion-mould; while in the dentil course are ihe dentilhand and dentil-mould. Drips are shown at the bottom of die crownand foot-mould fascias, and the ceiling under the crown mould is called
the planceer. The edge at the top of the cornice is called a lock, and is used to lock the metal roofing into, when covering the top of the cor-
195
the Mile.
In the panel, tliere are tlie panel pruper, the paael-iiwuld, The side and fmnt of the inodilhon are als4) shown.
2')<>
aii<l
Fij;.
frint
view of what
<s
known
as a
Lar^e tenninal brackets in cornices, which ])roject l)eyond the niouldin^'s, and a;;ainst which the
hracket.
nionhUngs end, are caUed trnsses, a front and a side view of whidi are
shown
ill
Fi^.
'2'u
hlock phiced
a<;ainst
Fig. 250.
above
which
stop
common
bracket
tlie
hlfx'k,
2.jU
is
tlie
front eleva-
tion of
iiiiiiiiiii i iii i iii i iiiiiiii i i
u iiiii
that
bracket or modillion
is
called for,
whose
front
and sides
In
tained
fmnx dealers
in
pressetl
ornaments,
who make a
specialty
'I'he
same
FRONT
Imk.
'-ViT.
SIDE
aj)[)lics
to
be reipiircd for
blasters or col-
unins, such
a.s
tho.se
shown
the
sol-
in
2l'i2.
The
pilaster or
oolinnn
would be formed
metal, and
antl
r
!
up
in .sheet
ca|>ital
purcha.sel
in
dered
2r)3,
position. .shows an
In
liu
inclined
a.s
moulding, which,
general
position
far as
front
Fi. 2.VS.
SIOC
is
con-
same
as a gable monlding.
196
Raking inouldings are those which are incHned as in a gable or pediment; but, inasmuch as to miter an inchned moulding (as A) into a horizontal moulding (as B and C), under certain conditions, necessitates
ers,
a change of profile, the term "to rake," among sheet-metal workhas come to mean "to change profiles" for the accomplishment of
FRONT ELEVATION
Fig. 259
the term "raked moulding" has been changed to admit of mitering. profile
such a miter.
Hence
The tenn
ing at
miter, in
common
any angle.
foiTn a veiy important part in sheet-metal architectural
Drawings
FRONT ELEVATION
Fig. 2G0.
SIDE ELEVATION
work.
An
elevation
is
object, on a plane perpendicular to the horizon as, for example, 259 and 263. Elevations are ordinarily drawn to a scale of | or Figs.
>liHKT MHTAI.
\
WORK
19/
iiuli
ti>
till'
fiMit.
it
.^fctionul
(itluT <l)ject as
a.s,
would
drawituj sliuws a view <<f a Ijuilditig Ot if cut in two at u jjivcii vertical line a|)|)ear
Detail draw'mtfs arronliiiarily
full size, ai.d
for
example,
Fij;.
2').*).
A--
SEC
<//'^.-r-.
ON
iUN
.V/. / ....
Fiu.
-'t,!.
Fit;
2(V.>.
made
\>y traciii<r
iipon traiisparct't
i-lotli
Fi?. 2rt3.
inal
drawiiij;.
eiioiigli,
we
lielieve,
M-inv other terms might l>e ititrodiiccti her'; l>nt ha '' l>'eii presented to give the student the leading
general
]Miint.s.
198
A few
to the wall.
the cornice
made
of such a
wide range of
sizes,
and
are required to be placed in so many different locations, that the methods of construction, when wooden lookouts are employed and
Fig. 264.
when
up,
the cornice
is
put together at the building in parts, are worthy of The general order of procedure in putting
as follows:
The
wall finished
foot-moulding or architrave a b (Fig. 264) is set upon the up to /, the drip a being drawn tight against the wall.
in position,
up a few courses higher to hold the lookout in A board B is then nailed on top of the lookouts (which position. should be placed about three feet apart) and on this the flange of the
;
foot-mould b
is
fastened.
is
The
frieze or
panel 6 c
is
now
placed into
closed
C and
the
board
siiKi<n^ .\ii-rrAi.
work
M9
.s<l(lere<l
The
1>,
plaiifeer
ami
lo<l-ini>ul(l c
at
and the
Io<jk(iUt
phicetl
under
t!>e liHikoiits
ceer
is
the entire lenj^th of the cornice; onto this l>oard the j>lunfastened. Having the |)n)j)er measurements, the framer now
I
H, fastening
tt)
the
beam
at
T, when the crown-mould d c is fastened flange of the drip at d, and at the top at r.
of mouldings, are
to the plani-eer,
through the
made by
The
seam when
sliort
finished
and viewed
from a
distance.
If
be placed
of
"T
l)ack
tiie
cornice
is
blocked out
thus constructed on
will resist fire for
wooden lookouts
a long time, a strictcornice is obtained only ly fireproof by the use of metal for supports and
fastenings, to
w(H)d.
This
is
method
Fig.
of conFig.
20.';.
Ntniction
shown
in
20.').
Inis
stead of piitting up ill j)arts on the l)uilding, the c-ornice stnicted in one piece in the shoj) or upon the ground, an<l to the top of the wall in long lengths A <lrip a easily handled.
at the
i-on-
lioisteil
is
used
in-
way
di(ate<l at h
and
r,
with a lock at d.
Hand
iron supprts
are \iscd, formc(l to the general ctiutour of the parts as ( ', an<l bolted direct to the cornice, as shown, before hoisting.
When
to the
the cornice
.sets
on the wall
jus
at (',
main brace, as
at I>
and
I.,
with an cud
up or dwn
for
fastening.
hi> wall,
phnnb. the
nut.son carries
up
crni<c in a lirni
iisn.-il
hark
iirr
in flu-
The
200
roofer.
run througli
SHOP TOOLS
One of the most important tools in cornice or architectural sheetmetal working shop is the brake. On those operated by hand, sheets In the laCrger shops, are bent up to 8 feet in one continuous length.
power presses or brakes are used,
feet in length, the press
in
l)en(ls in one operation. squares, or acute Large <S- f)r 10-feet squaring shears also form an important addition to the shop, and are operated by foot or power.
frieze
is
verv
usual to put crimped metal in, to avoid the waves and buckles showing in the flat surface; for this purpose the crimpitig machine
is
used.
In preparing the iron braces for use in the construction of fireproof cornices, a punchltu/ machine and slittimj shears are used for
cutting the band iron and punching holes in it to admit the bolts. \Miile braces are sometimes bent in a vise, a small machine known as a
hra^e bender
is
constructions,
necessary that
all
made
a manner that,
to indicate
grained, no differences
is
be apparent
done by means of the draw-hcnch, which is conup to 20 feet and longer, operated by means of an endless chain, and capal)le of drawing the sheet metal over any shaped wood mould as tightly as if it were cast in one piece. The smaller
is
shop are similar to those described in the Instruction on Tinsmithing and Sheet Metal Work, Part I. Papers
tools in the
The
2xi\
:(ll
iiu-iiiIhts
run para
a.s
lei;
for
it
makes
this
Wiirereiiee
what
j)rulile
is
eiiiiiloxed, Mt
Imig
|aralUI
to
i>arallel-line
method
is
usel.
While
will
method
ill
ehiefly
l!ie
employed
in corniee
uris'.
which
"Kadial-I.iiu" and
(ex-
plained in previous Papers) will lu- of >erviie. 'I'lie term used in the >hop for pattern ;,'enerally
iiitiin};
on
e<.rnief
work
is inilir i-iitfiinf.
To
illiistrite,
>iippo
-c
two
90
piece-r of moiildin;;-^
are to
le
joined
as
lo^'elher
at
anjjie of
L'tit't.
IK)*^,
shown
in Fi<;.
V^-T"',
The
first
woukl he
an^Ie an<l
linf
to
l)ise<t
olitaiii
the
initrr-
that
If a
kin.
-'till.
<arj)iiter
make
in the miter-l)ox,
of
l."),
and he would
sitifui l)eforo
careful to hold the moulding in its proper posawing; or else he may, instead of having a return miter as shown, have a face miter as in
I
|ictiire
L'(i7.
'I'he
maker cannot,
is
moulding
formed, place
to
it
in the miter-
\.
o.
l>o\
cut
XJLU
FIr.
:it>7.
lay
out
must
other words,
sheet of metal.
careful to place the profile in its piopi-r |>o.sition with the miterliu'-'; or else, instead of ha\ing a return miter as shown in Fig. L!(i(>, lu*
will
in Fig. 2<i7.
If
corretly,
jiieces,
lln'
fonn om-
right
left,
when
l<M,k
will
shown
l''ig.
i*i
Fig. LMWJ.
If.
desinil. as
for panels
^howti in
'ji\7,
which
is
used
when miters
an-
d'sirs|
and other purjMises, the method of laying them out we ppweed. The same principles reijuired for and
Uti?
will lie
esplaiiml as
are
\isvt\,
de\i'|oping I''igs. "Jllti whether the mouldings are mitereil at angles oflH/'
202
or otherwise. The method of raking the mouldings or, in other words, changing their profile to admit the mitering of some other moulding at various angles will also be thoroughly explained as we
proceed.
Roman, and
are obtained
of mouldings arising in the cornice shop are chiefly by using the arcs of a circle. In some cases,
Greek mouldings are used, the outlines of which follow the curves
of conic sections; but the majority of shapes are arcs of circles.
In
Fig. 268.
Fig. 269.
268 to 272 inclusive, the student is given a few simple lessons on mouldings, which should be carefully followed. As all pattern-cutters are required to draw their full-size details in the shop from
Figs.
Roman
to
by the architect, it follows that they draw the moulds with skill and ease; other-
Fig. 270.
Fig. 271.
wise freehand curves are made, which lack proportion and beauty. In Fig. 268, A shows the mould known as the cyma recta, known
shop as the ogee, which is drawn as follows Complete a square abed; draw the two diagonals a c and b d, intersecting each other at e. Through e, draw a horizontal line interThen, with / and h as centers, draw resecting adatf and 6 c at h. spectively the two quarter-circles a e and e c.
in the
:
2.
>..
. v ., ij^lectrical
Engineering.
The Library. The Building is 257 Feet Long. 46 Feet Wide. " The Reading Room is 100 Feet by Feet. The Stacks tor Books Have Room for Over 400,000 Volumes. Cost of Building, $250,000.
41
SHEEl
In
Fiji. -"!K
(
.\ifc:iAl.
WORK
known
in the
2(A
H shows
shop as the
h r d, and lniw tlie two lUimonuls 'oniplete u square a h d and a r at ; thnai^h r, draw a vertical line intersecting interseetinj;
(Hfir, rcversetl.
abut } and
a f an<l e c.
at
//,
tlie
arcs
C
is
in Fig.
whidi
drawn hy coni]>lcting a s(|uare a I) c d. I )raw the diagonal h d at 4o, which pn)ves tlie
using d as a center, (|uarter-(ir(le a c In Fig. 271, 1) represents the
s(|iiare;
and,
draw
tlie
ovolu or
rchinun,
known
is
rnund, which
Fig. 270, witli
is use<l
to obtain the
in Fig.
E
mould.
272
known
as the torus,
is
known
in
A given
distance a b
to
any de-
V\k. -27^.
it
is
somehnuvs m|uirrd
tiiat iiirirlinieiils
and bead.
are added in the t)giH', cove, mould must be bent to; receive these enobtaine<l
in
is
iisiuilly
fmm
Thus,
Fig. 273,
204
richment being indicated by a 6 in the section, in which the dotted Hne d c shows the body of the sheet-metal uioukUng bent to receive the H represents i)art of a bed-mould in which pressed work. In Fig 274,
Fig. 274.
In this case the body of the are placed. cd in the section, after w^iich the egg-andJ in Fig. 275 represents part
Fig. 275.
The body of of a foot-mould on which an enriched bead is fastened. would be formed as indicated by c in the section, and the the mould bead a b fastened to it. This same general method is employed, no
matter what shape the pressed work has.
stiff
If the student cannot use the small brake in the racy of the pattern. and test his patterns cut from metal, he can use the dull blade of shop
once proves interesting and instructive. Should patterns. there be any problem which is not clear, he should write at once for further information; or, should any problem arise on which he desires This
at
J(I5
School
will iiiforiii
liiiii
wliicli
|trol)leiu
in
liis
text-
similar
|)riiici|)U's.
The
return
lirst
|>rol)lciii
iiiitcr.
shown
in Fij;. 27t).
In
Fij:.
277
of ol)first
taiiiinjj
The
v^
\
^
'
.1
descriheil
the |)rinci{)les
to
^'^^- -'*'
what
ani,'le
the plan
may
have.
The
second method
is
the "short'
ELEVATION
II
II'
10 9
8 7'6'5'4'3' Z'
'
l'
'h
'
l-ig
"V7
206
rule generally
obtain the pattern by the first niethotl, proceed as follows: of the mould as shown First, by 1, B, A, 11, drawing the coves by the rule previously given. Divide the curves into equal spaces; and number these, including the corners of the fillets as shown
To
to 1 1.
In
its
draw the
soffit
plan as
F by
the line
HG
rious intersections in the elevation, drop lines intersecting the miter-line At right angles to as shown. G, draw the stretchout line 1' 11',
upon which place the stretchout of the mould 1 11 in elevation, as shown by similar figures on the line 1' IT. At right angles to 1' 11', and from the numbered points thereon, draw lines, which intersect by lines drawn at right angles to H G from similarly numbered intersections
on the miter-line
G D.
Trace a
line
Fig. 278.
Then will 1' G J 11' be the desired This gives the pattern by using the miter-line in plan. pattern. In developing the pattern by the short method, on the other hand, the plan is not required. At right angles to 1 B in elevation, draw the
thus obtained, as
shown by J G.
11 in elevation, as
of the profile
11", at right
angles to
which draw
through the
numbered
points as shown,
which intersect by
lines
drawn
at right angles to 1
from similarly
numbered intersections in the profile in elevation. Trace a line through points thus obtained, as shown by G K. Then will G 1" 11" K be
similar to J
1' 11'
.^iii:i:'i
Mi;i'AL
wouk
207
In
Fijj.
?78
is
shown a
Jigaiiist
A miter cut <f this kind would plane surfatr oljlitjue in elevation. be re<|uired when the return nioiilriinj^ of a ilonner window woidd butt
against a
Ui
mansard or other
pitclietl roof.
In this case
we
a.ssunie
be the return
liuttinj; Ji^jainst
The
luetljocl of
PATTERN
Fig.
'JTU.
is
shown
.\
1
in Ki^'.
LT'.t.
I,i-t
.\
1?
('
|)
represent nxif. In
tlie
its
n'jresentin>,'
the
pitcli
1
of the
II. which proper position as shown, draw the .section spaces as .sliowii. and fn)m which, paralh'l ti A H,
draw hues
intersecting,' the
shmt
as
hiic
1)
fn)m
1'
to
11',
1,
as .sliown.
At
right atigh's to
AH
erect
th'
stretchout hue
ujM>n which
phuv
11'.
s-'tinii
shown
b\'
similar li;4un's
on
1'
At
right angles In
I'
11',
jMiints tiiertiin,
tlraw lines, which intenjcci by lines drawn at right angles to similarlv tnnnberc<l intersections on the slant line \ I'
li
fnin
Through
208
Then
will
EF
be the desired pattern. It is sometimes the case that the roof against which the moulding butts, has a curved surface either concave or convex, as shown by B C
in Fig. 280,
which surface
moulding, as
E; and
Complete the elevation of the proper position draw the section 1 9, equal spaces as shown by the small figures, from
is
convex.
in
its
lines until they intersect the curved line B C, struck from the center point A. At right angles to the line of the moulding erect the line 1' 9', upon which place the stretchout
SECTION
c
Fig. 280.
of the section, as
the numbered
intersect
shown by the figures on the stretchout line. Through 1' 9', draw lines, which by lines drawn at right angles to 2 D from similarly numbered
points, at right angles to
intersections
on the curve
C, thus resulting in the intersections 1" to The arcs 2" 3" and 7" 8" are simply repro-
and 7 9 on
C.
traced by any convenient method; or, if the radius to make it inconvenient to use, the arcs in the pattern
as follows:
AC
Using
AC
as radius,
;
and
7"
and 8" as
centers, describe
arcs intersecting each other at A' in similar manner, using 2" and 3" as centers, and with the same radius, describe arcs intersecting each
2(W
nulius.
ct-uters.
and
.)"
2" respeetively.
Then
In
Fi<j.
"J-Sl
is
shown an
panel
for
which a miter-cut
known
its
The
pattern
shows the
panel;
In
jjart
elevation of
c
<l,
the
a h
and
the
miter-lines
45.
drawn
at angles of
its
proper
tiie
position
mouM-
the ing, draw the pn)Hle B. cun'eor mould of which divide into ef|ual spaces, as shown
hy the figures
allel
to 7;
and
fn)iu
h,
draw
lines
inter-
I-iR. Jsi.
liK.
JSJ
.seeling
allel
From
the.se intersections,
to
(I,
draw
At
line-s
draw
pndih' n.
)M)iiits
angles
to
upon which plai-e the stretchout of the 1' 7', and through the nundiertnl
angles
lines
(I
which intersect by lines drawn at right d fnmi similarly numbere<l intersiH-tions on the nuterTrace lines through the various |M>ints <f interanti r d.
a.s
shown.
Then
will
1>
1',
1'
be the
re|uin*<l
The same
miter-<'Uts
would be employnl
210
Fig. 281,
when
Wliere the miter-cut is required for a panel whose angles are other than right angles, as, for example, a triangular panel as shown in Fig. First draw the elevation of 283, then proceed as shown in Fig. 284.
the triangular panel as
shown by
AB
being equal. Bisect each of the angles\A, B, and C, thus obtaining the In line with the elevation, place in its miter-lines Ac, B 6, and C a.
ELEVATION
a.
From
these intersec-
B, draw
6 B.
At
right angles to
Fig. 283.
Fig. 284.
and
at right angles to
Through the numbered points of divi7', draw lines as shown, which intersect
h B.
Through the
points thus
F G H I.
It makes no difference what shape or angle the panel may have; the principles above explained are applicable to any case. In ornamental cornice work, it often happens that tapering mould-
ed panels are used, a plan and elevation of which are shown in Fig. 285.
SIIKKT MinWI,
My
to the plan,
it
WOHK
a,
211
rt'ffrriiif;
will In-
ami
it is riei-exsan.-
only to
<lra\v
shown
is
2.S(),
ami
v (I'V-
2^3)
known.
1m.
2,S.5.
by a
15
fi
0.
5 and
9 into
ofjiia'.t.
spaces, indicated respectively hy 1, 2, 3, 4, and o, and (, 7, S. and As the ])attern will he ileFn)ni tiiese jxtints, draw lines to the apex a.
velojxxi
by triangulation, a
he
rcnpiireil.
as
shown
in
I'lK.
-'sti.
Diaw any
horizontal line, ns
I;
and
is
It
panel
fn)in
a erect the perpendicular (i ' npial to the height the to havi-. Now take tlu> lengths of the \arious lines in Fig. 2S(
fi-orn
I, rj
to
to 2, a to 3, etc., to a to<),
ly
line o
in
Fig. 2S7,
a.s
.shown
similar ninnhers.
Then
212
lengths a' 1, a' 2, a' 3, etc., to a' 9, and with any point, as a' in Fig. 288 as center, describe the various arcs shown from 1 to 9. From any
draw a Une
to a'.
curve
starting
from
in Fig.
288
to an-
num1
shown from
to 5.
in Fig. 286,
and place them on corresponding arcs in Fig. 288, stepfrom one arc to the other, resulting in the points 5 to 9. Trace ping
thus
a line through the points obtained.
will a' 1
Then
5 6 9 a' be the
quarter-pattern,
which
In Fig. 289
is
shown
Fig. 288.
occurs when a moulding is angle other than a right angle. This window or other structure whose angles vary. required for over a bay
to in Fig. 290 is applicable or profile. First draw a any angle section or an elevation of the moulding
as shown by A B 14 1. Directly below the moulding, from its extreme point, as 2 3, draw a plan of the desired
angle as
Fig. 289.
shown by C 2 D.
Bisect this
angle by using 2 as center and, with any radius, describing an arc meeting
the sides of the angle at C and E. With the same or any other radius, and with C and E as centers, describe arcs intersecting each other in F. be the From the corner 2, draw a line through F. Then will 2
213
or
tlip aiifjle
('2
1).
Xow
iliviile
the
tlie
14 into vt[un\
as sluiwu by
tlie figures,
and from
tlius obtaineti
-\
::;:
111
12
, 1
,1
ELEVATION
13
l|-i
.1
'
1
'
-B
(4
lail 109 8 7 6
5 4
PATTERN
"M
Fig. 290.
II in
plan from
to
('
14
2.
a.s
.shown-
At
ri^'ht
I
angles to
draw the
line K, n|K)n which place the stretchout of the |)rofile in elevation a.s .shown by similar figures on the
|K'rpendicular to
linivs
.1
K, which
parallel
intersect with
to
I
drawn
K
I-
from
similarly
mnnb'nHl
|M>int.s
of intersection
line
_'
II.
Traci- a line as
shown
liy
M, which
is
desired.
\N
j)roliles
('
are reipiin^l to
miter lt)gelhcr
where
214
with D, two distinct operations are necessary, which are clearly shown
The first operation is shown in Fig. 292, in the elevation of an ogee moulding which is to represents miter at right angles with a moulding of different profile as shown at D.
in Figs.
which
into equal
the
moulding
right
from
to 10'.
At
the
angles
to the line of
on
angles to
B.
PATTFRN FOR
Fig. 292.
draw
lines
lines,
which
intersect with
drawn parallel to A B from similarly numbered intersections Trace a line in the profile D.
through the points thus obtained,
as
shown by
E H. Then
for
will
E
in
Fig. 293.
GH
To
be the pattern
elevation.
obtain the pattern fori), is to miter at right draw the elevation of (Fig. 293), which with a moulding whose profile is C. Proceed in precisely angles Divide the same manner as explained in connection with Fig. 292. in Fig. 293 into equal parts, as shown, from the profile which draw horizontal lines cutting the profile C. At right angles
siiKtrr
MhrrAL
D, ilraw
tli'
wouk
liiu-
21;
to
till-
llif >tri't(li)Ht
I).
IJ,
iijmii
pnilik'
At
ri}^lit
uii^U's to
its
B,
shown,
AM
('.
Iraw
;.
Then
will
EF
he the
clesirel
pattern for
).
It
shoulil
|)atterns in Fifjs.
202 and
shown
in
Fig.
201.
however, an outside
refjuired,
it
miter were
wouKl he
Fig.
When
Fig. 291.
n g
curved moulding with a straight mouUling in either plan or elevation even though the cur%ed or .straight mouldings each have tlie
same
profile,
it
is neces.sar}-
to estal)lish
the pattern can be correctly develojied, an example being given in of a curvtnl moulding which Fig. 204, which shows an elevation
is
intersecte<l
by
tlje
horizontal mouldings
H.
The method
of ol>is
for the horizontal pieces, taining this miter-line, also the pattern
clearly
shown
is ("
in Fig.
20.').
1
First
10.
draw the
pn)iile
moulding
to have, as
H be
e.stablisluMl.
Then, with
the arc
line
<i
on the center
line as center,
and
.V
A.
I).
pmlile
1
10,
draw
to 10 asshowii.
From
the center
draw any
to 10'.
radial line, as
d, cutting the
arc
M A at
e to
e.
Now
take
tin-
various divisions
1'
on a
/,
</ jus
shown bv points
Then, using (' its center, with radii deterniineil bv the various jioints on r d, dniw arcs intersecting horizntal Through Urn's of similar mu'diers drawn through the divisions on a b.
216
these points of intersection, draw the miter-Hne shown. will note that this line is irregular.
is
horizontal moulding by drawing the stretchout line E F at right angles On E F lay off the stretchout of the profile 1 10; and to 9 B.
E F, draw horithrough the numbered points and at right angles to which intersect with lines drawn at right angles to 9 B zontal lines,
from similarly numbered
a'.
in-
tersections
in
the
miter-line
lines
determined by horizontal
which
is
A
B
Fig. 296.
In Fig. 296
is
of a gable moulding intersectthe vertical pilaster cutting against a 6 c. To obtain this joint-line,
without which the pattern for the gable moulding cannot be developed,
an operation in which
In
its
in projection is required.
This
is
in plan, place the profile of the gable moulding, proper position which divide into equal spaces as shown by the figures as shown by A,
1
to 8,
pilaster
lines intersecting the plan of the through which draw horizontal For convenience in prosimilar figures. shown B C as
by
SlIKKT
varu)ii.s |x)iiil.s,
MKTAL WoHK
to
2l'i
jectiiij;
till'
and
avoid a coiifusion of
lines,
number
the intersections between the Hnes lrawn from the pntfile A llirougfi At the (h-sired in.int II in elevathe wash H 2. "7". "4", an<l *':{^'.
ti)n,
a.s
II
I".
Take a
various intersections on
>anie,
and
as
j)lace
it
in
elevation
shown
by
tersections
2, 3, 4, o,
<),
1, 7,
4, 3.
in
11.
7.
and S
to
A',
and
|)arallel
draw
lines
indefinitely,
lines
which intersect by
drawn
("
at ri^dit an<jles to
in
ilarly
numbered
s
I)
H,
11
obtainini:
the
1"
[)oints of intersection
to
S* in elevation.
j)rorij^ht
draw
the
^t^tchout line
K, upon
tersection
I
2.
At
anodes to
j>oints,
draw
S*
lines as
I''
shown, which
intersect
by
lines
drawn
in
inlerse<-tions
iIm-
the
Throu^'h the points thus obtained, trace will I, \ ( ) I' be the pattern for tlu- jjable mouldiiifj.
miter-cut
MN
>.
'I'hen
In Fiy.29S are
uj)on a wash.
The
218
mouldings
In this case,
Draw
horizontal moulding B^ with the wash a b. From this section project lines,
D
is
C.
Knowing
have, draw C B,
shown from
parallel to
to
8;
which divide into equal parts as and through the point of division draw lines
C, indefinitely, as shown.
it
Take
A'.
A, and place
in section as
shown by
Divide
PATl
SECTION
ELEVATION
Fig. 299.
number
draw
of spaces as
horizontal
through similarly through these intersections as shown, which represents the miter-line
A; and from the various divisions in A* drop wash a 6 as shown, from which points lines intersecting lines drawn parallel to B C numbered points in A, at 1 to 8. Trace a line
E F, at right angles to B C, upon which place the stretchout of the profile A, as shown by similar figures on the stretchout line E F, Through the numbered pomts of division and at right angles to E F, draw lines as shown, which intersect by
SIIKK'I
MKTAL WOHK
|{
219
lilies
tlrawii at
rij^lit an;,'lr.s ti
('
fnmi similarly
line
i
niiiiiltertti
iiUersec-
tioiis
on
1 ff anil
on
as
tlu-
vertical
<
15
1).
shown Ity I, uill he tiiedesiretl pattern. Ill Fifj. 30() is shown a fnjiit view )f a turret on which four j:aljles are to he i)hice<l, as shown hy A A; also the nnifs !b/A r! over same, as shown hy B B. The j)n)hleni con|)oiiit.s thii.sc)l)taine<l,
1
1
sists in ohtaininjj
moiihlinfjs
.-J
only
is
rtH|uire<l,
in
Fig. 301, in
which
first
draw the
the turret, as
I),
B
its
C.
At
( '.
and
in
j)n)j)er
FiK. 300.
position as shown, draw the prf)file .\, whicji divide into ef|ual spaces as shown hy the Hjjures
1
lo 0, throuj^h
center line
FE
as
which, parallel to B C, draw lines intersecting the shown; and extend the lines helow (", indefinitely.
it
Now
shown hy
take a tracing of the profile A, an<l place A*, heing careful to have it spaced in the
in
same numher
position as of
divisions, as
shown from
to 6,
through which,
lines
j)aralk'l to
D C, erect
numhered
A, thus ohtaining the intersections 1 to G, through which a line is traced, which represents the line of joint at the lower end hetween
the two gahles.
For the
J
j)attcrn,
it
on the
to
('
line
.1
on
K.
At right angles to .1 K, and through these p)ints of division, draw lines, which intersect hy lines drawn fn)m similarly numhere<l interstx-tions on
as
1" li
anrl
1'' (').
shown hy
1*^
B C
'Trace a line through the |)oints thus ohtaine<l, 0, which is the desirel |)attern, of which eight
are rciiuin-d to complete the turret, four formol right and four left. If the roof shown hv B in Fig. '.)()() is desire<l to he addetl to the
pattern in Fig.
ejpial to
.'{(ll.
II in
F' then, at right angles to V^ (l, draw the line the half-elevation, and draw a line frum F' to '^ in the
pattern.
In Fig.
302
is
shown
front vij'wof
.\
lu)ri-
and top H.
pn)lile is
which
will follow, a
change of
220
In other words, a new propattern for the returns can be developed. file must be developed from the given or normal profile before the pat-
can be developed. It should be undergiven profiles are always divided into equal spaces; therefore the modified profiles will contam unequal spaces, each one oi
terns for the required parts
all
stood that
^i
HALF ELEVATION
Fig. 301.
line.
Bearing
I
mind, we
shall
proceed
changed pro-
and patterns
and
foot of a gable
moulding, as at
and
gable moulding C.
In Fig. 303,
MiKivi'
Mrr\i.\vr)nK
tlie
221
nljKtil at
its
("
Imri/ontal
iiiouldiiitj
(ill.
As.smu-
the prujuT an<jU'. place the ^iveii pn>file A at right iiij; that to the rake. a.>< .shown; and divide .same into e<jiial .spaces as aiij^le.s
.shown
fmm 1 to U). thn)U^h wliich |)>int,s, parallel towards the top and hottom of the
rakiiif^ nionldin<;.
to 6*
O**,
draw
lines
lenj^th
('"
()*'
is
t-orreet,
take a tracing;
of the j)rofile A. an<l j)la(e it in a vertical |)osition l)elow at A' and al)ove
at A-, hein^' larefiil
(i
^.
FiK. 303.
have the
''n
jjoints
and
(1
in
the
j)n)files directly
a ver-
Vi^ and (), as .shown. From the vaposition below the jioints rious intersections in the profiles A' and A" (which mu.st contain tlie
tical
same ninnber
end from
of spaces as the
fi:iven
j)rofile
intersectinj; lines
P to
drawn through the j)rofile A, as .shown at the lower Trace a line lO'', and at the ui)per end from 1 to K).
lO'^ be the modifiel Then will througli the points thus obtained. for the lower horizontal return, and 1 10 the moditietl prt)file |)n)hle
Note the difference in the shapes an<l sj)aces between these two and the jiiven j)roHlc .\. It will be notice<l that a of the gable moulding miters on the horizontal moulding (I II portion
modifie<l profiles
from
(\^
to 10'.
jiattern
For the
moulding.
j)roceetl
.1
as follows:
At
right angles to
F,
draw the
.stretchout line
shown by the
1
to
lOon
K.
Through
K, draw
lines as
drawn
in
1
at right
lunuln-rcd
intersections
10 at
Tra(> a line
,
tained.
Then
will
M N
bi- tlic
pattern
I'm-
'.
Vov the
p.ittiTM
draw aside
view as .^howii at H, making I' K the desired |)rojection. and the pntlile 10 n H. with it.s various intersections, an '\act n-pnxluction of
1
1 10 in the 'Ievation.
Extend the
line
K
in
T
H
as
II
."-1;
anl. starting
from
I
pr>lile
as
shown by the
figures
to 10 i>n
S.
At
right angle-, to
.-^
ilraw
tin-
222
by
drawn
B.
parallel to
in the
profile in
through points thus obtained. Then will V 10 1 be the pattern for the return B. In similar manner, draw the side view of the lower horizontal
Trace a
line
return as
ru <n
shown
^ m
coNqj
at
W 10
equal to
P R
CO o CO
in B.
to
(\iir)tu)<ot^ia
o)2
The profile shown from 1 to 10 in D, with all its divisions, is be an exact reproduction of the profile 1^ to 10^ in elevation. Extend the line W' X as X Y, upon which lay off the stretchout of the profile 1 10 in D, being careful that each space is measured separately,
as they are
all
unequal.
Thiough
the figures on
XY
draw
lines as
'IIHET
METAL WOHK
i23
\ from tle variou.s shown, which intersect by hnes<h'awii paruHel Ui intersections in tlie profile in the side I). A Une traced thnuigh jMjints thus ohtainetl, as shown hy Z V, will he t]ie desired cut, and 1 Z
\'
In Vi^. 304
is
shown a
The
'
'>^
'*'"
in tlie preceding
ing
is
curved
in
obtaining these patterns are similar to tliose problem, the only difTerence being that tlie moid<lelevation. In Fig. 305 the true method is clearly
in
given.
-^--H
the heigiil
''.
Fn)m
a.s
"
the line
C establish
*
dcsire<l center,
H,
]]
(' at (',
proper |M)sitionon a vertical line F (1. parallel to I) H, draw the ^^ivcn pnililc of the cuncd moulding as shown by A, which divide int
In
its
e<pial .spaces as
iinjjles to
.shown
fmm
to 10.
Through
(i,
draw
as
shown.
224
Then, using
The point of the pediment. tending them indefinitely below the foot C or 6" being established, take a tracing of the profile A, with all the various points of intersection in same, and place it as shown by A^ A^ come directly below the point being careful to have the point 6 in Then, from the various inter6" in elevation in a vertical position.
sections in A- erect vertical lines intersecting similarly
profile A.
Trace a
line as
arcs
10",
the modified profile for the foot of the curved moulding. Establish at pleasure the point V at the top, and take a tracing
it
in a vertical position
below
1',
as
shown by A^
From
the various
num-
which
The
in elevation can
be made either
to
angles to
H,
at
K.
not go into any further demonstration about this curved work, as the matter will be taken up at its proper time later on. To obtain the pattern for the upper and lower return mouldings,
We
B and D
in Fig. 303.
In Fig. 306 are shown the plan and elevation of a gable moulding This problem should be carefully followed, as it in octagon plan.
in presents an interesting study in projections; and the principles used this are also applicable to other problems, no matter what solving
By
it
will
be seen
SIlKE'l"
MK'IAL WuitK
225
that tlif
moulding has an octuf^on aii^lr in plan u h c, while .similar // c' run on a rake in one line, the top aiid foot
of tlie
The method
detail
moulding hutting against the hriek piers li ani A. of pHx-ettlin^ with work of this kind is exjjlained in Ix't in V'\i^ 307, where the principles are thoroii<,'hly explained.
'
A H
<
1.
muuldinu
is io
which a j^aM* represent a plan view of the wall, over I II. the ^^iven be placed, as shown hv < pmfile of the
I
?E
SOFFIT P:N
FiL'.
:U)7.
)ivi(io tlir profile into equal spacts nouldin^ hoinjj shown l>y I, M. shown liv the li^'iiri>s to s. Parallel to II or (J. and thn>ui;h ihe ns Bisect the ai^jle fi^'ures mentioned, draw lines imlclinitely as shown.
1
.1
and obtain the miter-line as follows: With and anv radins, describe the arc N ). With N and ( as
'
f)
in |)lan.
(' jis
center,
centers,
and
'
unv radins
other
at
jfreater
than
or
('.
(' ().
draw
|Msi-
die miter-line
<
t^.
Transfer the
in
elevation to the
226
tion
as
shown by R S in plan, dividing it into the same number of spaces Through the figures in the profile R S, and parallel to D C, draw lines intersecting the miter-line C Q, as shown. From the intersections on the miter-line, and parallel to C B, draw lines intersecting
L M.
the surface
A.
Now,
at right angles to
D in plan,
SOFFIT PLAN
Fig. 308.
intersections
on the miter-line
elevation parallel to J G. line traced through points thus obtained, as shown from 1' to 8', will be the miter-line in elevation.
in plan,
For the pattern for that part of the moulding shown by and H G 8' 1' in elevation, proceed as follows:
1
D E Q'
At right
angles to
in elevation,
draw the
line
T U,
SIIKK'I'
MK'I'M
WORK
Hj^ures
1
227
I^
M,
as
shown hy the
to S.
At
rij^ht
intersect
r, and throuf^h these figures, draw with Hues of siinihir nunihers drawn
at rij^ht anjj;les to
from
intersections
on the
\V
niiter-line
1'
S'
and
fnjni
intersectioas
H
X
(J.
shown
in
l)v \'
Lines trace<l through jxtints thus Y, will he the jiattern for that |)art of
the gahle
shown
.'iOS,
In Fig.
plan by C U E Q' of Fig. '.0)7. on the other hand, the j)osition of the plan
is
changed,
AQ
horizontal.
At right angles
to
\i
T draw
In the same E, on which locate any |X)int, as K. manner, at right angles to C B, draw the vertical line B J intlehnitelyFr')ni the point E, parallel to B C, draw the line E S", intersecting
Now
tion, Fig. 307, and set it off from S" toward J in Fig. 'MS. fn)m J to E, which will represent the true rake for this
Draw
1
a line
of the |Mjrtion
to S
moulding.
line
Now
on the
in
Z Z
and
i)lace
them as shown hy Z Z
At right angles to Z Z, and from points on same, draw lines, which intersect with lines drawn at right angles to B C from intersec-
Z Z on
extended.
tions of similar
numbers on
C C
in plan.
line tracel
in eleva-
through
points tlius
obtained, as
shown by
in plan.
DE
tion, will
be the miter-line on
From
parallel to
the intersections on
J,
draw
lines,
drawn from
intersections of similar
mnubers on
through
AB
C.
line traced
jwiints
.^.^^
''K- ''^^^
thus oi)taineil, as
or line of joint
will In-
necessary
t>
obtain a true
lo so,
the moulding
I.
>.
To
pro-
ceed
lus
follows:
in elevation in Fig.
307, with the divisions and figures on sanu-, to a position at right angles At right angles to F D. and fn)nt to F ) of Fig. 30S, as .shown at I..
i
|>ro(ile
I.
E,
draw
I''
Trace
ob-
228
tained, as
M,
or true sections
at right angles to
D.
For the pattern, proceed as follows: At right angles to F D, draw the line H K, upon which place the stretchout of the profile M, as shown by the figures. At right angles to H K, and through the figures, draw lines, which intersect with those of similar numbers drawn at
Fig. 310.
Fig. 311.
right angles to
in the miter-lines
DE
and J F, as shown. Lines traced through points thus obtained, as shown by N O P R, will be the pattern for the raking moulding shown
in plan, Fig. 307,
by
AB C
Q'.
In Fig. 309 is shown a view of a spire, square in plan, intersecting In practice, each side A is developed separately in a four gables. manner shown in Fig. 310, in which first draw the center line through
the center of the gable, as
E F.
Establish points
B and
C, from which
229
At
.1,
pleiLsure. estal)li.sli
lines
).
At right angles
J
K,
aiil
fmiii
H ami
draw the
II antl
respectively.
K.
A, and e
F,
shown hy
^11.
similar letters
on the
Fi-:-
vertical line
B F
in
^
B
SIDE
At right angles
to ]{ F.
and
A.
H and
draw
shown, making B II and li II' on the one hand, and A X anl A O on the other
hand,
li
etpial respectively
to
II anil
AX
in elevation in
in
Fig. 310.
Til en,
Fig.
.-=*!
Fig. 312.
Fig.
MA.
31
1,
draw
lines fn)ni
to
to
1o
fl'
to
O.
its
In Fig. 312 is .shown a perspective view of a drop B mitering against the face of the bracket (' as indicated at A. The princij)le.s
for developing this prohleni are explaine<l in Fig. 313.
|ilii<
I
to similar
may
he.
Let
I"
1 1
.\
<
droj),
and
and can he apthe ln>p or hrneket j)rofilesof B (' 1) F represent the faceor fn)nt view of thehnieket Divide one-half I the side of the ilrop and hrackel.
intf)
of the face, as 1) C,
ecpial sj)aces, as
shown
l>y
the figures
to 7
on either
in sid7'.
from which points draw hori/onial lines view and intersecting the face II I of tlu* hracket
side,
cro.>vsing II (i
at
points
1' t<
In line with
IH!, ilraw
<
1
tlu- line
.1
as
shown
l>y
shown, which
inter-
ly
lines
II
1.
drawn
parallel to
,1
K fmm
tions
on
thus ol)|aine<l.
Then
230
will J
K L be the pattern for the return of the drop on the face of the
bracket.
In Fig. 314, A shows a raking bracket placed in a gable moulding. When brackets are placed in a vertical position in any raking moulding, are called "raking" brackets. B represents a raking bracket
they The patterns which will be developof the gable. placed at the center bracket A are also used for B, the cuts being similar, the only ed for the
difference being that one-half the
width of
the
bracket in
is
formed right and the other half left, the two halves being then
joined at the angle as shown. In Fig. 315 are shown the
principles
employed
for obtain-
ing
the
patterns
for
the side,
ELEVATION
Fig. 314.
for
Let S U V represent part of a gable moulding respectively. front elevation of a raking cornice placed at its proper angles with draw the outline of the any perpendicular line. In its proper position,
face of the bracket as
as shown,
by
O. Also, in its proper position shown by E G draw the normal profile of the side of the bracket, indicated and X and 6-Y-Z-15 the normal profile of the cap-mould, as
;
the normal profile of the sink strip, as indicated by 10 10' 15' 15. Complete the front elevation of the bracket by drawing lines par-
from points 7 and 9 in the normal profile; and establish at pleasure the width of the sink strip in the face of the bracket, as at and L H. To complete the front elevation of the cap-mould of J O of the Extend the lines G E and the bracket, proceed as follows
allel to
E O
shown by E 6 and O 6, on which, in a vertical as shown, place duplicates (W^ W^) of the normal profiles position and X, divided into equal spaces as shown by the figures 1 to () in W^ and W^ From these intersections in W^ and W^ drop vertical lines, vhich intersect by lines drawn parallel to E O from similarly numbered intersections in X, and trace lines through the points thus obtained.
Then
will
R E and O
1^
TM
tin*
[ii.Mii.
-.
at
cap of
tin-
rakiii^
lirackft.
Now
tliviilo
tliL-
iiuriiial
profile
shown hy the
E O, draw lines
tlie
and
face lines
HI.
KI..
and
)NM,
as shown.
To
obtain the
PATTERN
f
icT-
e'WpATTET.l
W^y
4'
5'
l-iK.
315.
(
cet-il
true profile for the side of the bracket on the lino Parallel in as follows: )M, ilraw any line, as
(
).M
V Z'; and
angles to
variotis intersections
VZ in
Z' as shown. Now, neasuring the normal prolile. take the various
distances to points
to
1.')
mnnbcred
Z',
Trace a
?''.>'
thus obtaining the points '' line through the points thus cibtained.
1.')'
and i>lace them on similarly and every instance from the line to 1.'.' and 1")" to 10", as shown.
Then
will
0'
10'
Z'
be the pattern
232
and
lines
the pattern
for
as A^ B', at
right angles to
G M, upon which
shown
nonnal
profile, as
at right angles to A' B^ draw lines as shown, which intersect points, and J. with lines drawn from similar intersections on the lines
FG
Trace a
which
line
will
through points thus obtained as shown by F be the pattern for the face B, B.
G H
J,
GM,
as
For the pattern for the sink-face C, draw C^ D^ at right angles to upon which place the stretchout of 10' 15' in the normal profile
at right angles to
C*
shown from 10' to 15' on C^ DS through which, D\ draw lines, which intersect by lines drawn from similar intersections
on
K L and H J.
The
the face
piece,
D
in
and
one
will
be developed
by drawing
at right angles to
EO
At right angles
Fig. 316.
Fig. 317.
to E' F',
REF
drawn at right angles to and NOP. A line traced through the points thus obtained, as shown by R E F and N 0 P will be the pattern for D and A. For the patterns for the cap returns R E and O P, draw any line
at right angles to 1 1 in the
figures, draw lines, which intersect with lines EO from similarly numbered intersections on
normal
profile, as
H^
G',
upon which
place the stretchouts of the profiles R each space separately onto the line
0^'
1^
and
6"^
F.
Through
by
these points
lines
G'
W,
which
intersect
drawn
at right angles to
from
;iii:i:i-
mktal work
Trace
233
siiuilar
imnihers in \V ami X.
uhtaiiuij.
Then
will
N'
.1'
)'
of the (a)),
turn.
K; while
M'
lines through the tlius jx)iiit.s he the pattern for the lower return L' K' will he the pattern for tle up|>er re-
U'
S'
IM J.
In
Fig.
31G
is
shown
an exterior angle, for wliich an outside miter would he reIt is iiiitnaterial what t|uircd. shape the gutter has, the nieth<I of In Fig. 317 let 19 nl)taiMing the pattern for the miter is the same.
trough at
10 represent the section of the eave-trough with a l)ea<l or wire edge at ah r; divide the wire edge, including the gutter and flange, into an e<^|ual nund>er of spaces, as shown liy the small divisions d to 1 to 9
to 10.
Draw any
vertical
line,
as
ujM>n which place the stretchout of the ed gutter as .shown l)v sinn
r..
lar
letters
and nund)ers on
B,
FiK. 31.s
'IPS
1-iK. M'.).
Trace to A B from similar points in the section. K F be the Then will (' the points thus ohtained. thntugh pattern for the outside angle shown in Fig. 31(1.
drawn
pjtrallel
line
If
a pattern
it is
is
refpiired for
in Fig. 31S,
necessary only to
an interior or inside angle, as is shown extend the lines CI) and F K in the
111. Tlienwill .1 I) pattern in Fig. 317, and ilraw any vertical line, a> II lie the for the inside angle shown in Fig. 3 IS. !' pattern In Fig. 319 are .shown a plan and elevation of a moulding which
In other words,
AB
is to l>e represents the j)lan of a hriek pier, around which a ct)rnice constructed. The |>rnjcction of the given profile is itjual to C, the The projection of the fnnt profile in eh-vation heing .shown ly ('.
in
plan
is
also cpml to C,
.s
.shown hy
C.
The
pntjecfion of the
left
side of the cornice should he only as much as is shown l>y I) in plan. This re|uires a change of profile thn)Ugh I), as shown hy D'. I'o ob-
234
shown
in
which, in
its
E is placed and divided into the figures 1 to 12. Through 1 2, parby Locate at pleasure the projection of the re-
turn mould, as
at
G.
B H, and draw H G parallel to B C, intersecting F G Draw the miter-line in plan, G C. From the various divisions
E, draw lines parallel to
in the profile
C D,
CG
as shown.
From
nitely, as
shown.
K J, upon which
place a duplicate of the profile E, with the various divisions on same, as shown by E^ Through these divisions draw horizontal lines in-
;'?'-
FRONT AND BEAK VIEWS OK HKSIDKNCK OK HENRY STEINBRENNER. BKl IKIDWKK AVENUE. CLEVELAND, OHIO
WnltonMiii
S.
Iiiirlili-r.
Anhltr.
!<.
<
IrvrUnd. Ohio.
SHEErr
METAL WoliK
as
235
shown by
tlie in-
tersectioivs
to 12'.
Tiacr a
line
tliroiifjli
these points,
'Hien
will
F' be
true section or profile t)n II H in plan. For the pattern for the return II (1 (' B in plan, extend the line which place the stretchout of the profile F', l>eing A, as B M,
tlie
upon
careful to
measure each space separately (as they are unwjual), as B. shown by figures 1' to 12' on At right angles to this line ami through the figures, <lraw lines,
at right angles to II (j
from similar
thus obtaine<l.
will
B' C
,
T hen
.
TRUE PROFILE
be the
return
THROUGH
1"
7' IN
pattern
for the
plan
mould.
The
face
f)btained
mould
by
GCDF
taking
is
j<
f^^
'
^'j ^
' "' .
FiR. .321.
liK. .;-.
vertical
line
(),
as
right angles to
1' ( ),
shown l>y similar figures. thn)Ugh which, at draw lines intersecting similarly numberi^l lines
('
1
in j)lan.
Trace- a
lin'
through these
Then
will
B'C
12
b'
mould.
Ill
til
I'ig.
'i2I is
shown a
pers|)ective
view of a gore
pie<-e .\ joineil
in
a chann'cr.
ornamental
236
sheet-metal work, the development of which is given in Fig. 322. A B C show the elevation of the corner on which a gore piece
re-
7' E in plan is a section through C D, and E F is quired. a section through I, all projected from the elevation as shown. The profile 1 7 can be drawn at pleasure, and at once becomes the pattern
GH
Now
7 into an equal
number
of
from which drop vertical lines onto the side 7' E from 1' to 7'. From these points draw lines parallel G, intersecting the opposite side and crossing the line 7' 1"
(which
is
drawn
at
right
5''
angles
6".
from T)
to F G Draw any
which
on
7'
From
PATTERN FOR GORE
which
larly
to
intersect
by
lines
drawn from
simi-
numbered
D. on
trace a line.
Fig. 323.
profile
For the pattern for the gore, draw any vertical line, as A B in Fig in Fig. 322, 323, upon which place the stretchout of the profile F At right angles to AB, as shown by similar figures on A B in Fig. 323. and through the figures, draw lines as shown. Now, measuring in
7' \" in
1'
to 7',
Fig. 323 on similarly numbered lines, measuring in each instance from the line A B, thus locating the points
shown.
Trace a
line
Then
will
F
by
FG
In Fig. 324
arises in cornice
of a six-pointed star,
which often
work.
No
matter
how many
principles
which are explained for its or shape. Triangulation is employed in this problem, as any size shown in Fig. 325. First draw the half-outline of the star, as shown by A B C E F G. Above and parallel to the line AG, draw JH of
!n7
shown by J
I. it
II.
I,
I
I'n>jeft
>
initer-lincs
1
<
li I, ('
1,
is
necessan,' that
I
nulius anil
as center,
K into plan a.s shown at I, and tlraw tlie K I. an<l V I. As K II is the true lengtli on we find the true leimth on 1'. I'sinj; I F a^ draw an are interseetinj; I it at a. From a
1
Draw
a line from h to
K, whicii
is
the
true Itiigth
on
F.
For the
[lilt
tern,
proceed
as
shown
as
in
Fij;. 32(5.
Draw any
line,
K
in
K II
in Fij^.
32o.
arc b
which
(J (r
intersect at a
and
(i
lv
an arc
an(i with
railius.
FG
Draw
as
from
for
K
of
to a to II to a to
tlie
star of
one of the
jM)ints
UK,
it is
necessar\- to
have a
he
so that
we may know
.stay,
c,
at
siiould
To
obtain this
in Fig.
325 a
line
J K,
draw
c d.
r.
I'.sing c as center,
and
secting J II at
From
(!'.
drop a
.*>et
vertical line
off
to
PATTERN FOR
^CORNER
e<|ual to
from H
after
(/'
to B',
which
in
the true
is
j)i\)file
which the
If
j)attern
Fig. 32()
to
be
bent.
the stay in Fig. 32.') has been correctly develo|)ed, theiw/' B' or (/' B uuisti><|ual
ii
in Fig. 32ti
on both
is
sides.
In Fig. 327
shown
finishel elevation
of u hippeil roof, on tlie four corners of which FiK. :V2(). a hip ridge .\ A butts against the uj)per base B an<l r-uts olf on a vertical line at the bottom, as (' and C. To obtain
tiie
tnie profile of this hip ridge, together with the top and lower cuts lower heads, proceed as .shown in Fig. 32X,
front elevation has l)een omitted, this not being ne<'essar\',
letpiiretl.
where the
First
draw
238
make
FA
and
C B and
between
F E and C
D equal,
has equal pitch all around. (The same principles, howwould be used if the roofs had unequal pitches.) Above ever,
in this case
the plan,
draw the
line
G H.
F
and
From
the points
in plan, erect
the lines
F G and C I, extending C I to C^ so
that I
C will
G
be the
re-
C
-FRONT ELEVATION
in plan.
^^'^^^
as shown.
Then
will
roof
on
FC
in plan.
is
G C* in elevation.
any Extend a b
line, as
This
a
b,
is
done by drawing
FC
in plan,
F A and F E
elevation at
intersecting
as shown.
until
it
G I in
c.
From
c,
at right angles to
CS draw a
line, as c d,
the line
which
is
C^ at d. Take the distance c d, and place it in plan on C, measuring from i to d'. Draw a line from a to d' to h, the true angle desired. On this angle, construct the desired
J,
C^ repequal spaces, as shown by the figures 1 to 6 to 1. As the line resents the line of the roof, and as the point d' in plan in the true angle also represents that line, then take a tracing of the profile J with the
various points of intersection on same, together with the true angle a d' b, and place it in the elevation as shown J^ and a' d" b\
by
being
on the
line
G C^
CS making
From
lines parallel to
the various points of intersection in the profile J, draw F C, intersecting B C and F at points from 1 to 6,
as shown.
only to
As both sides of the profile J are symmetrical, draw lines through one-half.
it is
necessary
SI I Hi: r
MK'l'AL WOltK
2:j9
III
similar
iiiaiiiii-r,
mi elevation, purallel to
.1',
thr.)ii;^'li till'
various intersections in
wliieli intersect
at
riL'lit
antrles to
FC
in pli'.n
from similarly
G C,
w 214
34 12
5
FiK. 32S.
and Br.
Then
will
draw any
C,
240
SHEET
ISIETAL
^WRK
upon which place the stretchout of J in plan or J' in elevation, as shown by the figures 1 to 6 to 1 on O P; and through these numbered points, at right angles to O P, draw lines, which intersect by lines drawn at from similar intersections in the lower miter-line right angles to G K L and upper miter-line N M. Trace a line through the thus
O
is
obtained.
Then will
R S T U be the desired
to obtain
points
pattern.
one miter-cut
either the
In other
that part
is
side.
miter-cut butts against Fig. 327; while the lower cut requires a flat head, as shown at C. obtain this flat head, extend the line I in Fig. 328, as I W,
The upper
B in To
upon
in
line
6 on the
intersect
5, 4, 1, 2, as shown similar by figures on either side of line V W. From these divisions erect vertical lines, Avhich by lines drawn parallel to V W from similarly numl)ered
intersections in the miter-line
AF
thus obtained, as
shown by
X Y Z,
will
be the
in Fig. 329, in which B represents the apron of the deck cornice, and the hip ridges mitering at a and a, a slightly different process from that described in the
Fig. 329.
preceding problem
is
used.
first
be drawn as shown
represent the part elevation of the mansard, the section of the deck moulding and apron being shown by D B E. Draw E X parallel to B C. then represents the line of the roof. In its proper position, at right angles to B C, draw a half-section of the hip mould, as shown by F G, which is an exact reproduction of B E of the deck mould. Through the corners of the hip mould at Y and G, draw lines parallel to B C, which intersect by lines drawn parallel to B A from V, W, and E in the deck cornice. Draw the miter-line H I, which completes the part elevation of the mansard.
EX
?A\
<k'velo|H.'<l
surface of
tlie
inaiisanl
must he ilrawn.
'I'hereforc,
fn)m
H
at
tance
(tf
(',
and
on a
shown hv
('.
line.s
B \ and
it
CK
as shown.
Take the
jirojection
J to
(' in
Fig.
as
PART ELEVATION
MANSARD ROOF
OF
PART PLAN
TRUE
SECTION
R'
ON OP'
Via.
:5:n
shown
will
fnini
('
C to C in
l)o
draw
a line fn.ni
(' to
B.
Theix
A B
As
.\
(
'.
<"
in Fig. 3.30.
\'
F, an<l
F\
of cither,
respectively in Fig. Bistvt of cpial spaces, as sh)wn. 1 )ividc l)ofh into a and /<. and, u.sing these a.H tx-nlers. the angl. A hy estahlishing
and
|)lace
|) an.l
1 >'
XU.
'
I'.
242
draw d B, which represents the points in and D\ draw Unes parallel Through to their respective moulds, as shown, intersecting the miter-line B d
by describing
the miter-hne.
hip, draw any line, as E F, at right angles upon which place twice the stretchout of D, as shown by the divisions 6 to 1 to 6 on EF. Through these divisions draw lines at
C,
PATTERN FOR
--.HIP
RIDGE
D'
^ ^^^
5 6
hP
MANSARD
SURFACE OF
DEVELOPED ROOF
K
Fig. 331.
right angles to
right angles to
E F, intersecting similarly numbered lines drawn at B C from the divisions on B and C C^ Trace a line
(Z
Then
will
G H J L be the pattern
it is
When
at
bending
machine,
necessary to
know
what angle the line 1 in the pattern will be bent. A true section must be obtained at right angles to the line of hip, for which proceed as shown in Fig. 330. Directly in line with the elevation, construct a
part plan the angle
L M N O, through which, at an angle of 45 degrees (because L O N is a right angle), draw the hip line O M. Establish at
M, from which erect the vertical line pleasure any point, as P^ on into the elevation crossing the base-line C at P and the ridge-line
CB
at
R.
shown.
M in plan, draw
;iii:i:r
mktat. ^voRK
It' 1*^
243
)r;iu
;i
liii.
iM-iii
ll'toO'.
'I'lR-nO'
|>)int,
sls
rt-prfseiiLsa tme.sertioiion
ri;,'lit
Ol"
ill
j)laii.
Thnnitfli any
a, at
aii^'les to
hv, cutting
LO
and
at d.
ON
at h
ami
respettively.
Fntin d, at right angles to ()' K', ilraw tlie line d as center, and dr as radius, draw the arc r ', intersecting d e. With in plan, draw a )' P- at f', fn)m which point, at right angles to
interset'ts
(
O' 1"
OM
i-"
line intersecting OM at
r".
)raw a
lii'
>
fnjm b
to
to c,
'XM
is
fornietl.
The
the apron
riilge
same way
H in Fig. '.i'M) is ohtaintHJ in the pattern for die deck mould as tlie s(|uare miter shown in Fig. 277; while the pattern for D' in Fig. 331 is the same as the one-half patteni of tlie hip
;i
shown hv
II
0.
In Fig. 332
tills
is
In
view
ABC represents the front view of the dormer, the arcs being
Fig. 332.
struck from the center points I), K. and F. line II J in elevation is shown at the right; L
.\
donner, indicated
elevation hy
Ill
(
in the section
P and
is
in section l>y
HT.
I'ig.
333
.shown
how
various j)arts of the doniicr. repre.sents tlu' half-elevation of the is the line of the of which donner, and KF(1 a side view, donner^
AI'ii
FO
KF
the
donner
is
re(|uired to miter.
The
fn)nt
at right angles io FF. positions, the first step is to obtain a true se<'tion Divide the curve .\ to ]\ int< a number of etpial I'roc-ee<l as follows:
spaces, as
figures oil
[).
\\ right angles to
.\ (',
intersecting
(i in
.*idc
view as .shown.
244
From
and
parallel to
the roof-line
GF at
P, 2^ 3^
etc.
Parallel to
'
_9
1
OPENING
Fig. 333.
IN
ROOr
G, draw any line indefinitely, as G H. At right angles to EF, and from the point E, draw the line EH, intersecting lines previously drawn,
Slll.l/l
METAL WORK
245
at
1',
2',
;>',
III.,
a>
^iiiiu n.
Now
tluTeiii,
tlif
various iiitersectious
K.T.
take a dupHcato of the line EH. with ami placi- it on the center hnc AC
extended as
ete.,
At
ri<jht an<,des to
draw hues,
angh's to
a
numbers drawn
at right
hue
simihirly niunhered points on the cur\'e through tlie points of intersection thus obtained.
|rofile
will
on the
line
K H
in side
For the
to
j)attern
dormer, draw
at right angles
KF
in sitle
upon which place the stretchout of on the line KII as shown by the snuill figures
( ),
draw
lines,
Then, at right angles to X O, and through the figures, which intersect with those of similar numl)ers drawn at
right angles to
EF
Trace a
line
through the ])oints thus obtained. half the pattern for the roof.
Then
will
PKST
represent one-
the
to
obtain the jiattern for the shape of the opening to be cut into ro(f, transfer the line CIF, with the various intersections thereon,
vertical line, as
1',
To
any
UV,
3',
as
shown
In
line
by the figures
.similar
2,
etc.
the
line
ZW, drawn
as
shown by the figures 1, 2, 3, etc. At right angles to \'\', and fi-om tile figures, draw lines, which intersect with
those of similar
at
numY'A.
bers
drawn
right
angles to
Through these points, trace a line. Then will LX^'Z l>r die half-pattern for the shape of the o|>ening to be ctit into the main nnif.
the |)uttern for the ventilating slats or louvers, should thev In thi.s iii|uircd in the donner. |)ro(rrd as shown in Fig. 331. figure, A H ( is a repniduction of tlie inside opening shown in Fig. X^i.
I-'or
111-
Let
uill
1,
2, 3,
},
.')
which
be
in tliis plnci.*<l
opening.
As
246
terns for all louvers are alike, the pattern for louver
trate the principles
employed.
Number
No. 4 as shown by points 6, 7, 8, and 9. At right angles to A B, and from these points, draw lines intersecting the curve A C as 6^ 7^ 4\ 8^ and 9^ On B A extended as E D, place the stretchout of louver No. 4 Since the miter-line AC is a curve, as shown by the figures on ED.
be necessary to introduce intermediate points between 7 and 8 In this instance the point marked 4 has been added.
it
will
Now, at right angles to DE, and through the figures, draw lines, which intersect with those of similar numbers, drawn parallel to AB from intersections 6' to 9*
on the curve AC.
A line
for louver
pattern
the dormer
onto the
pricked
direct
in
metal
in
which
A8
B C
is
In laying
^^"^'^'^-
which
DEE shows an
All that part of the projections. bay obtained by the method shown in Fig. 290, while the finish of the bay shown by ABC in Fig. 335 will be treated here.
a bay
above the
AB
is
is
a half-spun ball.
A^ B^ F^
is
a true
A B.
It will
lines
drawn
and
cd,
lengths, thereby maldng it necessary to obtain a true profile on each of these lines, before the patterns can be obtained. This is clearly explained in connection with Fig. 336, in which only a half-elevation
First
draw the
247
Ml, oi\ whicli ilraw the lialf-elevution of the hase of tlie shown hv (T>E. At ri;,'ht unfiles to All Iraw the wall line Imv, and in its proper position in relation to the line CD in in plan, as FK; From the elevation, lra\v the (lesire<l half-|>lan, as shown hy (lilM.
corners
II
ami
draw the
iiiiter-lines
.Vs
DF
'
'I'L'
j^
HALT PATTCRN
R
FOR
3
FiR.
:vM\.
F(l in |)lan. tlien divile the profile represents the^iven profile thronj,'h to 1.? of spaces as shown ly the lij^ures 1)1'' into an eipial uumiIkt
I
Fmrn these j)oiiits drop vertical lines intersecting; the initer-line Fll From these intersections, parallel to III. tlraw in plan, a.s shown. line's intersecting' the miter-lines IF. fn>m which points, parallel to 1.1.
draw
points
lines
intersecting'
I'M
Thnm^h
the variiuis
of intersection in
as .shown.
draw hori/onlid
and
left
248
any reason
it is
desired to
show the
line
development of the patplan (it on FI, tern), then erect vertical lines from the various intersections To avoid a confusion in the intersecting similar lines in elevation.
FI
in
drawing, these lines have not been shown. Trace a line through D' 13, which is the desired miterpoints thus obtained, as shown by
line in elevation.
The
and IJ
next step
is
HI
in plan.
3 in plan, take
a tracing of J F, with the various intersections thereon, and place it on a line drawn parallel to CD in elevation, as J^ F^ with the intersections
1 to 13, as
shown.
From
line
F^
in
profile
DE
by
1'
through the points thus obtained, as shown to 13', which represents the true profile for part 3 in plan. At
Trace a
right angles to
IH
in plan,
draw any
line, as
ML,
rious lines
13, as
drawn
parallel to
IH
LM at points
1 to
shown.
tracing of
Take a
LM,
and place it on any horizontal line, as L^ MS as shown by the figures 1 to 13, from which, at right angles to L^ M\ erect vertical lines intersecting similarly
numbered horizontal
lines
profile
DE.
1"
Then will through the points thus obtained. 13" be the true profile through No. 2 in plan at right angles to HI. For the pattern for No. 1 in plan, extend the line FK, as NO, upon
line
Trace a
which place the stretchout of the profile DE as shown by the figures 1 to 13 on NO. At right angles to NO, and from the figures, draw which intersect with lines (partly shown) drawn parallel to FG lines,
from similar intersections on the miter-line FH.
the points thus obtained; then will
in plan.
Trace a
line
through
1
IP
At right angles to I, draw any line, as U, upon which place the stretchout of profile No. 2, being careful to measure each space
separately, as they are all unequal, as shown by the small figures 1" to 13" on TU. Through these figures, at right angles to TU, draw lines as shown, which intersect by lines (not shown in the drawing) drawn
at right angles to I
SH KKT MK'IAL
'I'ruc-e
WOHK
Then
will
\'
249
uhtuiiic*)!.
\V
l>e
the pattern for part 2 in plan. F'or the half-pattern fr part 3 in j>lan, extend the center line A H in plan as H K, ujK)n which place the stretchout of the true pmfile for
.'i,
tlie
li^'iires
to 13'
on BR.
At
ri^'ht an^'les to
H K draw
lines throuj^h
the fi<;ures. which intersect hy lines drawn at ri^'ht angles to .1 I fnin A line trace*! similar points of intersection on tlie miter-line V I.
tlironj,'h
T S
13', will
he the half-pattern
for part 3.
first
337
is
a part elevation
of a donner window, with a semicircular top whose profile ha.s an ogee, If this job were undertaken by a finn who had no fillet, and cove. circular
moulding machine, as is the case in many of the smaller shops, The metluul of c-onstructhe mould would have to be made by hand.
tion in this case woulil
then be as shown
in
Fig. 33S,
a.
which shows an enlarged section through a b in Fig. Thus the strips a, b, and r in Fig. 33S would be 337.
cut to the retiuired size,
c^
^^KP
// X(-^
/
s^^
and turned
/.
and
It
The face strips r, the re<juired circle. would re|)resent arcs (f circles to correspond
to
to their various
elevaiiiiii.
full-size<l
I'iK.
sink strips would all be sohh-rcd togetiicr, and fonn a succession of scpuire angles, as.shown. in whit'h thcogfc, as shown bv y, and the cove, as shown by m, wttuld lie
'!1ic>c
(
Xi7.
In obtaining the patterns for the blanks hammered by hand, the averaged lines would be drawn as shown by h I for the ogee and
fitted.
no
The method
other moulds will be explained as we jroceel. In Fig. 330 is .shown the same mould as in
th" previous figure, a dilTerent mt-thod of <-nstruction being employnl fnm thene nuide bv hand and the onehannnered ui) bv nuichine. In nutchine work this
250
one piece, 8
is
such length
required, the
machine taking
in the full
Fig. 338.
Fig. 339.
A to B. The pattern for work of this kind is averaged a line as shown by CD. This method will also be exby drawing
mould from
plained
more
fully as
we
proceed.
working any circular mould by hand, all that is requirerl way of tools is various-sized raising and stretching hammers, mandrel including raising blocks square stake, blow-horn stake, and
When
made
of
wood or
lead.
first-rate
of these small tools. In by the mechanic in the handling and working a thoroughly up-to-date shop will be found what are known as "curved
moulding" machines, which can be operated by foot or power, and which have the advantage over hand operation of saving time and labor, and also turning out first-class work, as all seams are avoided.
PRINCIPLES EMPLOYED FOR OBTAINING APPROXIMATE BLANKS FOR CURVED MOULDINGS HAMMERED BY HAND
The
same
all
as every sheet-metal
worker uses
In other words, one who understands how to patterns in flaring ware. out the pattern for a frustum of a cone understands the principles lay of developing the blanks for curved mouldings. The principles will
be described
in detail in
what
is
follows.
Our
first
problem
that of obtaining a blank for a plain flare, First draw the center line B, and construct the
DE
F.
Extend
DE
until
it
inter-
I'HI L
ADKLI'HI
III
I
A.
PA.
tVamon, Arohltoct,
rbtlntlFltiliU.
Pu
tniit
SllEK'l
MI.IM. Wol'.K
Ai ri^ht angles
as shown.
to
Of ol
st'cts
AB
at
'
( J.
AH
fnun any
is
[xiint,
as
II
(,'
II.
1
draw
11
to I't^niA
1),
I'sing II as center,
I
and with
7,
which
a section on
(i as center,
l).
Divide
Now usinj;
with radii et|ual to (J E and < D, describe the arcs 1) 7' and K E. Kn)in any point, as 1', draw the radial line 1' ( I, intersecting the inner
arc at
K"^.
Take
a stretcluuit
<tf
it
as
shown
Fir. 310.
I'Hi.
:u\.
from r to
lit
7';
and ilraw a
will 1-?
If
I'
inner arc
\y.
Then
in elevation.
if
V he the .|uartcr-pattern for the Hare 1) K tlw pattern is re<|iiin'd in two halves, join (wo pieces;
7'
rc<|nireil in
one
In
Fi;;. ."Ml is
shown acnrvnl
nioiihl
Ik-
whose
To work
hannner.
this
|)rolil<>.
W'r
mm/ion
attrnhan
First
draw the
nnrcr
I
line
.\
H;
of the moulding, as
spiuf.s,
h.s
(1) K
F.
>ivide tin-
cove
1) into
an
><|nal
lunnhcr of
shown
fn)ni
252
a to
of the cove c
draw a hne
at
parallel to e a,
is
extending
until
it
AB
c e'
G, which
c a'.
the center
Take
and
a'
e'
cove
c e
and
c a,
and place
it
as
shown by
\Mien
stretchtoline
remains stationary,
at right angles to
and
being hammered
wards
and
and a
respectively.
Therefore, from
c erect
a vertical
intersecting
1,
drawn
A B, at 1.
7,
as radius, describe
the arc
spaces as shown.
With
G
V
as center,
and
a".
radii equal to
a'
e",
Gc, and
7',
e' ,
and a"
Draw
and
a".
secting
1'
shown from
HALF
'ELEVATION .^
,
1'
to 7'.
Through
7'
draw
a line towards G, intersecting the inner arc at a"; and, extending the line
Then
PATTCRN'
upward, intersect the outer arc at e". will a" e" e" a" be the quarterin elevation. pattern for the cove E If the quarter-round were re-
NO
s
Fig. 342.
as this quarter-round
be raised, the rule given in the former Instruction Paper on Sheet Metal
Work would be
of raised mouldings. applied to all cases In In Fig. 342 is shown a curved mould whose profile is an ogee. this case as in the preceding, draw the center line and half-elevation, and divide the ogee into a number of equal parts, as shown from a to h.
Through the flaring portion of the ogee, as c e, draw a line, extending it upward and downward until it intersects the center line A B at G. Take the stretchouts from a to c and from c ioh and place them reon the line h' G. Then, in workspectively from c to a' and from e to h' ing the ogee, that portion of the flare from c to e remains stationarj^;
the part from
e to h' will
be stretched
to
to
form
from
c to a' will
be raised
form
c a.
1,
drawn
SlIKirr
MKTAI.
a>
WOKK
ami
II
1
253
angles to
till'
H. at
1.
l^iii^' II
<'iitT
a.-.
ra<liu.s, ile-sc-rilje
jts
(|iiarti*r->t'(tioii,
(
I
and
tlividt*
saiiH-
into
i-iiiial
.s|iacfs,
.shown.
With
the
center anil with radii e<|ual to ( i ', ( J </, and (i h', descrilie Knirn //"draw a line to G. ares a" a". I' 7', ami //" //".
II.S
.^tartiiij;
at
!',
jls
shown from
1'
to
"'.
Through
<
draw
line to
.serihed.
i,
as
liefore dewill
//"
Then
tl
"
n"
It"
he the
(|tiarter-j)at-
ItTIl
for
le (u'ee
Kl).
In
Fii;. ;{4;^ is
shown
di"-
when
is
hea d
enij)loyed.
draw the
^\
A|
B C D.
ii|)
HALF
^CLEVATIOfjl
of a circle, as
n c c
j,
shown hv
he
then
the
will
tern
for /
will
c,
same
as for r
the patteni
he use<l for
(I
/
(
,
/.
Hi.sect
^.L/
PATTERN
<
an<l
'
ohtainin;:
h
>
the
points
r
mid
f
II
t
f/_
I
which
p If
the
.stationary
points
^.
in
the
tin<*
patter
/'
Take
l>
stH'tchoiits of
to
' .
to
(/
;ind
3i:v
KiK and place them as shown from to d' and fnun to r' also take the stretchonts of ({ to and (/ to c, and jihice them fn>m d to r' nnd froni (/ to ' on
I, t>
;
<
lines
'/.
drawn
.V H'
parallel
respectively to
'
<i
and
c r
fn>m
|Miints
and
c'
and
<'
' until
line
erei-t
and
respectively.
(J
1.
I-'mm
points
nnd
to
(/
drawn
rijjht
angles
A'
254
B', at 14
eciual to
Using
as center,
and with
to 14.
,
radii
14 and
1,
Divide
both into equal parts, as shown from 1 to E as center, and with radii equal to E c',
arcs c" c", d'
d',
and from 8
d,
With
and
describe the
and
e"
e".
From any
radial line to E, intersecting the inner arcs atd' and c". take the stretchout of the section from 1 to 7, and, starting at
draw a
Now
d' ,
lay
shown from
1'
to
7'.
towards E, intersecting the inner arc at c' Then will c" e" e" c" be the quarter-pattern for that part of the
bead shown by
c e, also for
e f, in elevation.
For the
F a, F
b,
and
and
b' b'
,
F
as
c',
a" a",
h' b',
c" c".
8',
on the arc
out
of
the
quarter-section
8' to 14'.
shown from
Through
towards
these
lines
F', in-
tersecting the inner arcs at a" o"; and extend them until they intersect the
outer arc
c" a" a" c"
at c"
and
c'.
Then
will
tion of a
round
finial
which contains
Fig. 345.
in principles of which have already l^een described The ball is made of either horizontal the preceding problems. or vertical sections. In Fig. 345 is shown how the moulds in a finial
moulds, the
of this kind are averaged. The method of obtaining the t;i:e length of each pattern piece will be omitted, as this was thoroughly covered
in the preceding
problems.
First
side of
either
The
blanks for the ball a will be obtained as explained in the Instruction Paper on Sheet Metal Work. The mould b is averaged as shown by
the line
e f,
it
mould obtained,
as explained in the
SIIKK/I'
MK'IAI,
WOUK
//
2.-..'
papff
railii,
i>ri
Slii'ft
.Mi-i;il
Wnrk.
li^.
ami
//
as
<le.srril)r
tilt"
tlie
Maiik
In
next iiuHild, c
c',
st'aiii is
'
Thfii avera^'e < Ity the line /;', extending same until it meets the center line at k: also averaj^e r' hy the line / m, extending this also until the center line is intersectel at ti. Then / and / m
the clotted hne.
/
represent respectively the stretchouts of the mould c r', the blanks c anil c* being struck The muld respectively from the centers k and n.
b'
seam, as shown hy the dotted line, the moulds being n and /, which, if exteiule*!, intersect the /> and //. These points are the centers, respectivelv, for
.v
and
6*.
is
center
with radii e(|ual to .r w and .r r. thus ol)taining the blank d. referring to the various rules given in previous pnblems. the true length of the blanks can be obtaineil.
jr,
By
The
to
example,
in the
case
shown
represent circular leader heads; or in that sh(wn in Fig. .'MT. in which .\ and H show two stvles of balusters,
in Fig.
in
which
A and H
a and
}>
lin i)t)th)
is
example
which
that of a round
.\nother representing the s(|Mar' to|)s and ba.ses. litiial. as in Fig. .'Ms, A showing the IumhI
roof.
slips
While
thesj-
forms
'an
be
l)ouglit. yet in
architc<t,
it
is
a special design is lii-ough.f out bv the nc-cessarv that thcv be made l>v li.ind. cspeciallv when
but one
'I'lu-
is
nipiired.
that of |tniblem on handwork is shown in Fig. ."MU the blanks for the bottom of a circular bay. The cunitl obtaining moulding \ will be hammerni bv hand or bv nuichine. as will Ik* exlast
256
while the bottom B is the problem before us. The plained later on, it will be seen, is the arc of a circle; and, to obtain the various
plan,
B blanks, proceed as shown in Fig. 350, in which a plan view on bottom of the bay, of the being
is
the elevation
UK
A C,
showing the
Fig. 347.
In this case the curve struck from the center H. of the bottom of the bay is given, and front view taken on the must have the shape indicated by It therefore becomes necessary' to line I J in plan.
ABC
on the center
line
in
.^
<
)
plan,
from which
Fig. 349.
Fig. 348.
patterns.
To
AB
into
any
number
of equal parts, as
shown from
From
1'
to 6'.
3',
equal
to
6',
5',
H 4', H
Then, using H as center, and radii and H 2', draw arcs crossing the
to 6".
center line
DE
shown from
1"
2o7
llif
any
vcrlu-ul line,
a.s
Ivxteml
interseet
fniiii
spares
\'
in
the
profile
A H
until
tiiey
as shown.
plan, take
Now,
inea-surinj; in
even- in.stunce
in
TRUC SECTION
Kl
.
ON 3- K
1'
E
Fig. 350.
hered points in plan ami place them upon lines of similar nnmhers, meitsuring in every instance from
the line
l'
in
section.
Thus
take
tlie
distance
\
and place it as .shown from the line T r to K'jthen aj^ain, take the di.stance fnm S to 2" in plan, anl j>lace it as shown from the line T \' to
in
|)Ian,
L'"
on
line 2 in .section.
in
Proceed
in this
manner
the
true
.section
("
Trace a line as
tin-
will
should
l>c
understood
that
the usual
is
method
for
M
As-
making
tlie
lu* licst
rai.si*<l
or stretchetl.
suming
that this has heen done, take the distance fntm 1" in plan to
11,
and place
it
a.s
shown from
M,
;us
l" to
in section.
I, the|>oint L, draw a vt-rtical line I" 2", average a line tern for the mould
From
a.s
until
it
with
;ls
center,
and with
r.idii
etpial
to
2"
and N
1'.
dcscril>e
258
1" in plan,
and placing
this stretchout
The
is
manner.
Thus P
other blanks are obtained in precisely the same the center for the blank 2" 3"; R, for the blank
The moulds
1"
2",
2"
and M, for the blank 5" 3", and 3" 4" will be
6".
raised;
while
aging the profile of a moulding in determinIt ing the radius of the blank or pattern. will be seen that A B is drawn in such a
manner, so
C required to be distances a and b are equal, as are the distances c and d, and e and /. It is
equalities of the profile
made.
Thus
^B
Fig. 351.
very difficult to indicate definite rules to be observed in drawing a line of this kind, or,
in
the profile.
Nothing short of actual experience and intimate knowledge of the material in which the moulding is to be made, will enable the operator
SECTION
Fig. 352.
There
is,
however, no danger of
making very grave errors in this respect, because the capacity of the machines in use is such, that, were the pattern less advantageously planned in this particular than it should be, still, by passing it through the dies or rolls an extra time or two, it would be brought to the required shape.
SHEi-rr
MKTAl.
\v< 'i;l.
J.-i9
III
Via.
vvouM
arising
<cciir id
ill
sliowij a part t-lfvalinii jf a circular iixiuldilig as it a segiiKMital peiiiincnt, wimlow cap, or oUicr structure sluvt-inetal cornice work. H shows the cun'wl iiiouKling,
^'''*
joining;
A and
( ',
th'
tniestH-tion of
all
the
moulds
licin^
shown hy
In this connection
may he proper
l)laiiks,
to
remark
that in practice,
horizontal pieces,
aii<l
has
In Via.
i'hi
is
shown
the
method of
mouhlinirs
cuned
in elevation,
.nav
IS 15,
lie.
Kir>t
line
.\t ri:ht
angles to
H, in
its
pmper
Fnun the a section of tin- profile as shown liy (1). position, ilraw various nienil>ei-s in this .section, project line> to the center line A H
a.s
1, 2,
3,
and
and.
iisin;,'
diown
in
Fijj.
{')'i.
In
H as center, descrilie the varituis arcs and shown l>y .\ H (' in Fi^. .T)2. only partly the manner liefore ile>crilnl, averap* the
extciidiiij^'
it
prolileC
liv
the liner./,
until
it
drawn
e.sial>-
through thccent'r
at ri^hl anj,'lcs to
M. at F.
Then K
is
the center
from which
lish f
('
D.
on the
from
line r
*
</.
'
wlu-rc
it
stretchout fnun
tivelv
<
to
and
fiimi r to
and phn-e
line c
</.
to <
and fnm
to
(/
on the
2t)0
E
e'
e,
and
c,
and
c' c"
e'
Draw
and
d'.
a line from
c'
to E, intersecting the
middle and
inner arc at
The
to
then becomes the measuring line obtain the length of the pattern, the length
arc
e"
^:
ELEVATION
being measured
on the arc 2
in
elevation,
which corresponds to the point e in section. In Fig. 354 is shown the elevation of a
moulding A curved in plan B, the arc being struck from the given point a. This is apt to
occur
FIT
PLAN
is
To
placed ob-
Fig. 354.
C bethe section of the moulding, as A B, the mould for which the pattern is desired. ing CB
after
represents
it
straight strip
which
is
at-
tached to
the mould
is
hammered or
rolled to shape.
In
At pleasure, below the secis not required. practice the elevation draw the horizontal line E D. From the extreme or outside tion,
edge of the mould, as h, drop a line intersecting the
horizontal
line
to
ED
at E.
Knowing
on the
D, thus ob-
arc
F, intersecting a line
at right angle to
drawn
from D.
Average a line
D,
at J.
Establish
at
Fig. 355.
pleasure
point
center,
a,
the stationary
line cutting
ED
at a'.
Using
D
is
as
and with
a' as radius,
the
Now
111.1-.
MhlAL UOUK
pluc-t*
tlieiii oti
I
_'til
outs
liiif
fruiii fntiii
(J
to A u> (i
and
tl'e
!
averagwi
-"*
respectively.
[M)int.s
J^iiif?
feiiter,
th
O.
a.
and
II. ilesfrilx.'
(]\ a '",
II IP.
On
is
the
urr
<i'
a'",
pattern
to
inea-sured
to
eoiTe.sj)ond
the
window,
inouhi
showing the circuhir D, which in this case we desire to hiy out in one
A H (
piece, so
that,
in
when hammered
it
or
rolleti
the machine,
will
have the
desire<l diameter.
Tlic
same
used
principles can
to the up|)er
in
I
mould K
he aj)plicd F, as were
witli
connection
.{.-..i.
Figs.
l''-
352 an.
3^^iiot?
To ohtain
tlic l)laiik
AR
(' 1)
lior
SECTION
FiK.
ELEVATION
3.'>7.
/ontal
and perpendicular
lines
shown.
li\
I''
In il>
<i.
pro|M'r position,
draw n
of the
H'ction of the
window
lus
shown
I'hrough the
it
Uuf
it
mould,
as II
I.
II'
I',
extending
until
intersivLn
262
D at J.
to
Where
mould
a to
and from a
off
H* T from a to P
and a
H^
respectively.
As
into
equal
spaces,
as
shown.
to
Now, with
a,
radii equal
J r, J
in
and J
H\
Fig.
H, a
a,
From any
side,
point, as
H,
in-
on one
Fig. 358.
draw a
line to J,
and
the stretchout of the quarter-circle from to 5 in elevation in Fig. 357, and place it on the arc a a as shown
I.
Take
from
From
at I
to 5. Step this off four times, as shown by 5', 5", and 5'". J draw a line through 5'", intersecting the inner and outer arcs and H. Then will a a be the full pattern.
1
O
iH
p.
!3
;>
PLASTERING
TIh"
siilijrct
of plastiTiii;; in
into
relation
to
first
iii;Mli'ni
<lwr||iii}^
Is
iK'ie.s.sjirilv livitl'l
two
st-ftions.
Tin-
in"'
of walls on
tlie tlu-
iiitrrior
of the lions*-;
tiie
st-rihe
some of
exterior.
various ways of
linisliinj^
eenient plaster
tlie
house
INTERIOR PI.ASTERING
The
installation of interior plasterin>^
the eojnpletion of the roiu/li work on the residence, and of the jiiii.sli that is to follow. hef^imiitii; of the plaeinj;
The
lathinj;
plastering;
the walls
and
ceiliiifp
When
the huildini;
ready for
partitions
in
must he
and the
lifjhtinj;,
the |)hnnl)ini;, heating, wirin<; necessary piping; etc.. of the lwellin<;, nnist he installed and t'sted hefore the
and
lathinj; or furrin<;
can he started.
in
the proj^ress of hiiildinj; nece.s,sary to lath, nee<l not he altoi^ether time lost f)r any
'i'hose
this interne<r.>vsiiry
materials and
fi.xtures
and
arran<;in<:
tlitiii
niuly
for
installation.
t;'ttinj;
work and
linish.
in
Iw ready
put
in
place
anxmd
tin*
diMirs
and windows,
lay
complete
remainder of
their
his contract.
The
[)ainliT
and
pa|M'rer tlu-n
commence
|>luniliers,
and
ilnir >cr%
fixtures,
(tf
and the
tlwcllinj;
is .s(Mn
Si)
a huildin^ are spaced sixt-<'n inches apart on centi rs. I''a<'h end of the lath n-sts that ea<h lath ree'iv's four nailin^s.
The studs
sluls proviiie
length.
The
vilin^
art-
PLASTERING
four and in better work, customarily furred to provide lath nailings, with furrings seven-eighths of an inch thick five nailings to the lath,
and one and one-quarter inches or more wide, running crosswise of the This furring is intended to level up the bottom of the floor joists. and distributes the unequal result of their skrinkage or uneven
joists,
settlement from the weight above, thus preventing plaster cracks. Before beginning lathing, the carpenter should see that each at its intersection with another wall, is started with a stud
partition,
This makes it imposnailed directly against the crossing studding. sible for the lather to run the ends of his laths in behind or over the
partitions
plaster angle.
the
walls at the height of the top of his base skirting, so as to mark the work of both plasterer and lather end, and to provide points where the for the finish woodwork. It is essential for the carpenter to nailings
for cornices, door-caps, etc., before the place any necessary furring is begun; also any other furring blocks that may be required lathing to secure the setting of his fixtures or to support and the
by
plumber
LATHING
Wood
Laths.
Wood
up
in
and upon the studdings of the wooflen frame, with a space This distance is sufficient to of one-(iuarter inch between them. or swelling, and still provide a firm clinch allow for lath
are nailed
shrinkage
If the
space
If
less
than
this,
the plaster
the laths
may
down on
an inch.
The
to cover over
becomes necessary to lath on very thin furrings a heating pipe, a brick or iron support, or .some other such exceptional instance of construction. In that case a wider space
It occasionally
>>
V.WIJ..
T}
?'o
>
te Id
"J
< o
-a
P
en
a s 6 ^ o u. o -: '* o z w a
M K
lO
PI.ASTl.lMNC
ln'twttii
ilii.
laili^
iii.i\
ir,
iMttrr
still,
a strip "f
ti<)n>.
m.iim!. ! metal
may
around
siic-h
ohstmo-
The
kiiiits.
iiii^
l)fst
<f
[lartially sfusotu-d.
Tlioy sliouM
In-
frc'
pine KPspnicc, aiul are only frnm sap, Imrk, ati<l doail
Hotli
snrround-
\voo<l
ii.'
and so
plaster
di-stroy the hold of the plaster; while the faee of the occasionally stained from pitchy knotholes, hark, or sjip.
old-fashioned
fiftv vears.
is
split
lath
has
likely to
cause them to
warp and
is
Better results can he ohtained hy i\s\u^ wet laths, and laths <lry out to<,'ether.
In spccifyinj; the nailin<j of
when
hotli
mortar
wood
laths,
it is
sometimes
thou},'ht to
nailinj,'s are recpiired at each end of the lath, cither upon the eeilinj; alone or upon lioth wall anl ccilin<^. It is more than doubtful if this re(|uiremcnt produces the desireil ri-sult, as two
I
if
two
eml arc
which
may
he incnnise*!
hy the pressure ncccssjiry in ap|)lyinfj the mortar, imtil the entire end of the lath is partially or wholly loosened fn)m its sup|Mirt hefore the
|>lasterinj; is all Ujjon
the wall.
it
the
"three-peimy fine"
nails
fasten
the
laths M'curely, ven the ceiling nails rarely AIout five pulling out. pounds of nails will lie necessary (o each one thousmd laths.
This means
ii[M)n
The joints of laths are ordinarily hroken every ei>,'ht courses. that not more than eij,'ht adjoining lath ends are naile<l
one stud or
carri-l
hy, endinj^ u|H>n the next wall stud or ceilin;^ furrinj; to either
ri^'ht or left, thus alternatin/.,' the hreak an<l ohvialinjj the |K).ssihilitv of an ext-nd'd crack iM-eurrinj,' at the line of lath jointure. Some lathers find a small hatidful of these laths more convenient to handle
than a
to
(
larjjer
hundle,
in
which case
it
is
six laths
is
which
is
placed twelve inclu-s apart, and the lath Such pnvautlon.s. however, urv joints hroken for every othr lath.
Kcasioiuilly studdinj;
PLASTERING
not necessary in the ordinary dwelling.
They
increase expense;
and
the closer spacing of the studs, especially, provides more undesirable weight to be carried by the house frame.
partitions comes up against the or a terra-cotta or brick wall, strips of expanded brickwork of chimneys rnetal or wire-mesh lath should be employed, extending seven or eight
inches over
in
upon
if
an internal angle, future cracking from a difference in settlement or shrinkage may be prevented by cutting through each plaster coat,
when
soft,
Metal Lath.
placed upon on boiler-room
heat.
Of
late years
lath
have been
the market.
ceilings,
The
generally required
artificial
and
in other places
provided by the studding, nine inches being generally considered the best distance. This necessitates either a closer spacing of studs than is otherv\'ise necessary or
is
Many
including
exposed to strong
all
those
made
of wire
sufficiently stiff, in one direction, to allow of a spacprinciple ing of supports greater than nine inches but, for ordinary wire cloth, no wider distance should ever be allowed, unless the cloth is itself
;
that are
artificially stiffened.
by
staples,
as
much
as possible.
In using metal lath, care should be taken to prevent plaster cracks along the line of jointure. The use of metal lath also requires three
coats of plaster, in order to stiffen the lath sufficiently to resist the pressure required to finish the last coat.
materials are
Lathing and plastering are generally estimated, and the various all figured, by the square yard. In small work, no openIn
it
ings are deducted unless they exceed sixty square feet in area.
figuring
is up plaster by quantity, sometimes customary to add half of the contents when measuring
when openings
closets ; while small triangular wall pieces are figured as in order to make for the extra amount of labor
up
The
is
frequently
demanded
PLASTKUINO
by the
hiiildiiij;
laws of soimi)uililiii^'.
cities, aiiid is
always re<|uintl on a
tiie
fire-
proof or lirst-elass
Sevi-ral
makes
market and
Ix-iri^
extensively advertised.
lartre o
Tliev
inehes,
eomc
in
eitrlit
inch
wide lM)ards or
shwts of 32 hv
*
3(>
framinjj.
One
coat of [)laster
and are
in
tliree-coat
work
may
then
Ix*
dispensed with. These hoards .save time, heinj; r.ipi<lly set in j)hiee even hy unskilled carpenters, and the plaster it.self drys out mnch more They are, however, fre|U<ntly the cau.se of cracks that rapidly. appear in the hnishcil plaster where the (^lixes of the lK)ards come
together
Plaster
Lime
is
obtained
principally compo.sed of lime, sand, hair, and uHiter. in dilVerent .sections of the country from calcine<l
limestone, the
in
the stone
being tirivcn ofY by the burning process. The wliole theory of plastering is based upon the re<luction of limestone to limi-, and its chemical
recombination, when distributed
into
something approaching its original state. The slakimj of the lime provides the moisture nece.s.sary for the process of crystallization that
while the .sole purpose of applying it prcMluces the sei of the mortar; is to present that much more surface uj)on the wall in .several coats
to ab.sorb the carbonic acid
of which
thinner
it
was
originally deprivetl in
tlu'
air.
The
tin-
coats and
larger their
constituent.
surface, the greater the absorption of this strengthening For this reason- and solely for this reason is three-
coat plaster
work
is
addnl,
until
it
is
turn, is
moistened and turned into a paste iniijer action of (he waltr, which This is bubbles and hi.sses with the heat generate<l by the process.
what
is
\'ery rich
the U-st
for plastering
slaked,
increases to about
twice
its
and
is
in color.
us fresh as |M>ssible, and nnist be deliverel in tightly seal>l barn-Is. Can- should also Iw taken t( u.scertain that it ha.s Urn burneil with
PLASTERING
Sand
is
spontaneously or by the action of running water. That made by running water, or from stones worn small by rolling over and over
is
composed
in
of particles so nearly round in contour angularities of surface that they are not good
material for mixing in any mortar where strength is a recjuisite or The particles of rotten rock decomposed by exposure are better adapted to make good sand for mixing with mortar, their
shape being more irregular, with many sharp and angular corners. Sand obtained from ledge stones contains the essential elements of
those stones, quartz, feldspar, and mica being present in granite formations, and lava, obsidian, etc., in volcanic sand. The sand
is generally more thoroughly disinteso rotten as to be entirely unsuitable for use grated, being frequently in plastering. In most parts of the country the principal supply of sand now comes from the beds of ancient lakes or rivers, and is called
softer stones
pit
sand.
fine,
may
always be distinguished
from dust by dropping it into a glass of water, as it will invariably sink to the bottom without leaving any appreciable dirt upon the surface.
is
not absolutely
Good
is
obtained so easily,
it is
and
is
and earth
stains, that
most
generally employed
The
market
of
is
third necessary constituent is hair. The best hair upon the cattle hair obtained from the tanneries. The hair should be
good length; and, if too lumpy or clotted, it should be separated by soaking in water the day before mixing it with the mortar, as this method of separating the hair is less dusty and more healthful than
beating or whipping it dry to obtain the same result. Occasionally brick dust is added to the mortar for coloring, when it is likely that the mortar will set more rapidly especially if the dust
mixed in shortly before using and is dry at the time of mixing. All brick dust should be sifted through a fine sieve. Besides brick dust, a
is
such
as lampblack, ivory
black,
PLASTKItING
weahi'ii
uliiii
the
plaster,
Ik-
ami
faile
rupiilly.
Xariously colored
saiui.s
they ean
obtainedthe
make
the
In-st aiul
tiiitiii<;
iiiial
plaster coat.
is
work.
The
dilVerent maki-s of
sand, alone, vary sufficiently to make any such statements exceedingly inadvisable; while tlu* purand conditions under which the plaster is to be usctl, fre<|uently
(f
jH)sc
its
prop<jrti(jns.
first
tif
plaster
This
consists, as aln-ady
in
simply
hanl, brittle hnnps of its orij^inal form to a sm(M)th [)aste by mixiiii; it with water. It is of the utmost imj)ortance that the limi- should be entirely and completely slaked, antl the jKiste smoothly
ritlucin^
and evenly
'I'he
lime
slaked
in a iitortur-hcd, a
4 feet
wide and 7
feet lonj;,
and
in .some
its
bottom about
second
in ^rade. Both placed at o!ie end, and about two feet lower beds should have tif,'ht bottoms and stronj; mortar and lime-slakini;
sides,
when
thev are
well braced to resist the j)ressure that will come U|)on tluin .\ (luantitv of .sand alreadv .scrt-ened shouM full.
lat'r
and work.
workmen
whiU- plastcrintj
and
^'ood plaster material will Iw lost in hnrrii'dly floatinj^, throw in<^ or pickinj; out these <^ravel stones in the rush of aj)plyin^ the mortar on the wall.
and nnich
barrel lime is em|>tied into the upper lox, ami water is on while a workman breaks up the lumps and works the mass |)oured Tin- thorouj;!! workbiick and forth in various directions with a hoe.
inj;
The
is
m-cessary to jMisure
its
compl-t' slak-
ing.
in the
The
tendencN of
tln>
can-less
workman
is
to
up
are
till-
centtT of the beil without any repird as to whether he is stirring mortar that isdrtwn on tin* bottom bojinls.or whether thM"orners
into the mixture
If
drawn
and worked as
-venly as llu*
remainder of
i'^\\u\\
the Intx.
the past-
is
not thonU|,'hly
if
and
'venly worketl to an
consislcn'V throughout,
of lime, or
if
not conlucltl to every particle the other in^'redienls are mixed in l>cfon- the paste 'm
is
the water
PLASTERING
the lime will be apt to blister and slake out unevenly, evenly prepared, If the corners, for instance, trouble after it is upon the wall. causing lime will afterward appear. are imperfectly mked, lumps of clear under the hoe of the workMany of these lumps will pass unnoticed will not be found until they are flatthe mortar, and man
tempering
tened out under the wall trowel of the plasterer. If too much water is used in slaking the lime
great amount that slake too tardily.
is
added
at
once
the
especially
When
if
a too
pile
is
chilled
is
and forms
into
lumps
so
If too little
water
is left
small particles entirely call it) that dry (burns, as the plasterers too much lack of sufficient moisture. fail to slake through
many
it
becomes so thoroughly place, a considerable portion of its strength is lost; and the procthat
first
is,
ess of slaking
is
The
the very cold water is added, although up process water soon becomes heated from the reaction of the lime. At the water should be put on to initiate the slaking process.
also slowed
start, just
enough
After this, as the slaking proceeds, more water should be added as all times. needed, taking care to keep the lime thoroughly moist at
lime should be covered with water very active and quick slaking from the very beginning, to guard against the possibility of burning. If the lime once burns, it will afterward be impossible, by any amount out all the fine lumps that are then caused. Rich to of
get working, lime will afterwards work cool,
is
little
likely to crack,
and bears
off, blister-
lime
is
the screen when the lumps of unslaked lime escape through into the mortar, it becomes very difficult run off, and get mixed
to eradicate
them afterward.
It is
the mortar when working it on the wall; and get these lumps out of of their afterwards slaking out will continue to appear long the results If they occur in the first coat, at various after the house is finished.
completed frequently extending throughout these lime lumps suddenly or expand, year
work
is
will
bloiv
outside them and making a large forcing out the surface plastering blister or lump, generally about an inch in diameter, which, if upon If this unslaked lime gets into the ceiling, almost invariably falls off.
the final coat,
much
the
same
i'i.A.^ii':Ki::G
il liti. >-Mii -iiiallT in size. In.st(*al of U-in^ larj;-, tlu* resulting holes an- then eoniparativcly small, running; generally alnjut the size of the head of a j)in, and the entire surface of the plastering is frei|Uently j)itte<l, the particles thnjwn olf ap|x'aring uUjut the room in
art-
the sliapf of a white dust. In the hruwn nuigh-coat, the s|M)ts of white, unslaknl linu- are How(|uite easy to see, as they are often the size of a Uaii or jx-a.
ever, in the final white coat, the.se
.sjxjts,
In-ing smaller
After it has once iHgim to warm up, the lime should U- worke<l or s'irred thoroughly during the process of slaking, .so that, after the action has heen completed, it will l)e (jf the consistency of a pasty
cream.
{No. 5 screen) put at the end of the slaking compartment, or niortar-hed. The screen is
After slaking, the lime should he run olf through a fine sieve ho.x, into the ne.xt lower
inten<le<l to
lime lumps too large to slake before the mortar is u.sed, or anv flintv settlement that may he found in the lime, and to allow only a pure and
thoroughly mixed hydrate to he admitti'd to the hed. When drawing or ruiming off the lime, a large supplv of .sand alreaily .screened shoidil he at hand to scatter in the bottom of the
mortar-bed and to
gradually
to
in
fills.
u.se
may appear
sufficient
{is
the Im)X
This
sand .should be
in
atnount
complete the mortar mixture. .Vii ani|)le su|)|)ly of water, either barrels or in ho.si- piju-d from a hy<lrant, should also In- n'aly at
hand
to avoid
anv
(tr
i)ossibilitv of the
lime burning.
oil',
it
finish coat, the paste shoulil be made even thiimer and may be of tin- consistency of milk. The sieve
through which
is
mesh
The paste for this coat is often of an ordinary flour or meal sen-en. obtaineil by rumiing off the lime a second lime, as by this means a
c(Mt|er
working putty
is
seeun-d.
leiigtli of lime that mortar for |ilaslering bi'fore bi'ing u.sed, is a mueh-li.seu.s.sed ipiestion.
The
shouM
It is
!<
mi\el
stated
generally architectund specifications, that "the mortar shouM U* mixed ten ilays or two weeks before using." .\s a matter of fact, this
in
(r
re<|Mirement is not always either wisold English work, lime mortar wils
desind>l'.
It
is
true that, in
left
stand for long peritnls of time, often six months to three years elapsing
10
PLASTERING
it
before
to
be expected.
was used. In this country, such slow-going methods are not While lime does gain in strength by standing in this
thin putty state before sand or other materials have been mixed with it, yet three or four weeks, at the least, are necessary before the increase becomes very apparent. It is also necessary that the paste should
remain moist, by being kept covered all the time. At the end of the fourth month its strength will have increased about one-fifth, and
this gain has been made during that month. From then on the gain continues, but gradually decreases in amount. It is more economical for the plasterer to use a lime that has been
most of
when tempered down, it will work freely much larger proportion of sand than is taken
up by lime mixed as soon as it can be readily worked. This extra amount of sand does not add to the strength of the mortar; but, as it causes the lime to cover a greater surface, it is a considerable economy
for the contractor,
made, however,
work.
left standing only long enough for all its be thoroughly slaked, and, if properly mixed and wet down in the first case, a great deal of time need not be required to
particles to
is
mixed
and put upon the building, the better and stronger will be the plastering
that
is
obtained.
is
limewater
which
it
from the properties much better suited has already absorbed from the lime
also very harmful, as this water
is
for carrying
Yet,
if
on the process of mixing than newly added clean water. the lime has been long standing, it may be necessary to add clean
water to replace the water lost by evaporation or seepage, although mortar mixed with clean water never becomes so hard as that mixed
with the water obtained in slaking the lime. The sand and hair are next added, the hair being put in before the mortar becomes too stiff to work readily. After the sand is mixed, the mortar should not be left to stand for any length of time, as it
would become considerably set and a loss of strength would result. If the mortar does become set in the bed, reworking woitld be necessary
before
it could be put upon the walls. The strength then lost bears a direct relation to the length of time it has stood, and the solidity it has attained, before this final working up.
PLASTEIUNG
11
In plastt'riii^ mortar wlun- hair is rc|uirf<l, a still furtliiT loss of as tlii' hair would Ix- s<j rottwl or eaten by its strt'Uf^tli wmilil H'sult,
loii;j e.\|M)Siirt*
worthless.
The
hair
v-aiiiiot
well
olT,
Im- mi.\e<l
when
the mortar
is first
run
while
it
is
had
months,
it
were attemptinl to
ljrlii<^
it
hair properly, hy wettinj; it down a .<econd time a consideraMe pn)[K)rtion- varvini^ from a (|uartrr u|) (o ..'most a halt- of its .strength would
Ik-
sacrificed.
mind
is
slaknl
the
would appear better that not more than a week .should elapse U-fore u.se of this mortar; and a less time than that is, under many circumevitlent that
timi-
no more lime-andu.sed
Ik*
mixed
at
one
than can he
within a
few days at the most. The lenf,'th of time that mortar .should Ik* allowed to stand, is deteniiined more or less Ity the dryness or moisture
as the
of the atmo.sphere. The <lryer the atmosphere, the .shorter the time, mortar is, in part, a chemical result of the <lrying .setting of the
out, or eva{)oration, of the iratrr of rrystallizotioti, as it is called. It has already been .said that limes made in dill'erent parts of the
country vary extensively in their chemical composition and pntjMTties. A knowledge of the chemical comj)osition of lime mortars and the
individual pecnliariti<'s
t)f
is
neces.sary In-fore
.set
."^^tates, the limes friniuently contain from half of carbonate of magnesia; and the mortar in which a third to a
forth.
In
To
SIMM
u|),
It
should
nm
It
nil"
should
and
if
it
while
tlif
tin-
original mixture
up and
W(rk
ntire
amount
mixture would
durable.
of the latter material to be ailded. the residting undoublrdlv !>< that niueh the stronger and mor>
The amount
of sjind to
Im- nnx'l
in
with
it.self,
is
12
PLASTERING
upon the quality and thickness of the lime paste, and also upon the nature of the work for which the mortar is intended. With excepamount of about two times the bulk tionally rich limes, sand to the of the lime measuring the slaked lime in the form of a rather firm
As will be seen, this is a most uncertain propora great deal depends upon the firmness of the lime paste alone. Allowing for variation in size of the lumps of lime and their closer or
looser packing together, it may perhaps be better to say that the sand should bear a relation to the lime, before it is slaked, of from three to
its
bulk.
finer the particles of sand, the more The of the latter should be employed, although the finer sand does not make as hard or as good mortar as the coarser variety. If both are
and the
clean and sharp, the finer and coarser varieties of sand may be mixed together with good results. Most laborers are apt to stop adding sand,
merely because the mortar mixture becomes hard to work when the mixpaste becomes too thick. This is poor policy, inasmuch as the
ture
to
work when
is
the tempering
is
partly
com-
an important
factor.
rather coarse
as well as sharp sand is considered best, as the amount and capacity of the voids left in such a mixture would be of such size as, without any
doubt, would provide space to contain lime sufficient to cement this granular mass very firmly together. The close pressure and contact
of the sand particles would also lessen the possibility of settlement or shrinkage, with accompanying map-cracks. The hair may be mixed
in either before the adding of the sand or when but a very small proportion of the latter has been worked into the lime mixture. The hair is generally mixed with the mortar by means of an iron rake. It should
to find
be thoroughly mixed, and enough should be used to make it impossible any small sections of the mortar in which the hair cannot be
seen.
to
This
will require
to
two bushels
of hair
a cask of lime.
If the
mortar
is
to
be used as a
first
surfaces,
it
will carry
a half-bushel to the barrel of lime being generally ample. If too little sand is used, the plaster is liable to dry too quickly when setting, and, after it is dry, will crumble very easily, showing up too white, or ashy
PLASTKKING
j^ray, in
is
13
appcanincv.
If
Unt
mudi
on
and
will cniinhli-
when
lath
Mortar
may
of uixjut
tliLs
same
consistency of niixtun".
finitli)
For the
is
final coat
hut very
little
sand
used.
The
hanler the
is
amount
putty
is
of sanil.
For
mixed
at the
lust,
run
off.
For hard
is
when marhle
it is genenilly mi.\e<l together on the hefore applying. Stucco, or plaster of immediately never mixed with putty until immi><liately U-fori' using, on
added,
account. of
mixing,
its rapid .setting, whidi occurs in a few moments after ^^^len once set before being aj)j)lied, it Ix-comes useless.
No more
water than
is
first
or in
its
it
sub.secjuent tempering, as
over-much
and
of a considerable projMjrtion of its also retaRls the setting process by giving that much more
is
moisture that
zation.
necessar}' to be disposeil of
by evaporation or
crystalli-
A bushel of lime is standardizeil to weigh SO pounds; 2(H) |>ounds allowed to the barrel; a l)ushel contains about one and one-<juarter cubic f<vt of A barrel of sand is .supposed to contain cubic feet.
is
.'}
sand, and a bushel of .sand weighs about 120 pounds, and wet mortar 130 or 132 pf)unds. When hard, mortar is figured to weigh alniut 110
pfHinds to the cubic foot.
To summarize
one
barrel of lime, 200 |M>unds, will take alK)ut In most localities a load of .s;ind is supixi.sitl to
contain twenty-seven cubic feet, or a cultie yard; but it is friHjuently To the less than this, extending down to two-thirds of the amount.
barrel of lime should
al.so
be
u.sed
as we
This
have seen
in pa|M'r
IIair<Nnu\s
into a
nieasun-d
bu.slu-l.
amount
when the lime has Ik-imi slaknl and the whole or 10 yanis (aUiul barn-Is) of mixjHJ together, will amount to and tin- amoimt shoid<l covc-r about 10 .s<juan' yards of mortar;
of material,
.!.')
.'
latlud an a. reipiiring about (KK) laths to surfaiH". The final skim coat is mixel mughly to the following pn|Hrlion.s: A a^k "f lime to a half-tub of wafer, which should fake up aUnit a
<
14
PLASTERING
Generally
the plasterer uses a larger barrel or hogshead for water, than the cask in which the lime is delivered. Also, in some localities, the lime will
run somewhat more than 200 pounds to the barrel, Maine lime from to average 220 pounds. Rockland lime is
considered in the East good lime for scratch and brown coats, but many masons prefer Jacob's lime for the finish coat.
It should be remembered that the bulk of the completed mortar mixture does not equal the total combined bulk of its various ingredients, but is less than the aggregate bulk by about one-quarter.
PLASTERING
Interior plastering
ings.
first
is
now
to allow
coat being required to stiffen the body of the material sufficiently thorough working of the remaining coats. Even upon wood
make a
Extra
strength
coat, pro-
vided time be allowed to dry out each of the coats thoroughly before the next coating is added. It has now, nevertheless, become the general
custom
to
less
expensive grades of
resi-
dence work.
The
plaster mortar
steel, about four and one-half inches wide by twelve inches long, having a wooden handle that is parallel with the back of the blade. After the
mortar
is
put on and roughly smoothed out with the steel trowel, wooden trowel, about four inches wide and three feet
taken by the
to
form density. The flat part of the darby half-inch or slightly more in thickness.
to
Three-Coat Work. The best interior plaster work always used be put on in three coats, and was worked to a final thickness of about seven-eighths of an inch. Of the three coatings, the first is the
when dry, it may be strong enough to resist the A large part of the pressure of working the coat or coats to follow. advantage of three-coat plastering is obtained by thoroughly drying each coat out before applying another, thus securing the added densthickest, so that,
I'l.VSTKUlNG
ii\
15
ami
.strt'ii^tli
futvin^
tlit*
suhsitjut'nt
c-oatinj^
tirinly
and
|{iill)iii;,'
or trowflin^' up
it
surfafe u|H)n wliicli it is Ijcin^ placetl. n)ii^h mortar U-fon* it finally dries and
much
it is
mori'
compact than
is
jH>.ssill'
fn>m working
at the time
when
first
aj)pli-|.
The
first
tion of hair, that lein<; useful in strcnj^thenini,' the key or clinch of the
of the wixnlen laths, throu;^h the crevices plaster hehind the edijes Mefore this coat thon)U^hlv dries, Itetwirn which it has In-en forced. the surface
purj)ose.
is
scratched (hence
its
name) with
The
sometimes scTatchetl
a wo<Mlen float or darhy like that used to ruh over the surface, before adding the finish coat. When one coat is entirely
witli nails set into
is
is
always necessjiry,
more
The .second coat generally contains and much less hair than is nece.ssary in
of this second coat-
the
is
or
brown
at
coat, as
all
it
njust he
l)n)U(:ht
up
and
true
walls.
all
and he |)lumh ujmhi the coat is applied, lumj)S must he removinl corrected, and the mortar must iR-come
angles,
Ix-
nihlud up with a
float
or darhv and so
firm.
To
treated the
(practically one thick coat) was then darhied and same as in twu-<<ial work, over whicli about the onlv advantage of this method was in pntviding a rougluT .sand surface on the second coat than was |)ossible when more hair (always necessiirv in first coat) was included. ()therwise, substantially the .siiine ri'-
mass
tig'ther
are obtaineil
the
first
anil time.
neiit
<oat of ordinary two-i-out work, at a saving of lH)th Iai>)r While this method do<'s not furni.sh .so giMxl or .so |MTmait
a job of plast'ring,
is
rt^-
The
saving
in this sort
16
PLASTERING
more money than a two-coat job would cost him, and actually receives of work. The second coat, too, dries substantially the same grade more slowly when applied before the first coat is dry and hard, and
there
If three-coat
first
much saving in time as is generally believed. attempted at all, it should be insisted that the coat be thoroughly dry before the second is added. The final coat is generally composed of lime putty, with a small
is
therefore not so
work
is
This of white, clean sand, gauged with plaster of Paris. proportion If a color is considered desirable, surface. gives the whitest finished
a colored sand
may
be used.
cut out and patched before occurring in the previous coats should be The final coat is about one-eighth of an inch the last coat is applied. thick, and the surface is burnished with the steel trowel to an even and
straight surface,
and worked
The
or sufficiently to free it from chip cracks lime for the white finish mortar should be
less
thus combining the first two coats when green, the next step in the development of methods of work, was to apply but naturally, one coat, making it of increased thickness, and scratching it ready to
From
skim or white coat, except when it was desirable to with a rough surface, or to sand-scour it, as the last
called.
If the
process
is
sometimes
Rough
Plaster Finish.
mortar
is
to
or rough finish, two coats are applied. The second coat which should be put on only after the first is thoroughly dry is substantially the same as the brown coat described
being secured by working the surface of the second coat, before it dries, with a soft-faced float and a mixture of sand with some lime added. Sometimes the surface of the float is of carpet
above,
tlie
rough
finish
sometimes of cork or other soft wood. Only so large a surface as may be readily covered at one time, can be floated, darbied, etc., In this case no hair whatsoever is put in the before it has time to set.
or
felt,
second coat, as the hair destroys the evenness of the surface that is obtained by the scouring action of the particles of sand rolling around between the surface of the float and the face of the plaster. K long
float is generally
is
worked
to
an
even and true face, care being taken not to leave any marks from the instrument itself.
PLASTERING
17
While it is m*iR'rally tlii' custoin to a<i<i niu^h plastrr finish on the seeoiul coat, in inexiK'nsive work, e.s|H-eially for .siinuner residenei-s, artistic etFect can Ik.- ol)taine<I \>y rou<;h-\v(rkin<; the surface n{ a
very the first coat.
If oiie-<oat finish is
Ik- use<l,
and
the consistency of the coat must remain nuieh the same, whether it is In that case, however, it is not jxjssihle to surface-finishe<l or not. work the surface as true and as even as the surface of a second coat.
Two-Coat Work.
coats.
Most
j)!aster
work now
consists of only
two
of
made
it is stiti"
enou^'h to
he wijrked, with
stronj;.
The
first
coat of
with sullicient pressure to forc-e the The l)etween the laths, and so ensure a i,'oo<l clinch.
must be made as true and even as possible on surfaces and plumb on the walls. After the first coat is sufficiently and angles, float consisting of a piece of lianl set, it may be worked again with a about the size of the trowel. Sometimes the faci- of this float is
pine covered with
felt
ment on the
plaster
or other material to produce a rough textural treatThe first coat should run a stnjiig fivesurface.
should be thonnighly dried out. eighths inch in thickness, and It is generally inadvisable to attempt to trowel a two-coat job If the attempt is made to float the first coat when it is verv smoothlv.
too thin or insufficiently
.set,
the instrument
is
likely to leave
marks
on the wall, and the plastering is itself likely to crack. It is In-tter to err on the side of caution, as, if the jilaster has become .slightly t(H) dr^-. water upon it with the plasit easily be dampened by sprinkling
may
terer's
float.
broad calcimine brush and following it inuneliat'ly with the The use of water in this way has accompanying alvautages
it
in
that
when otln-rwise tlu-y would have gathering along the edge of the float, to l)o shaken off every few moments to jirevint their rolling under the
instnmient and Iwing pressed into the surface of the plaster and rolls, in such a waiy as to .show through ven the finish e)at.
(
in tuft.s
taken to see that each coat invariably is al).solutely drvaiwl hanl Infore the addition of anotlur coat is atteni|(tl. ( )therwise the later e<at will fall olT, in great<r or less part, ami it will Ikare shoiiM
l)e
(piite itniHissible
if it
should
18
PLASTERING.
first coat is only partially dry when the second be seriously injured by the pressure brought upon
is
it
will
when
floating.
The
finish
is
the
same as the
final
skim coat
in three-coat
The
should never be
liable to
crack
if
put on before
first-coat
set.
is
quite
is
entirely
dry and
hardened by the addition of plaster. If plaster is used, the mortar should always be gauged (that is, plaster should be mixed with the putty) after it is placed on the mortar-board.
the finish
The
usual process of gauging consists in making a hollow with the trowel in the midst of the pile of lime putty lying upon the mortarboard.
is filled with water, and the plaster sprinkled the whole then being mixed rapidly with the trowel and put it, the wall immediately, before the plaster has time to set. The
This hollow
upon upon
proportion of lime and plaster, while variable, averages probably onefourth to one-fifth plaster.
finish is skimmed in a very thin coating that is generally than one-eighth of an inch in thickness. It is immediately troweled several times, dampened with a wet brush, and thoroughly
less
The
troweled to smooth
it
from chipping or
cracking. prevents the steel trowel staining the surface, but the plaster should not be too wet, as it will then blister or peel. The whole surface of the finish coat, whether of putty or hard finish,
The water
should finally be brushed over once or twice with a wet brush while, if a polished (or buffed) surface is required, it may be gained by brushing without dipping the brush into the water until a glossy surface is
;
obtained.
joints
Especial care should be taken, in the final coat, to finish all smoothly and evenly so that the point of jointure will not be
apparent. The ceilings are completed first; then the upper part of the wall; and lastly the bottom portions which can be reached from the floor and thus more to the carefully finished
up
joint.
o
00
a;
a
a
o
a
o
o
>
o
g
II
K <
(-1
53
^
^'
S,-' cfl
O
ii
3 O
m
(V
o *
e ^ o d
u.
<
BC
<
tu
!!
;:
o
'^
7
>
<
a. to
u
rt
s:
i'LAsri;ui\(;
M-atFolds
r<MHii
witli
19
I'lii-
plastcnr
lii'ij,'lit
;jiit
rally
tlu'
lMani> al
sulliiinit
n-atli (In-
tt-iliiij^
overliftui
work
|)art
Thr
fl(M)r.
phistiT
is
sciitroldin^',
ami the
If too
is
much
joint
likely to
lie
show
tin- work is i-ompK'trd fn)m tinelapses in jo'uiiij; the coats at this jM)int, the wljich is, of course, not serious unless the walls
<
are
to
lift
Miitn-ated.
)ccasionally
two men
workin;^
liiiish thv
alonj:
tot^ether, at the
If
walls
same
tlie
Ik*
oKl-fashiuneil
wooden
should
neatly cut out from each side, forming a small V-sunk an^le that prevents the thin ed<;e ruiminj; up against the comer-lH'ail fn)m breaking o\L As a matter of fact, the use of a metal (H)rn<'r-bead
makes
afterward
a far truer, sharper, and straighter angle, ti-ar or hreak the papering when it
in the
th'
is
and one
is
Angles
As
if
plaster are generally linishcd with a wcmmIcii paddle. hair is ii.sed principally to insure a clinch hack (tf the lath,
plaster
neces.sary;
applied on a stone or hrick wall, a .scratch coat is .seldom l)ro\\;n mortir is very often u.sed without
c-ompositioii of hrick ina.son's mortar.
it
hair
If a
.s<'nitch
is
more
.sand
and
h-ss hair
mouldings are to Im- used, or when for an mujsually stniight, level, and pluinl) surface of plaster any pur|)o,s' is rn|uired, three-n-oal work, put on in the old-fashione<l manner, shoidd lie demanded. This is necessarv in order to j/et a surfacv
finish wh're plaster
For a
sulliciently
level
and true
to
run plaster mouldings evenlv, and to almost certain to occur in all twiH-coat
plastering.
The
.s<'cond
and
ami
Individual s|Mits ar' hrought up to an even Iwing added and carefnilv w(trk>l U'tween
it
all
edge.
)cc;isionally
filling in is
it
liap|M'ns
that
the nuigh
i-oaf
is
so
ahsolulely necessary to
c<tat.
make
the wall
and half
jtiitty
may
U*
u.seil in
leveling
up
20
If
PLASTERING
no finish coat
is is
as the mortar
be put on, the surface should be troweled smoothly applied, care being taken to lea-^'e no marks, hollows,
to
is
to
be finished or frescoed,
it
should
Patent Plasters.
etc.,
are not
often employed for private dwellings, being chiefly suitable for merThe patent plaster has certain advantages that are cantile purposes.
Its surface as quick drying and hardening. hardens more quickly and resists abrasure longer than the ordinary lime plastering However, a break once occurring, the extreme stiff-
self-evident
such
makes
if
it
and
to
be of a
more
the softer,
more
flexible
ering had been injured in the same manner. The extra stiffness of most patent plasters is caused by the cement that generally forms an important part of their composition. These are sold ready for use, requiring merely the addition of a plasters
of water. They are therefore especially adapted the inexperienced, and are valuable for executing small by pieces of work, as they do not present the liabilities to failure, or loss of time and delay, occasioned by mixing up batches of lime mortar.
sufficient
amount
for use
Back
Plastering.
Occasionally a
is
backof
flastered for
warmth.
strip
seven-eighths inch furring against the inside of the boarding on each side of the studs. The space between the studding is then lathed
(of necessity a slow and bothersome job) and plastered one rough coat of hair mortar, which should be allowed to dry before any lathing
is
placed over
it
on the inside face of the studding. As a matter of back plaster is much injured by the fact
seasoning after the plaster is set, is likely to the plaster, leaving a narrow perpendicular crack on each side of the stud, which permits of the passage of cold air.
shrink
away from
Plaster Cracks.
If the distance
Cracks
in
plaster occur
laths,
studding or furring,
too great, the larger amount of plaster in that out, may cause a short crack. place, Any such spaces should, however, be. filled by the lather before plastering is begun.
when drying
Sometimes, too, especially in the first coats, cracks are caused by the shrinkage or expansion of the wooden laths after the mortar has
I'l.ASrKRlN'G
I'lu- rr.siilt is a sfrics of narrow cracks wholly or partially st-t. paralU'l l^ath crackn art- or<iito racli otIuT ami tlif wiiltli of tlit- laths apart,
and
.s
do not )ftfnup|H'ar
float-
Tlii-y
may,
tiK),
ing
ii|>
finally sets.
If
slionld
he cut out
to a widtli of
an
iu'-h
mortar hefore adding the last coat. Cracks of a like appearance are sometimes cause*! hy the rough mortar heing too rich, or ly draughts of air fn)m o|)en d(M)rs or win-
of the plastering too <|uickly. The too of plaster with stoves or salamanders, oft'n prcHJuces a drying
fn)m similar causes. An experienced plasterer should Im? uhle to determine the rcsponsiblecau.se and take measures acconlinglv, using more siind if the mortar is too ridi, .screening openings to prevent
like result
drying stoves.
In green work,
damage already done may he rej)aireil hy refloating again before the work becomes too dry, softening the mortar with water if necessim*.
Tracks sometimes wcur
the room.
in the
When
in this location,
they
may be cau.se<l by
the shrinkiige
or settlement of the partition or floor. In the j)erpendi<ular angli-s, esj)ecially, they may extend only to the depth of the finishing ix)ats.
In that
ca.st
jilaster, insuffi-
cient troweling, or
coat
of |)laster in the piugetl cati.ses whicli are easily n-miHlied in the remainder of the work.
insufficient
jtartition,
an
amount
or radiating fnmi
cau.sed
by the unetjual
settlrment or shrinkage of
buiMing.
They
fre<|Uently <H-cur at a
perp<ridicular angle wliere a wood partition is brought up apiinst a briek wall, r)r at the ceiling line where a woo<len floor comes up agiiin.st
a brick sup]Ktrting wall. f racks inrur in the final finish
when
used.
the putty
it
is
not gjiup"*!
is
|>ut
on
t>o
thick,
and when
tiwi
little
sand has
be'n
'I'he.se
rliipjiid rrtuks.
I'laster.
will
f>f
sometimes crumble,
fn)m
tiM
t(K)
much
.S4ind.
Hither too
much
injun-.s the
strength of mortar.
22
PLASTERING
If unclean sand, dirt, or clay has become mixed with the mortar, not only weakens the lime but prevents its adhesion to the sand no real set of the mortar ever occurs. Of course, particles, so that
it
at all times,
poor materials
when
apparently hard and good, if the laths are too near together, if there is insufficient hair, if the mortar is too rich or too sandy, or if it had not
sufficient force when being applied; loosened by the springing of the laths under the On brickwork the mortar requires pressure of floating it too hard. considerable more sand than for application on laths.
or
may become
last well,
to set before it dries out. Therefore, to should dry slowly. A stiffer working mortar makes better and harder plaster than thin or wet material, provided, of course, it
it
is
thin
to brick
enough to clinch well to the lath in first-coat work, or to adhere and dry scratched surfaces, and to spread evenly, in second-
coat work. Stiffer mortar can safely be applied upon wet mortar than on dry; and wide-spaced lathing will take stiffer mortar than
close-laid laths.
When two
first, it is
coats of mortar have been put on, and generally because the first coat
The
coats
must
be entirely dry or quite green to be successfully combined. If possible, it is better to have the workman use makes of materials,
especially lime, having those properties with which he is acquainted. Attention has already been called to the fact that different makes of
vary considerably in their chemical composition. It is not even same make will always run even in production, after year. Of course, lime that has been slaked by exposure year to air or water while in the barrel, and before it is used, is worthless.
certain that lime of the
hme
As
this occasionally
is
happens, it is well to be watchful and see that never added to the plaster bed.
last coat of plaster
is
As a
final
has
dried out hard and strong before any wood finish wise the wood will absorb the moisture from the
swell
installed, as otherit
plaster, causing
to
to
be altogether closed.
wood
house while plastering is going on, as it will absorb moisture from the air around it. The reason that sash are not ordinarily set until after
ri.ASTKUIN(i
th'
is
23
j)la.stt'rin<j
ruiislittl,
is
luraiis*'
>\v'||
tli*y
altsorl)
It
.si
imu-li nf the
in j)la<<-.
tlu- \viiitii)w
()|M-iiiii^s
of
c-ottoii
cloth, as
tliis
still
allows of a
artificial
much
nion-
ra|)iilly
than
than
it
would dry
if
and
t'la/cd sash.
these opcninfrs wen- cIosihI ly .s<j|id do<rs In vcrv hatl weather the scn-en cif cotton inav Ik*
if
sli;,'htly
stRMiffthenetl,
if
white-
Contrary suj>[>osed, thedrjth window-screen is almost as gool a |)ntection a^^ainst external cold and fn)st as is the tjlazed window, althoiij^h the current of air passinj^
thnni;^h the cloth meshes of these screens into
causes a
re<|uire<l
somewhat
to
these screens
In ^oh1 dr^'iiji; weather, dry out a j)lastered l>uildin<;. shouM he taken out and left out durinj; the <lay. hut
should he replaced at nij^ht or in dani|) weather, when the |)laster otherwise is likely to reabsorb moisture from the air ami so delay the
time of
its final
drying out.
by salamanders should
not be employiil; natural dryiii}; by sun and air is. und<-r all cin-umThe salaman<ler not only dries the room in which stances, preferable.
it
is
jilaced,
inci
(|uickly
itself
especially the
to
riling al>ove
but
fills
the air
j)laster
with
jjas fumes, and, by steamini;, is fre<|Uently of plaster or hair, thus reducing its vitalitv
Heating
house
dry out the plaster by means of the is prefcral)le to the use of salamanders,
the chief objection iti this ca.se being occasioned by the unduly nipid drying-out of wall j)laster back of or above registers and nidiators. The situation is help'<l if the radiator is set out from the wall and sonu'
scTcen
is
|)laced
U-tween
it
and the
plasicr.
.\
screen
may
also
Ik*
the wall over a hot-air n-gister; but tlH-n* is no einployi-il against means of protecting the plaster on either side of a partition thnuigh .*^uch plaster is Unnid lo Ik* which a hot-air or steam pi|>e passes.
.s'verelv
If
strained by In-ing dried loo (|uickly. i.s fro/en when wel, it is likely to loosen up and injure The elTecIs of the whole iiiavs so that il may eventually fall olT.
jdaster
fre<'/ing are less
troublesome
if
the wall
frosleil,
is fn/.i-n afl'r it
is
drini and
has (Mice
set.
If
only slightly
24
PLASTERING
it
floated again,
may
much
different
from what
often be saved, the effect in that case being not it would be if the wall had been surface-
Moulding.
Plaster mouldings
upon
ceilings
and walls
are less frequently employed now than a few years ago, when, espeof wall and ceiling, a heavy cornice of plaster cially at the intersection
finish.
Nowadays a
cornice of
wood
is
more commonly
as follows:
used.
moulded plaster cornice is or screeds, are run on the ceiling and parallel strips, the side wall, with their nearer edges evenly straightened. These edges
Briefly described, the running of a
Two
mould
to a reversed
run along the strips the lower edge being cut out and
is
The plaster necessary to fill up the mouldings of the cornice may be tied back to the wall and ceiling by rows of nails driven so as to stand at about the location of its greatest thickness; while a strip of
metal lath, filling in the angle upon projecting furrings, will offer the best possible clinch, and will help to reduce the thickness of the
plaster
and render
its
its
sur-
When all is ready, enough putty and plaster are gauged in about equal parts to run the cornice down the length of one side of the room. The moulding form is then rested upon the supporting and guiding
along from right to left, pressed the mass of mortar which is thrown into the angle against just ahead of it by the trowel, the space immediately in front of the moulded strip
strip against the wall,
and drawn
full of plaster
mortar to
is
When
the length
is
material
is
length of cornice that has just been run, scraping away all the plaster except that included within the outline of the mould.
Where hollows
mould should
at once be
occur, the gauged material scraped off by the thrown on again at these places, so thai they
may
be immediately filled and brought up to the right section outline by again running the mould over these portions. The gauged putty will set in a few moments, and each side of the room or section of the
PLASTKlUNt;
lUDiiltliii^
must
\h'
mil
iiiwi
cuniph-tt'*! or
fillt**!
nunu may
luii
In- fillnl
in l>y
of
tin-
Im)X, niitrnl
upon the
sawn
in a
mitre
east
and run
The
extra
amount
is pntjectin;^ mouldinj^s other cracks are oc-casionetl hy the settlement, shrinkage, and movement of the house frame. Vnr these and other n-asons, it is now gen-
of plaster included in the thickness of extreme the cause of occasional surface craekinj^; while
erally considereil that a woo<len cornice, chspite is better suited than plaster to this purjxj.se.
its
defects of shrink-
age,
may
several times more, endinj; hy finishing with a hrush so as to give the moulding a gloss just as on the wall
it
The same
.set
pnK-ess
is
ter
conditions
hy circumstances, a circular niouliling aroimd the lighting outlet in the middle of the nxtin, for inslance, heing swung from a peg driven into the center of the gas j)ipe or outlet Ih>x. ( )ther
kinds of plaster mouldings are run hy unimportant variations of the
proces.ses
dcscrilKnl.
made
.separately in
Most of these sepanite moulds are made of jilaster pnired. plaster hardened with glue or shellac, or surfaced with heeswax, and are
gem-rally oile<l hi'fore heing usetl. IMaster ornaments are fastened in place with fresh plaster or glue; (K-casionally a few .screws are u.sel,
in
Ik'
in
with
pla.ster
as not to show.
liXTI:RI()lv>
PLASTIiRINO
for dwellings has Keen in use has hut reii-ntly met with favir in this many years, Ill llalv, plaster, or stucco, a|)plied in large, imhroken COlintrv. a >loiie or hrick huilding, has long U-en a favorite e\|>aiise> upon
in l'hiro|M' for
niethiMl
of
construction,
l-'reipu-ntly,
ii|>
Iik>.
this
|>la.s|er
.surface
is
stainetl or col(rrd
and worked
iiilmlith-n'nt ''signs.
Ix-en
In l\ngland.
usetl in
France, and
<
more fntpiently
con-
26
PLASTERING
contain instances of
In
nection with a half-timbered frame, although these countries also its use in large, unbroken, simple surfaces.
it
is
is
covered with plaster, as the aesthetic possibilities in the use of rough hard-burnt brickwork have now long been recognized; and when
this
the
cheapest
it is
dwelling,
brick-building material is employed upon a the exterior surface and to obtain the
recently
its
employment
in large,
simple surfaces,
strips of
much more
possess
some examples
of brick
appropriate to this country. We also and stone houses, two hundred years
plaster-
most recent of American plastered dwellings, this effect has been simulated by applying the plaster to a wooden frame lathed
with a fine-meshed wire cloth. In any plastered building, the cornices should be projected sufficiently far to protect the walls and all exposed upper surfaces of
the plastering. The farther this projection, the safety of the plaster, especially in the northern
country.
more
certain the
sections
of
the
The
in
modern
fashion, are:
a solid, immovable foundation; and a carefully applied and thoroughly worked job of plastering. The framework should be somewhat better
constructed and more carefully arranged to prevent movement or settlement than on an all-wooden l)uilding. Other than this, the
dwelling to be plastered outside does not differ, in any part, from the ordinary house, until the structure has been framed and boarded in.
For
is
if shingling or clapboarding Outside of this papering, the house is furred with strips of furring, seven-eighths of an inch thick by one and one-eighth to one and one-quarter inches wide (for metal lathing they are to be
of paper than
were intended.
placed nine inches apart, for wood laths twelve inches, on centers), and the lathing is applied upon these strips.
PLASTKUIN'O
A\i:r\i.
I
11
\in
is
TIh'
Ix'.si laili
pndmltly
tin-
No.
I'.t (
'linton
win- cloth.
The
wire
is
>iiHicieiitly hirp- to
In* ihinilih',
suffieieiitlv ojx-n to
fill
allow the mortar to press through aiui completely over the hack of the wire, thus prot<ftinf( it from e.\p>.sure to the elements or ilamaf^e from vater and rust, even if the pla.ster
and
clo.se in
surface should leak sufficiently to admit water hehind this covering. is also u.se<l for this pur|xise, hut it is not generally E.\paiide<l metal
consi(lere<i so gocnl a material,
from the
fact that
it
is
im|>ossihle to
the hack of this lath with plastering, and j)rotect no means of certainly pn)tecting it from the jxjssi-
of rusting. hility
)ver a story and a-half f Occjisionally.on a small, low hou.se of not may heomittetl altogether. The metal lath
and
then place<l din-ctly upon the furred studs, and plastered ImkIi outside Howin to insure its ahsolute protection from damage hy water.
opens a small crevice along each side whicli has already been mentioned as occurring in l)ack |)lastering and it is thus possible that water may enter from the hack and do considerable damage, even through the narrow space that this shrinkage The omi.ssion of the outer Iniarding aLso .somewhat injures provides. the stiffness of the hou.se, as a frame constructtnl in this way is not so
well brace<l as
in
when
the hou.se
.so
second air-.space
plastering
hou.se
Neither are the dwellers applied. from the exterior weather, as the completely protected obtained between the papering and the exterior
the iMtarding
is
This extra air-space is of a.ssi.stance in keeping the is lost. more e<|uably warm in winter and c(m)1 in summer.
it
is
always
the
ah.vilitlf e,s.sential is to protect the lath from This once done in whatever fashion nist.
pTmanent and
is
la.st-
is
cnsure<l.
winti
I"
|ier|M'ndicular
held to
anv
|X).ssible
w(km1 frame with staples or.soim* similar fastening, allowing movement of the fn;me lo i>c< iir without affecting <r
plaster surface,
.straining the
which
is
by
this
means
disas.s(K-iatel
("nicks anund from, while directly sup|)orled by, the house fniine. the windows and the angles of the buildings an- thus pnventi1 l>ut
;
28
PLASTERING
it is a more expensive form of construction, and is not now employed except in the larger and more expensive residences. From the use of wire lath, there are occasionally obtained small
if
come
at
a place
is
weakened from the movement of adjacent portions of the buildFor instance, if a perpendicular lath lap is made on the line of ing. the edge of the window finish, a crack on the line of this joint is almost
certain to appear in the plaster, extending both
wood-surrounded opening.
lathing so that the joint will come at least nine or ten inches on either side of the edge of the window or door finish. All furrings should also be kept away and back from all angles, internal or external, upon the
walls, so that a certain clinch
important points.
WOOD LATH
Wood
lath
is
It may be country, apparently with good results. employed in two ways one, in the ordinary manner, only spacing the laths somewhat
would be advisable on the interior of the dwelling. other method consists in laying the laths diagonally over the building in such a manner as to form a criss-cross lattice-work. In this
further apart than
The
is
from three-quarters
to seven-
eighths of an inch, so as to allow the plaster to enter easily and form a solid clinch behind these lattice openings. The purpose of the diagonal
criss-cross lattice
is
to provide
more or
the wall
covering, so as to take up, without injuring or cracking the plastering, a certain amount of the movement that may always be expected in a wooden-framed This method of employing lath, by the dwelling.
localities almost as expensive as the use of wire or metal probably a safer and surer material to employ. As large and as good a quality of heavy wood lath as can be secured, shoukl be provided for exterior work. Lath cracks are also then to be expected, from the same reasons that apply to interior work; while the mortar should be somewhat softer and slower drying when used upon this material than when a metal surface. employed
way,
lath,
is in
most
is
which
upon
advisable so to arrange the work upon the house that, after the completion of the frame, some time will still elapse
possible,
it is
If
l'LA.STi:i{I\<i
29
is
u|)|)lii-<i.
If tin-
fniiin-
can
Ik* l)iinl'<l
in, aiuJ
iiitrriiir
nf
tin-
lioiisr plastcn-tl
ami
fiiii.slt<*<l
imhUt
urtiiidal heat
|n)l>-
t|iiriii;j tlu'
winter,
and
tin-
exterior
|>la.ster
(
ai|ile<l in
the sprinjj,
ahly ihe
for the
|)hic-etl
l)e.st
resiiUs are to
he
exiMfti-tl.
frame
to shrink, settle,
and eontraet.
is
Ix*
insi(h' of
is
the huilihn<;
then also
installe<l
surface
a))]>lie<I,
exjM-ete<l
afterward to atleet
than would
|>n)ijal>le
under the
opjxtsite ctMiditions.
iM TTI\(i
ON
fir
PI
\Sli.k
coat
Exterior plaster re<|uires thn-e-i-oat work. is indis|)ensal>le when metal or wire lath
hitli.
The
is
lirst
or seniteh
Imt alm<tst
usel,
This
first
coat should
i)e
seratehe<l
second coat
is
ap|)lied.
thorou<;hly dry before the <;reater time ou^lit to elaj)se hetweeii tlie
Ik'
applications of exterior than of interior |ilaster coals, inasmuch as it then heconn'S jM)Ssil)l' to cut out many of the larijer and more im|M)rtaiit
a|)jH'ar,
and
to j)atch
them before
is
huu^c
if
then the
less likely to
it
plasteriiif^ to dry.
a further extra
at the last
time
is
allowe| the
moment
before the
or finishini; coat is put u|n)n the walls. This slower sla|)-<lash aids in <,'ivin<j a more permanent job ami one that is at the pro^'ress
final
.same time less likely to ^ive annoyance from surface cracks aftt-rwanl making' their appearance in the fhiish plastering.
The
i|uestioii
ais
variable hen'
in
of pro|M)rtion in mixin;; th' plaster is tpiile as the ca.se of interior ])laslerin;;, and it is e4|ually
hilferent j>lastenTS,
in dif-
ways of
or mixing; tlu-ir materials. In tin- lirst ("oat. cement is |)n>|)ortionin;,' added to the lime mortar in prn|)ortions varyin;,' U'twet-n ten and forty
|M'r
."^omc
ci
the
first
eat
.shoidd be
stilTened with
With others
llic reverse is true; uliilc, contrary to the p-neral sup)>osition, the exterior coat a|)pears to contain only that in the majority if eji.ses amount of cement n-<'e.s.sary to provide the lone or color that is d(*sinil
30
PLASTERING
Conditions also greatly affect these proporadded last on a well-seasoned and shrunk
stiffer
When
far
the plaster
it is
is
worked
is
newer
and
still
from
finished.
dash
applied as a slapthe throwing of handbeing given by fuls of variously sized pebbles or gravel upon the fresh outer coat, thus The smaller the size of the particles pitting or marking up its surface. for this purpose, the more likely they are to stick and remain employed
finish, the surface texture
The
in the fresh putty, slightly tinting the surface with the color
if
any
of the gravel employed. The coloring of exterior plastering as when it is used inside the dwelling.
is
is bestowed in this country upon the provided by the use of color for exterior plaster work. agreed that the utmost care to prevent absolutely any leakage
necessary on the part of the workman in the carrying out of this class of work and it is here that the success or failure of exterior
;
Of
wood
finish
and
many
possible,
around window and door openings The plaster should here be an outer architrave backhand should
afterward be put on so as to cover and protect this joint. Otherwise, a key should be provided for the plastering, by cutting away or hollowing out a space near the inner edge of the wood facure, into which the plaster may be pressed by the workman, and leakage thus prevented even if the wood, as is quite likely, shrinks slightly away from the
plaster after
it
of making tight this exterior plaster wall is comand rendered more difficult when it is divided into panels by a plicated
so-called half-timber treatment.
The problem
between plaster and wood are occasioned where the wide wood boards are almost certain to shrink away from the
of joints
plastering,
and where,
too,
it is
battens in any
way
impossible to protect these joints by outer applied capable of covering such an opening as may occur.
Thorough
on all upper exposed surfaces, assisted by protecting overhang of the roof eaves, and broad keys provided for the entrance of
flashing
ri.\s'n:in\(;
the piaster at
3i
all
|m r|H-iiilicuhir
ami
must
uiinu'
I'lidcr
III)
(f tlu-
work
is
of {jreat cantill-
ii|)<)ii
of
iiitorvcrv cn-virr provi<lc<i to nfcive it. Hashing tlioroiiijlilv every expose*! <ir upper surface |)rovi(le<l l>y the finish, an<l takiiij; everv j)reeaution to work out all piiilioles or other tlef<fts where
ninrtar, prrssiii^
water could
is
|>ossil>lv jMiictratc
tlu'
surfa<
c.
I'lvery
which
every
|M)ssil)le
ailniitt*-*!
way. throw oil' ami prevent nioistim* In-ing hack of the plaster coating that vulnenihle
|)ortion
where
attack
is
most enVctually
con<-eale<l
and most
to l)e
drcadc<l.
exterior plaster trealment of a cenn'ut or concrete wall is u that from now on will lontinue to he of rapi<lly increasing prohleni Here, however, it is hut necessary to use the cement as impfirtaiice. nearlv tiiat as adding lime or a make of whit' cement in case
fM)ssille,
The
is
desirahle.
is
'I'he
one that
has.
and
consideration.
Its
solution
as
yet.
heen
hardly
Hollow terra-<'otta tile is another mat'rial that is JM-ing attempted. nKwlernlv u.sel more and more as a .structural hase to take an exterior
linish. plaster surface
The
suhjci't
lishe<l in
student desiring to ohtain a wider knowledge of tin- intricate of exterior plastering, may he refcrrel to several articl-s pul>the
l'.M)7
For
>f
see Mr.
It
it
\\ llliam
Millar's
to
"IMastcr,
in
I'laiu
.iiid
)e<-orativc."
would he as well
n-memher,
and
was
i.ssu-l
in 1S07,
is trcateil from the |)oint of view of an Knglish accustomiil to methods and materials Munewhat dilTcrent workman,
in .\uierican
practice
PAINTING
IntrcKlucton.
Tlic
first
thiii^
is
tii.iii
wishes to
know
wlu-tj
he
eoriteiuplatt's painting
a house,
the
cojil.
(le|M'iii|
on
tiic
and
tin*
paintnl, 'ithfr in whoU- or in part the interior Some houses havr tlu-ir walls partly luav Ih' painteii or varnished. (overitl with shinj^les; these shinj^les are sometimes |Kiintfi|, and
sometimes
that
is,
in faet,
often
left
unpainte<l
hut what
is calltil
the (rim
and
eorner-jjiec'cs
is
painte<l.
Shirifjles, either
whieh
of preserving tiiem; and thouj^h instanees ean he eiteil in which wallshinjiles that were never slainrd are still doinj; <;ood service althou^'h
ijelievi-d to
lifty
lifi-
\\i>L'
of
of nKHlern,
sawn
shinf;les.as
is
noxious to insirt
life
The
color of unpainted
new
of staininj; shinfjies is a matter of taste. (jue.stion Mo.st hou.ses are exteriorly painte<| with paint basnl on white lead
(tr
zinc.
Some
is
idea
of
the
co'^t
may perhaps be
:i
jraiiuil
fn)m the
followitifj c"onsilerations:
Wliitc lead
Icsw
coinnionly
in
littli- oil
to a tliick paste, or
">
dry state
Kallons of linseed
A mixture
nil,
make.s
wiiito load wit li of KM) pountls of dry K^llons of paint, weinldiiR 21.3 ll)s. jM'r unl. .\pi>ro\itiiate fiKiires an*: 15 n*s. paste lead and )>..')
tij
(1 gnl. oil
A
oil
ll).><. oil equal.s 1 ^t\\ e<|uals 7.7 ll>s.); II lbs. dry lead and 7J ll>s. oil ei|iinlH I gal. niixtun^ of 100 pounds of white zinc and S\ )!iU. oil, inaki>s U)\ i;al of
paint; 12
and K'>I- "! niake 13 i;al.. or <.t.*> Ihs. xine and .'i.7 ll>s whito zinc pnint weiKhin^ l.'i.'J ll>.s. l>ark-co|on>d paints iron oxides, orhers, and the like, wei^h I'Jto poutuls |M'r gallon, exact Jiunn"" i;iiitiot he given, as thi> raw m.'iterial.s dilTer >;rejlly.
ll>s.
zinc
i;al.
Here shoiiU
Ih-
tin*
priming
et>at
and
primiiuj coal
is
the
first (x)at
applietl to the
PAINTING
clean
oil,
wooden
surface;
it
diflFers
of the paint
on the outside.
paint for the priming coat, take a gallon of the paint already described and mix with it a gallon of raw linseed oil. Paint thus made is, of course, lower in price; it is also much thinner; but
To make the
such
power of the wood, that the priming paint does surface as the succeeding coats per gallon. gallon of this thin priming coat covers 300 to 400 sq. ft., while a gallon of second or third-coat paint, well brushed out, will cover about twice
is
the absorbent
not cover as
much
is
all
but the
first
coat
is
hard
and non-absorbent.
The
dark-colored paints are usually cheaper than those made zinc, and if made of good materials are not inferior in
made by the zinc and lead manumuch doubt. Some of the darkmost durable that can be applied on wood. The
however, that of labor, which varies according less than twice that of
is,
materials.
For
light-colored paints,
better to use
raw linseed
oil
to
which
pale japan dryer may be added, as described later; for dark colors, either this or boiled oil, boiled oil being darker in color. The cost is
practically the
On
inside
oil
or enamel paint, as
described later, the former being the cheaper, the latter the handsomer and slightly more durable; or the wood may be finished in its natural
color,
by varnishing
it
either with
wood very while white shellac varnish keeps it more nearly in its appreciably, natural color; although the latter does not prevent the natural darkening action of light, it may retard it. Shellac varnish is the more expenshellac varnish.
The
if
well applied.
\Miat
is
sometimes called
oil
hard
zine.
oil,
which
Its
and ben-
FIDOT
acAi.E.
FL(2)B
? ? ?
PLAN
-
?.i.f.?-> y t
'p
v'f
?aET
DR.
?i
t;r?
? f'l
>
'r
feet
SUMMER HOME OF
Frame House
W. Carbys Zimmerman, Architect, Chicago, 111. Built In 1906. Plau is Conditioned by Narrowness of Lot Overlooking the Lake. The Interesting Feature is the Screened-in Porch, which, by a Series of Folding Doors, can be Made Part of the Living Room. The High Frieze in the Living Room is Decorated with Woodland Scenes Showing the Lake and Hills in the Distance. Exterior and Interior Views Shown on Page 328.
I'AINTINC
It
would
imli'ttl
Im--
j)Oii.siltlf
to apply lu'itlitT
oil,
|)aiiit
nor vuniiiih,
Ik*
and
this
would
truly
an
finish;
it
would, however,
make
is
and
dinj^y,
and
dirt,
ami
esix-cially
kitchen
These are
boiletl oil
It is
at frequent
and turpentine.
till"
j)urposf
{:km1
anil
apj)roved
methods.
will
readily
he understtKxl, and
will
viatetl
that these methods may certainly he ohservetl in practice, hy the omission of some details that are here sj)ecifieti as desirable.
\w ahhn'-
For instance, it is diflicult to get interior finish .siindpajxntl or nihUeil lutween coats, even if so contracted; hut this is the ri^'ht Two coats of varnish often have to scr\e in the place of practice. four. No one, however, neeils to he told these things. The methods
herein descrihed are not lu.xurious or extravagant; they are, on fairly and we are not considering temp<jrary giMxl hou.ses, truly economical;
structures.
It is
not
in
uncommon
nK)ms,
varnish, and the kitchen and pantry paintinl with oil which are lighter in color and more easily renewe<l. The paints, are often fini.shed in enamel paints, sleeping rooms, on the other hand,
fini.shed
and hathrooms are almo.st always done in enamel for .sanitary conThe taste and inclination of the owner are to Ik; considerations.
sulted in regard to
all
these matters.
PAINTFIRS'
Pigments and
\ chicles.
ti
SUPIMJIIS
is
Paint
a mi.xtun"
sj)ri-ad
I'f
(inely-<lividt^l
soli<l
lii|uid
which, when
on a
surface
in
a .sonu'what
is
hy hard and
tough
film,
'i'he finely
part, the
vrliirlr.
vehicU-
linsntt
oil.
This
is
an
oil
When
in
ohtained hy pressure (or cxtnictitui hy .solvents) froni fla.\.seel. lin.seeil oil is ct>nspread out in a film an<l ex|)o.sed to the air,
all
verted into a tough, leatlu n-, <lastie .suhstance calletl linnxiti, in.solnhh-
water and
eonnnon
.solvertts.
This <-hangr
is
hnMjght
alxiiit
hy
PAINTING
absorption and chemical union of the oxygen of the air, whereby the weight of the oil is increased about one-fifth or one-sixth. It is therefore a mistake to suppose that oil paint gets dry as whitewash does, by the evaporation of the liquid. Instead of that, it gets heavier.
There are some other vegetable oils which have this property in some degree, but none which are used for paints to any considerable extent; some are used a little for artists' colors.
Linseed oil should stand at least a month or two before usino-. should then be perfectly free from sediment or cloudiness; if it is not so, this is a sign that the oil has not been properly aged, and such oil is not fit for making paints. In this natural state, it is called raw oil;
It
Boiled
and the price of linseed oil as commonly quoted refers to raw oil. oil is this raw oil which has been heated, usually to 450 or 500
amount
manganese, or a mixture of the two (occasionally some other lead or manganese compounds are used). Boiled oil is darker (browner) in color than raw oil, but differs from it in that it dries five to ten
chiefly
times as rapidly.
will
oil on a glass or metal surface dry at ordinary temperatures in five or six days, so as to feel no longer greasy; but boiled oil will do the same in a or half a
thin film of
raw
day
day.
paint of steel, but the best have a pair of mill-stones, between which the
paint is ground and most thoroughly mixed. Paints manner are much better than those which are mLxed
niLxed in this
stirring the two together. done by power, in a vessel called a usually paint mixer. The mixture should then be run mills are through a paint mill; some
warm, dry weather and out The pigment is mixed with the oil by
is
of doors.
This
only by stirring.
Besides oil and pigment, paint sometimes contains a volatile thinthe most important thinners ner, being turpentine and benzine. Turpentine is a well-known essential oil, volatile, boiling at about 320 F., but evaporating at ordinary temperatures when exposed to the air. Benzine is a mineral oil, lighter than kerosene and heavier than gasoline; the kind used- in paint and varnish is called "62-degree
benzine,"
its
specific gravity
Baume
lbs.
and 62 benzine, 6.1 lbs. But makers and dealers on the basis of 7.5 lbs.
linseed oil
sold
by the
per gallon.
PAINTfN^;
A
A
ilrytT,
is
ill
somr
finii,
is
an
cssriitijil
in^nilit-iit
of
oil
jKiiiit.
dryer
in oil,aiil
a coiuiKdiiKl of K-ail or niaii;piiu'st' (i;nirrally Unlij, solulile is usually soKI, umliTtlir iiaiiR' ui paint dnjtr ar paint japan,
tur|x-iitiii<-,
and
Im-ii-
|H-r
usually of such streiif^tii that an atlilition of from 5 to 10 cent of it to a raw-oil |)aiiit will mtke it ilry in from six to twelve
I'aint.s
The
more injurious to the diinihility of the jxiint than those which are paler, es[H'cialIy if the latter do not contain n)sin. The huver should always ask for a 'guarantee that the dryer is free
from
Not durahility in the j)aint is needtil. of aiiyilryer or japan should ever he use<l in 10 [HT cent Slowly drying; jKiints are more durahle than '|uick ones.
n)siii, if j^reat
more than
any paint.
In
house
puintinj^,
li<;lit-colorcd
paints.
The most
lead. This is sold cither as a dry imj)ortant white j)ii;ment is irliitc or (more commonly) as paste white li-ad. which is made of j)owder,
(H) ll)s.
dry wiiite
to
leail
and 10
ll)s.
linseed
oil.
This can
is
l)e
thinnetl
with
l)f)iled oil
make
a white
j)aint.
White lead
of oil, more of it pif^ncnt; and with a fjiven (piantity It has jjreat than of any other pij^uent, except red lead. opacity, It is discolored hy ^a.ses ct)iitainin<j sulphur, f)r covering j)ower. hecominj^ hrown or hiack; and unless exjx).se<l to fairly stronj; lifiht. it
in
.some timi
a
pure
air.
It is
better
if
it
a year or more.
whiti- lead; not so
ll'hitr zinc is
o|)a(pi<-.
It
|i
Three coats of
somewhat
on
surface,
rlialk.i.
of two parts of h-ad and ono of zinc is much VAnr-lvad, however, is the name of an entirely dilfen-nl |)ii;ment, by fiirnacinj^ ores containin;; alM)ut eipial parts of lejul and
\ mixture
made
/.iin-.
in
is
present as a sulphate.
This pigment
is friH"
frtin
brown
if
ex|Ms'l
to
not (juite
.S4
pure a
\\\\'\\.v a.s
the prc'elinj;.
PAINTING
pigment, but
the others.
is
coming rapidly
is
Liihopone
Adulterants.
All
into use, being somewhat cheaper than another white pigment of considerable merit. these pigments may be adulicrated with
barytes, or with terra alba (sulphate of lime), sometimes with whiting These adulterants are powdered minerals. (carbonate of lime).
Barytes is a good pigment, so far as protective action goes; and terra alba is thought by some good authorities to be unobjectionable; but whiting is injurious. All of them are transparent in oil, and
lessen the opacity or whitening
power of the
paint.
these white paints, colored paints are made by adding colors, of which the yellow is chiefly c/tro7;ie yellow, or chromate tinting of lead; the blue may be either ultramarine or priissian blue; and the
From
green
The
is chrome green, a mixture of chrome yellow and prussian blue. reds are (in house paints) made from coal-tar colors, and most of
them are now fairly fast to light. Some dull yellow colors are made from ochers, which are clays tinted with iron oxides, roasted and ground.
These are permanent
colors.
dark-colored paints may not contain lead or zinc at all. The deep yellows, greens, and blues are made from the colors already named as tinting colors, none of which are entirely fast to light; the
The
dark reds and browns are chiefly iron oxides, which are a valuable class The blacks are either lampof paints, very permanent on wood.
black or drop-black (bone-black) and other carbon colors; and these are often added in small quantity to secure some desired tone or shade
of color.
The
case
it is
zinc
oil,
and
in their
considered the best practice to apply thin coats; but the dark pigments do not act on oil, and, of these, thick coats are best for durability.
prove a poor investment. If properly cared for, brushes last a long time, and it pays to have good ones. The first sign of a good brush is uniform quality from outside to center. Inferior
it
recommend
will
brushes have inferior bristles in the middle, and some poor brushes are actually hollow. For ordinary oil painting, the bristles on a large
uniformly
flexible,
all
and as
should
be
alike.
PAINTING
I'aiiit
ir
uval.
out-sitk'
stiff
it is
work
is
hristles six
whvu
new
round jHnind inchrs long. Such a bnish shuulil Im* a "hridh*" hring a piwe of c-onJ wound around
is
what
calh-*! a
brit.ih,ii la rj^e,
tlu' hristles
worn
off,
thi"
may
hi-
rtinuvc-d.
('2k
general painting, and is the brush recttniniench-d by the paint cununitte*- of the American It is worth noting that this cjinmittec, S<K-iety for Testing Materials.
inches wide)
made up
by the large consumers, unanimously agreeil that no larger brush than this should be u.sed in making j)aint tests.
The
and laborious
brush the
used,
better.
it
to u<.v,
is common for outside work; mav be had of the liest (lualitv, thev are heavv and the workman who uses such a brush will not
If a flat
brush
i-s
is
work
in either
paint or varnish.
The
have a go<Kl Ij-inch oval brush for smaller work, and a number >f roimd or oval brushes, called sash tools, of different smaller sizes, for
more
and frame
jjainting.
Stiff-bristle
worn
such work as
For varnishing large surfaces, flat bristle brushes nibbing-in filling. 21 inches wide are goinl; also similar ones 2 inches, 1\ inches, aiitl 1
inch wide arc useful.
.Ml flat brushes should
it
have chiseled
inlires.
is
nece.s.sary to
have
inches in width, although most hou.se rumiing u\) (o be done with brushes not over '2\ inches wide. varnishing may
'.',\
workman
will
m-e*!
.souu*
onlinary
stiff steel
MTidtbing
wires
and
for
si/^vs;
and the
jire f different
Im*
had
at
hanlware
r.ruslics
Hair and
dean
PAINTING
soft; this
and
They should
not be allowed to become dry with paint or varnish in them. To prevent this, wash them out in oil or turpentine as soon as you are
through using them or they may be left in the paint or varnish for a few days. They may be kept over night by wrapping them very closely in paper if they have been used in a slow-drying material in
;
this
way
may
be carried
to another.
Brushes
left to dry with even clean oil or turpentine in them; if are to be put away, they should be well washed first with they soap and water, then with clean water, then hung up until thoroughly dry. In use, brushes are best kept in what is called a brush safe.
deep wooden
pail,
its
from the bottom, and with a close cover, makes a good receptacle for brushes. The brushes have holes in their handles, or loops of
cord tied to them, and are hung on these nails; their bristles dip some turpentine or oil in the bottom of the pail; they are so hung
into
that
they do not dip into the liquid above where the bristles project from If brushes are left the binding. standing on the bristles on the bottom of a vessel, they soon become one-sided and distorted in shape. Tin brush-safes may be bought of any large dealer in brushes.
A brush which has dried with paint or varnish in recovered by soaking it in a non-alkaline varnish-remover. in time soften it so that it may be used again, but it is not
such treatment.
it,
may be
will
This
Brushes used
in
Fillers are of two kinds Paste paste and liqiiid. are something like a very thick paint, and are composed of some solid powdered substance, usually silica or powdered quartz, mixed
fillers
with a quick-drying varnish thinned with turpentine or benzine. is applied to the dry surface of the wood with a stiff, short-bristle brush, or is put on with a clean, white cotton cloth, and well rubbed into
This
wood
felt.
is
with a wad of excelsior or a clean cloth or a wiped piece of A liquid filler is a quick-drying varnish; and most of the
off
liquid
on the market are cheap rosin varnishes loaded with dryers, and should never be used.. Paste fillers are the best in almost all
fillers
cases.
TAIN riNC
UOlSi:
Inside \S (trk.
All wIikIow
l'\l\IIN<i
and
l<Mr
frames, wlu'tlu-r
tlu-y art- lo
1k' fiiiislutl with paint or varnish, .should rrcrive a mMHi c*oat of paint niadi- with some cluaj) pi^'mcnt, such as inin oxidi-, and ljoild <il,
a|)|>liid
to
till-
hatk of the
shop
ders
tlu'
le('av.
house; this prevents absorption of moisture ami hinto he painted, they shotild receive a priming If they are
if
raw
oil,
oil,
if not, it should he applietl as sK)n as praccoat iscompost-d of white lea<l and hoih-^l oil or I'he priming with five to ten per cent of dryer; and should he almost all
|ossille;
with very
little
])i;,Mnent.
Turjientine
is
a.s
is
in
to
fill
As
.soon
this
is
are to he
filled
with
j)Utty.
The
a
j)aste
white
lead j)Uttv,
made hy mixing
ilry lead
raw
oil
or hv adding
sistencv.
to
leiid
until
This kind of
putty,
i)Utty
common
scratch
the hest for this purpo.se. should not he used on interior woodwork, as it
is
it;
and
A
is
steel putty-knife
almost certain to
u.setl.
.\11
hardwood
stick, suitably
shaped, slutuld he
filled.
cracks, joints,
.Ml knots
and .sappv places should he varnished with slu-llac varnish; this preThe shellac vents the pitch and moisture from attacking the paint.
shoidd
hefore the priming coat. The applied where it is needed, coat should he givi-n time to get <|uiti' <lry; at least a day two priming Then it is ready for the an<l a week is better yet. (lavs, if
l)e
po.ssihle;
.secontl coat.
If
no turpentine
This shoidd contain a considerable amount of turpentine. is used, the surface is likely to be glossy, ami the next
t>il
coat of |)aint will not adhere well; but by rej)laeiiig part of the
with
what painters call a flat <<)(// that is, )ne which i.s turpentin*', not glossv; if this is ma<le from |)aste lead or any |)ast<' paint, it <'n be pro<hieed bv tliiiuiing the |)asle with a mixture of oil and tur|M-ntine some |>ainfTS prefer one-thini oil and tww in eoual
we
get
j)roporlions;
thirds turpentine.
This
is
for inside
if
it
work
only.
This coat
.sh<ull
be allowe<l
to
dry thoroughly;
takivs
drv enough to
addHumal
a giHxj giMiemI nilc; .should elapse before the next coat ap|)lied If {\\v fmi.sh .shoidd be allownl. and as much mun- time as |)o.ssible
thi.s is
10
PAINTING
to be ordinary oil paint, the next coat may be paint, thinned with about half as much turpentine as before, or with no turpentine at all. In the latter case, when the coat is thoroughly dry, it must be carefully
is
examined, and,
if
glossy,
it
and water.
applied.
Then
may be
But
if
the finish
is
to
when
quite dry, should be very lightly sandpapered with fine sandpaper, and the third coat should be of like composition to the second,
same way; then the enamel paint is applied. For a really when this is quite dry, it should be rubbed down with curled hair or pumice and water, and another coat of enamel put on.
treated the
first-class job,
This may be
left
if
desired
or
it
may
be rubbed
with pumice and water to a flat (dull) surface. Painting Plastered Walls. Old plastered walls may be painted with oil or enamel paints as though they were wood, remembering that
the priming coat will have almost all of its oil absorbed by the plaster. New plastered walls do not take paint well, on account of their alkaline
character, which gradually disappears with exposure to the atmosIt is well to let a wall remain unpaintcd at least a year. But phere. if it is necessary to paint a freshly plastered wall, the wall is prepared
it with a solution of sugar in vinegar, the sugar uniting with the lime to some extent; or more commonly by washing it first with a strong solution of common alum and then
with a solution of soap. After this is dry, it is washed with clean water, allowed to dry, and then painted. The alum and soap form an
insoluble
tent,
compound which closes the pores of the plaster to some exand prevents the lime from acting on the paint. Outside Work. Exterior paints are more elastic, as they need
lasting,
to
be far more
exposure to the sun and rain, destroys paint more than almost anything else does. Paint on the interior of a house will last almost
indefinitely;
is
The
new, should be cleaned by ])rushing; knots should be shellacked; after which the priming coat should be applied. This
surface,
if
may be
the
with boiled
same paint which is selected for the finish, only thinned oil (or raw oil and dryer), using one to one and a-third
rAiNTiNf;
of
oil to eiifli
11
giilloiis
gallon of paint.
priiiu-r,
is
Tlir niisoii
tlu*
why onlinarv
tht* oil.
jMiint
mav
imt he ustti as a
pijjineiit
that
wimhI ahsorl)s
leav-
ing the
as a ctinparatively iiori-adhesivr |H)\v<ler on the sur'I'he next step face, from which the next eoat will pn)l)alily jm-^-I off. For the seeml eoat, is to putty np all nailholes and other (iefe<ts. many experts alvise the addition of half a pint of tnrjMiitine to the
'I'he third
gallon of j)aint; others make no a<l<lition to it. second is thonnighly tlry; if a applie<l after the
eoat
is
so much tlu- better. ilapse l)etwicn these coats, If the old Repainting;. paint has heeii on a long time,
Ik'
it
liahle
which admit m<jisture to the surface to jH'rmeated hy minute cracks, If now we paint over this, the new of the wckkI and loosen the j)aint. which shrinks in drying, tends to pull <ff the old paint, and of
paint,
If the oKl pjiint is in this state, course the whole peels off in patches. This can Ikit must he remove<l before tlie new paint is applied. Vor this work a paiiilrr'.s torch is retiuiri-tl, ilone hy burnimj off.
which
is
lamp burning
and
is .so
con-
stnicted that a blast of flame can be directe*! against the surface. This
melts or
.scjftens
is
with a steel .scraper. The paint is not by heat .so that it can be .scraped off.
to
is suflic-ient
remove as much as
jxj.ssibic
ste-I
oil'
is
a brush like
when
)ld paint,
it
well,
may
and
tlie
wlii'ii it
however, is not always in this condition. If it adhen-s be cleane<l with an onlinary scrubbing brush and water, be applied. ."Nunrtimes is dry. tlu- new paint may
(piite
it has fade<l and lost its lu.ster; paint .seems in goo4l condition, only in such cases a coat of boiled oil, or niw oil with dryer, is all that is
needed.
It
is
casings, corner-pie<es,
well to paint the trinj that is. the window-casings, dtM)rand the like before painting the Ixnly of the
house; then the paint can i>e applieil to the Hat surface's more neatly Paint should be applid in thin than is otlu nvisc- likely to be done.
CfMits, Wi'll
brushed on;
it
it
is
come
>IT
it
fnmt
is still
was
Then'
i.s
a gn*t
largi*.
|!iinl
llowitl
on with a
12
PAINTING
brush, and one of proper consistency well brushed out with a brush size. In all painting on wood, it is desirable to brush it on
flat
of
medium
with the grain of the wood; and by painting only a few boards at once, we may avoid laps by painting the whole length. Rough surfaces
hold paint better, and more of it, than smooth. A gallon of paint will cover, one coat (on a painted or well-primed surface), about GOO square
feet,
The priming
In
measuring the outside of a house for surface, make no deductions for doors and windows; if the trim is to be painted a different color, from
one-sixth to one-third of the paint will be required of that color. coat of dry paint is Paint should be stirred frequently while using. from -^~g to T.oVo of ^^ ^nch in thickness.
Roof Painting.
oil
larger proportion of
to
Many
pigment than other paints, and less dryer (or none at all). think that the addition of ten to twenty per cent of fish oil to a
paint for roofs is advantageous; fish oil greatly retards drj^ing and prevents the paint from becoming brittle. Tin roofs, if new, should
be thoroughly scrubbed with soap and water, or with pieces of harsh cloth, such as burlap, well wet with benzine. They may then be
painted.
Paint dries relatively fast on roofs; but as a roof paint slow-drying, plenty of time must be allowed between coats.
roof should receive three coats.
treated the
]\Ietal gutters
is
very
to
A new
be
is
same way.
or galvanized iron
difficult to paint;
very thoroughly scrubbed, even though it looks perfectly clean, and then rub the paint on well with the brush.
have
Metal spouts
house.
will usually
is
it
Sometimes shingle roofs are painted with fireproof paint. This not really fireproof, but considerably retards the spread of fire, after has become thoroughly dry; when fresh, it does not even do that nor
;
does
has been on a year or so. It may be made by adding to a gallon of any good paint about a pound of
it
have much
effect after
it
powdered boracic acid. A\Tien strongly heated, this material fuses and forms a sort of glass, which keeps the air from the wood. It is
after
rain.
Canvas
The canvas
1*
A I MING
down, care
In-in^
Ik-
13
taken to
draw
to
tight
it
will
show some
allowed
is
accumulate
to
it
form a
larj;e
wrinkle or fold.
all
Then
the canvas
thoroui^hly wet;
shrinks, and
it
the
it
little
wrinkles
tlisii|)|M-ar.
It is
common
practice to paint
while
is still
wet, this
Ix-iuf?
an
e.\ce[>-
some wait
luitil it is
dry.
The
writer
latter niethiHl,
siitisfactory.
l>\!NTI\(i
Steel
to
is
STRICTI
ini.
MITM.
paint.
Without
lonj^er
a more perishahle material than woimI, arwl more diflicult rej^ilar expenditure for maintenance, wiMxlen
hriilfjes last
than
steel
i*oofs
like,
The
painting of structural steel is therefore injj)ortant; antl diflicult, if wc are to judge by results.
In the
is
also
we
it
first place comes the prej)aration of the surface. When wo<mI, we have the surface clean and dry: and then we soak paint with oil, so as to have the paint hound to it in the most intimate
manner.
Iron and steel, on the other hand, always come to' us dirty, o.xide; and as the surface is not |)on)Us. the |)aint
does not jjenetrate it, hut has to stick on the outside the best way it can. If we paint over the dirt and .scale, and that ever comes olf, the jKiint
comes
off
with
it; if
the metal
is
actively rusting,
it does not stop. perhaps made if we can moisture cau.se rust; ket-p tluiii away, the metal
slower, hut
unfortunately,
all
to the
weatlur
metal
if
in
an<l if paint is very slightly porous, time deteriorates. The most es.sential
jidiiit
tin
thing
in |.ainling
is
to
'// ///'
on an
inter-
niiiliate coating.
to clean sferl
perfectlv.
One
is
l)V
10 to 20 jht cent sulphuric aei<l), (ii.sually jtickling followed hv washinu to niiiove tin- arid; and the other is hv the use
in dilute acid
of thivsjind-hlast. Neither of iluvse pnM'e.s.ses is availidtle to theonlinary who nmst do the next l)'st thing. This is to remove alvsolulely painter, l''irst clean olT the dirt, if any, all dirt and all Iikksc scale and oxidi-.
14
PAINTING
it
with brushes, as
would be cleaned
any new
off.
ofp
any other surface. Then, oft" all the scale which will
it
come
off.
If there is
must be well
WTien
this is
This
is
indispensable.
done, immediately paint it, before it begins rusting again. One of the most popular materials for a first coat is red lead in
oil.
it
it is
used, because
will
in the pail or
can
if
From 30 to 33 pounds of dry red lead is long. gallon of oil not less than 28 in any case. This is immediately painted on the metal; if it is put on in too thick a coat, it will run and be uneven.
Some
which
use raw
is
oil,
others boiled
oil
it
does not
make much
difference
paint dries rapidly; and as soon as it seems hard, a second coat of the paint can be Red lead is different applied.
used.
The
from
all
away from
other paints in this, that it will finish hardening just as well the air. This is because it does not oxidation, as
dry by
other paints do, but by the lead combining chemically with the oil, In the opinion of the just as water combines with Portland cement. writer, red lead should have one or two coats of some good paint, other
than red lead, over it. But red lead is not the only first coating which may be used. Any good paint may be used a good graphite paint, or other carbon paint, or some of the varnish-like
coatings containing
linseed oil
for the purpose. It is of these, to let plenty of time for drying elapse
is
permissible,
which
Projecting angles, edges, and bolt and rivet heads are the places first show rust through the paint. This is partly because the
edge angle, with an extra or striping coat; then, when the second coat goes on over the whole, there is the equivalent of two
bolt
brush draws the paint thin at such places. To overcome this, it is now becoming common practice to go over the work after the first coat, and paint all edges for about an inch from the or and all
and
rivet heads,
full
coats ever^'where.
when
Painting on iron, as on wood, should be done in dry weather, it is not very cold at any rate not below 50 F. Full,
all
heavy
to get
on.
PAINTING
\
15
Ak.M>ll
appliitl to a surfaci- in a thin
A
that
is
varnisli
is
lii|ui(l
litatlc to In-
film, uliicli,
on
classes
spirit and
."^[)irit
varnishes, of which
.v//r//r* is
by
off
They
tiry
having really
the surface.
thin flakes.
as a mechanical
is
means
Shellac
It
ri-sin
may
be
di.s.solved in
in the following
manner:
Put
of
th>
gum
alcohol in an eartiicnwan- jar, and wi-igh out five j)()Unds Just before leaving at
and gently drop the slullac, little by little, into the jar Do not of alcohol, then put on the cover and leave it until morning. on anv account stir it. In the morning the fiakes of .shellac will be
night, carefully
soaked and swollen; but if you had stirred them in, the night before, they would have stuck together in linnj)s. Now, during the day, stir the ma.ss with a wfxiden stick once every hour or so; do not put any
metal
in
it,
espet-ially iron;
one iron
barrel of shellac.
will
Hy
the next
morning
whole
gum
be realy for u.se. It does not make a clear solution, b<.>cau.se the .shellac contains .some wa.x, which does not di.ssolve, and so the
is
howevir, ready for u.se. As the be kept coven.il; and after it is alcohol is volatile, the jar shoidil made, the varnish should be put in gla.ss lM)ttles or clean tin cans.
varnish
milky or cloudy;
it
is,
of shellac gum, the best being known by but there are others nearly as good, 'i'he common th<' lettTs ('; shellac is brownish y'llow, and is calh-d oniiK/r sin liar: this is the natu-
nd
shellac color.
l)Ut
it
White shellac
of
.s)
chlorine;
is n)t
matle from this by bleaching with good (|ualify as the unbleacheil; it has. tif
is
cf)urse, the
ginn
will,
advantage of Ix-ing much paler in <olur. White slu-llac on long standmg. sometimes Inrome insoluble. Shellac
Tbnro
l4,
N<>T.- Hy <">m' i)nlnior, tho iTm varnlHh' |h ni'Vrr ul lo Imludn nhpllMS. hiiwrvor. ii<> vUtl. (ibjncilvn rrawui (or tbiiH lltnttlU|{ iho uiMof the U^rm.
16
PAINTING
alcohol,
and often
this is necessary.
common
rosin,
which greatly
test.
its
This
is
easily detected
by a chemical
Damar
five or six
pounds
nearly colorless varnish we have, but never becomes very hard. It is used to a considerable extent as a vehicle for white lead and zinc, to make a very white enamel paint. It is not durable if to the
exposed
weather.
More important than spirit varnishes are the oleo-resinous varnishes,which consist of certain resins dissolved in linseed oil, the mixture
being thinned with turpentine or benzine. In making these, the resin is put in a copper kettle and heated until it is thoroughly melted then some hot oil is added to it, and the mixture cooked until the whole is thoroughly combined. The kettle is then taken from the fire, and
;
when partly cool, the turpentine is stirred in. The resin makes the film hard and lustrous, and the oil makes it tough. Thus the larger the proportion of resin, the harder and more brilliant will be the film the larger the proportion of oil, the tougher, more elastic, and more durable it will be, and the slower it will dry. jNIost of the color of varnish
;
The
in
pale
gums
resin; the paler this is, the paler will be the varnish. are higher in price than the dark ones, but are no better
color.
ones
Dark
varnishes
may be
just as
in fact
may
be
good dark
sort.
quick-drying varnishes are suitable for furniture; the medium, for interior house-varnishes; the slow and elastic, for exposure to the weather.
Varnishing.
better,
if
The wood
it,
necessary to clean
it
is
possible,
using sandpaper instead, which will also make it smooth. Of course the carpenter is supposed to do this, but the painter must not neglect it on that account. ^Mien in proper condition, it first receives, if it is an open-grain wood, a coat of paste filler. The open-grained woods in most common use are oak, chestnut, and ash. The woods classed as
woods are white pine, maple, birch, yellow pine, whitewood, cherry, and sycamore. These latter do not need If filling. filler is used, it should be well rubbed in with a short, stiff brush; and
close-grain
PAINTING
wlu'M
it
17
has
set,
say
in fifteen
rul)l)iiiji
ti>
tliirty iniiiiites,
it
is
nililKil
(iff
with a
haixlful of e.xcfl.siur,
ami
ruhhiii'^;
hanl, mj as
it
Then
should
stand 24 to 4S hours.
When
and must
l)c
j)URhased,a paste filler is too thick to Ik? used with ahru-sh, thinned with ttirpentuie or U'lizine; at the Siiiue time it
to
oil
or varnish stain,
If
'riir-c
a close-fjrainitl smmkI
if it is desiri-<l
to a|)|)ly a stain
to
is
common
|)ractice
Stains usually re<|uire a ^(mmI deal of thimiinj; before usinj;; the amount Water stains arc seldom of thiiminf^ will determine the<li-j)th of color.
used, as they tend to raise the ^rain of the wood. In cleaninfjoll" the filler, he careful to clean out corners and mouKl-
do not
Where rooms
it
is
nevertheless a
lijjht
common
cherry or
maho<;any stain is often U-sihI. Fillers are .sometimes used on close-grain woods; hut this is not advisid)le, as they tend to varnish from getting a good hold on the wo(mI. prevent the
hlinds,
he
treatel as exterior woo<lwork, and are not varnished with the ordinary interior varnish used on the rest of the work. The floors also are left
out of account for the present. first coat of varnish; apply it. as
'I'lie
rest of the
woodwork nreives
its
wood, hrushing
dust free
five (lavs
(/..,
it
as possible, with the gniin of the The varnish ought to dry out well in a thin coal.
it)
much
sill
II
lid
When
at least
ruhlH-*!
enough
to
remove theglo.ss.so
coat of varnish will adhere j)ritperly; a lietter result will he had if it is (HI The se<-ond coat is treat"l like p;i|ier. lightlv .santlpapered with
the
lirst.
The
third
is
thefourtln>r linishing coat may In- left widi the natural gloss, or. ifpn*ferred. it mav Iw ruhl>el with line pumice and water t a sn)(Ktth,hill Kor this pur|Mts' the varnish tiealers .sell felt,al>)Ut an inch .surfa-e.
tliick,
which
is
well wei in
<
lean
water; a
little lry
|iuniee jiowder
is
18
PAINTING
this. The varnish must be it; and the rubbing is done with hard and dry before this is attempted. Varnishing, if properly quite done, is slow work; that is, much time must be allowed for each
put on
is used on interior woodwork should not dry should dry enough over night so that dust will not stick and in twenty-four hours should be hard enough to handle freely;
it
a chair, for example, were varnished with it, it would not be for a week. It should, however, finally become entirely safe to sit on it
but
if
perfectly free
it
will not
do
if it is
a rosin varnish. At
will ever be lower) varpresent prices (and it is not probable that they woodwork are sold, according to color and quahty, nishes for interior at ranging from $2.50 to S4.00 a gallon. It is in the highest
prices
degree inadmissible to use a cheap varnish for undercoats theouter coats A good varnish that dries too quickly, such will crack if this is done.
;
as
what
is
It is economy to use a good not the durability needed for this work. varnish. The writer has in mind a house which was properly varnished eighteen years ago and has been constantly occupied by a large
is still
in fair condition
it
if it
were
would be
like
new
as good
lightly sand-
as
is
possible for
a surface to be.
Cheap
well,
even when new, never keep clean, and deteriorate rapidly. Interiors are sometimes finished with shellac. Shellac.
is
This
varnish
iors.
it is
shellac
All varnishes containing oil darken the color of wood; but white is comparatively free from this objection; at any rate it does it
less than anything else. Orange shellac is a dark varnish, and even white shellac darkens with age to an appreciable degree. Orange
shellac
is
described
If shellac is
made up
five
pounds
to a gallon of alcohol,
and
this is the
standard
it
rior
woodwork. It must be applied in thin coats, and given plenty of time to dry. It is very deceptive about this; it appears to be dry and hard in an hour, and it is hard enough to handle freely; but if we apply
coat after coat, even six hours apart,
we
wood
is
PAINTING
liiially
19
cuverttl with u
waxy
nu*^s
wliuh
will
U-
llie
.sourff of
nothing
hut tn)uhle.
The
apphttl six hours hitcr; hut aftT that, allow two days at least Shellac makes a very thin coat; so it is necessiiry to a larije numlnT of coats, at least twice as many as of oleoapply Becioise resinous varnishes, to get a suflicient thickness of coating.
may he
hetween coats.
of this
an expensive finish; hut it treatment of it, as regards ruhhing, as has heen descrihcd for other varnish.
lalM)r, shellac is
is
handsome
jmhI
durahle.
'I'he
etc., is tiie
s;ime
\'arnish makers usually a<lvise that shellac should never Ix* used as a priming coat for other varnish; this is prohahly hecause they wish to sell more of their own goods, for shi-llac is really an excellent first
coat, except for exterior work,
where
it
Of course,
w(mmI shoidd he
hefore shellacking, the.s;ime as for other varnish. \'arnish does not, however, wear well over a heavily shellackeil surfilled
face.
little,
Shellac
makes a
and wearing
it,
fairly well,
applied rather fre<|Uently say every one to will keep the floor in fine eondition four months, f.ccording to use and after applying one of these thin coats (of thinni-il shellac), it will
with
ver)' thin coats,
he
tiry
enough
to use in
an hour.
This can he
ap|)lie(l
with a very
wide,
in a
flat
hrush, and a
few mimites.
over the Hoor of an ordinary room Shellac hnishes should he wasluti out with alcohol
man can go
materials.
The
it
much more rapidly out <if praeticahle to use more elastic and durconditions, in fact, are .so .seven* that the In'st
\'arnishes<lry
is
In the
first
jlace,
filler
on
prohahly crumhie
an<l
come
out.
Do
not use
an undercoat exjxtsed to the hot smi.it will soften and spar rarni.ili, such as is matle for vannsh-
ing the spars of yachts; fill the woo<| with it; sandpa|H-r lightly iM'tween coats, just enough si that each sutvct-tling ctiat will take
hold well
fitiish
it
with
it.s
more
This
is
rails
and jamhs, and everything 'X|)os'| |i> the din-et sun. Handand outside d(M)rs should he refinisln-tl everv vear; vaniish will
20
PAINTING
not last on an outside door more than one-twentieth as long as it will on an inside door. Never use interior varnish for outside work.
ENAMEL PAINTS
Varnishes are all more or less brownish yellow or yellowish brown. Therefore a coat of varnish applied over a paint obscures and changes
its
color to
some
extent.
oil, is
To overcome
this as
much
as possible, the
mixed with the pigment, as a vehicle. In this way the pigment comes to the surface and displays its color. These paints, if made with good varnish, are durable; the method of
varnish, instead of
do
If application has already been described. necessary to thin them, it with varnish instead of oil; a good interior varnish may be spar used, but it injures the flowing quality of the paint somewhat.
White lead and zinc are sometimes mixed with damar varnish. This makes the whitest enamel paint, but it never gets very hard, never has much luster, and is not very durable. It is very white, is
easily applied,
NEW VARNISH
FINISH
A method of finishing open-grained interior woodwork, which has been practiced for a few years, consists in first staining the wood with a water-stain dyeing it, usually and then, when it is dry, filling the
pores of the wood with a paste filler which has been colored by the addition of a pigment. For example, the wood may receive a stain
of any dark color, and the wood-filler be mixed with white lead. This shows the open or porous part of the grain in white on a dark background. By using artistic combinations of color in the stain and filler, very beautiful effects can be produced, and this finish has been used in some of the most handsome and costly public and private buildings.
Thus, if a room is to be decorated in green, the woodwork can be made to harmonize with the prevailing color. An oil stain must not be used
is
on the wood, as it will not work well with the filler. The colored filler applied and rubbed off in the same way that any paste filler is used, and then the varnish is applied over it in the usual way.
FLOOR FINISHING
The primary
trouble with floors
is
i'AlNTING
oi
...
11
21
j.-iiiii,
havinj; an
aij;;;rf;^iitf
tliiikm'.s.s
under the
\vi>ar
uf nuil-
shcxl hfcls.
Pn)l>alj|y tin- siniplest treatnu'tit for Htjors
jKiint
shoiilil
is
contain a
oil
larj^e
projjortion
is
of a
varnish; an ordinary
usihI,
it
paint
an
oil
[Kiint
is
must he heavily
twelve hours.
[)aint
should
dry
in
(Joofl
Hour
jiaints
are in the
niarki-t.
Fl(M>rs of ciioice
Ih'
wood, however, are not usually |Kiinte4l; they may If tlu-y areof oak or other o[X'n-^niinel
with a jjaste filler; otherwise the varnish is Floor varnish is <|uicker in drying, and hardiT than interior finishing varnish, hut should not he so hanl as to
to the wocmI. aifplii-d directly
he
hrittle; ruhhiu}];
varnish
oil
is
too hanl.
If
the floor
if it
is
is
to
he
staiue<l,
this is tlone
with an
has previously heen varnished, so that the stain wood, the stain may he mixed with the varnish,
not then so good.
will not
Floor
wax
is
not
made
and
is
The
wax may he
will
ruhluHl on with a
hrush, and
|)olishel
when
it
is
<lry,
which
he
in a
few hours,
it
may he
hv
ruhhinj^ with a clean cicjth or with a heavy, wei<;hte<l floiu- hrush made for the pur|M)se. It should receive another coat every week until f<ur
or six coats have l)een a|)plied; after this a little of the floor wax, thiinied if necessary with turpentine, should hi- applied often enou;;h
keep the floor looking w<'ll. .Alkalies <lissoIve the wax, and in cleaning the floor only a little soap should he usnl in the water with which the flocjr is wa.shcd. A wax finish kept ]H>lished with a |N)lishing
to
hrush,
it
is
h(
ohtainetl for a
It
fliMr;
hut
is
so slipjMTy that
is
somewhat dangerous.
(hut
not
the w<kh|.
finishe<l.
Interior trim
hand-mils)
is
.sometimes wuxit
This
is
likely to
is
)ld lliH)rs
which
re<|uir-
aiiing
the old varni.sh or paint removed hy u giMnl vanilnh-miiovrr, tme of the niiNleni .sort, fre*- from alkali. This is {Miinttil over the surfac-e, and,
22
PAINTING
removed with a
scraper.
The
last of the
varnish-
remover
is
in the room or any neighborbeing taken that there is no fire of any sort room. This will not only take off the old varnish, but the old filler ing also; and the floor must be treated like a new floor. Any stains on the
floor
may be
of water;
when
treated with a hot solution of oxalic acid, one part to ten the stains disappear, wash well with clear water; let
This treatment
the floor dry a day; sandpaper; and it is ready for varnishing again. removal of old paint or varnish by a liquid varnishremover is applicable to all varnished or painted work. The outside
in this
and other
liquids,
patented.
PAINTS
Radiators and pipes are often painted with aluminum or bronze These consist of metallic powders, in fine flakes, mixed with paints.
some varnish
tion of
is
a thin solu-
a variety of gun-cotton in a suitable solvent, generally acetate of amyl. If one of these paints which smell somewhat like bananas becomes thickened in the can by evaporation, it can usually be thinned
with acetate of amyl, if some of the special thinner cannot be had; brushes can be washed out in the same. A good aluminum paint is
durable, even exposed to the weather.
One
coat
is
usually enough,
two certainly
so.
GLAZING
are usually expected to understand the art of Glass is classified as setting window-glass; it is not difficult to learn. sheet or cylinder glass and plate glass. Sheet glass is made, at the
painters
House
by blowing a quantity of glass, first, into a hollow globe; more blowing and manipulation, this is stretched out into a then, by hollow cylinder perhaps a foot in diameter and five feet long; this
glass works,
name
cut
"cylinder glass")
is
after annealing,
up
made
glass;" of two
PAINTING
thicki..
...
^
23
.,iiifjlf
thick,
which
is
alxjiit
oiu'-sixtii'iitli
of an inch;
ami
(Iniihlt thick,
onc-cij^hth of an inch;
uniform.
Wirt,
and
more or
less irre},'nhir
first,
or
wavy in
its
surface;
ami
in n*s|>ect
f^lass
to this
it is
"jradetl as
these
^ades
are usually
Forei^i glass is not thus p)on'r than "B" is called stock sheets. each maker having his own arbitrary marks. Single-tlnek markitl, glass is usiMJ for sizes not greater than alxjut 2S hy 34 inches; doublethick,
up
to
40 by
<)().
For larger
siz's, j)late
glass only
is us***!;
but
if
Plate glass
iron table, about
is
lifjuiil
glass
is
[)oure<l
out on an
1')
wide and
2.")
feet long,
and
sm(Mthe<l
down
to a
uniform thickness of half or five-eighths of an inch by j)assing a roller over it, like n)lling pie-crust; after this it is ground lo\vn with sand, of an inch emery, and polishing powder to a (piarter or five-sixteenths
in thickness.
is
It is
therefore
nmch more
also
more
usctl
perfjft.
and
is
the finest of
window
glass.
too heavy, as in movable siish. It is There are two grades of plate gla.ss,
is
as glazimj (for windows) and silverinr/ (for min-ors), the latter being the best. In the first place, the sa.sh is prepannl for the glass. It must receive a priming coat; if it is to be painte<l, it is primed with
known
if it is
the mixture liaving very little or no to be varnished, it is jjrimiil with Iniiled oil
oil,
the
oil
not priine<l, the ])Utty will not stick; the wimhI will Next, the glass is out of the putty and Ic-ave it crumiily.
sii.sh.
draw
litte<l
to the
It
is
or with a
replaceable.
plate gla^s
is
being a little shar|w<lgel steel whet'l set in a made, the wheels may be Ixjiight .sejmnite and are The wheel cutters are generally u.sed on .sheet gla.s,s; but
latter
cut only with a diamond, which makes a <lee|>er cut. are kt'pt wet with kerosene; the workman has a little IxttthThe or cup of kero.si-m* on the ImiicIi, and dips the wheel in it. The glass being cut to the right size, a layer of putty is spnail,
wlui
Is
in the .sash
where the
gla.ss is to
24
PAINTING
This
is
and should always be done. omitted with pine sash but it absolutely must be uncommonly done with all hardwood sash, metal or metal-lined sash, and for all
rest.
It is
not
plate
glass
and
is
crystal glass ;
and
it
ought to be done
in all cases.
Then
the
gently pressed into place, after which it is fastened with glaziers' No. 2 points are used on 'points, which are triangular bits of metal. single-thick, and No. 1, which are larger, are used on double-thick
glass; they are put in 9 to 12 inches apart.
They are driven, not with a hammer, but with the thin side of a two-inch chisel, the flat side of which lies on the glass, the edge of the chisel away from the surface
so as to avoid scratching it. The chisel is also useful for adjusting the position of the pane; if it is smaller than the sash, it is so placed that
when
the sash
is
pane of glass
will
edge bearing on the wood. The points are comof zinc, which bends easily; and when the monly pane is properly placed, if there is on one side a space between it and the wood, the
is
chisel
is
its
made
driven; this crimp prevents the glass from sliding back against the wood. This is the reason zinc is used for the points; it will bend.
Steel points are sometimes used for plate glass, because of their greater
To
metal-covered sash, steel slugs are used ; these are about ^^g inch thick, about I inch long, and -^^ inch wide at the wide end, triangular, and
sharp-pointed. There is a machine for driving points, but except on small glass set in soft-wood sash.
it
is
not
much used
by points, it is ready for puttythe professionals set the sash up in a nearly vertical position on an easel; the glass is puttied on the right-hand side and across the bottom; then the sash is turned the other edge up, and the
ing.
The
To do
operation
is
repeated.
This
finishes the
work.
give
it
Ordinary (pure) putty is pulverized chalk, mixed with enough linseed the consistence of stiff dough. The workman can make it
from these materials with his hands; everyone can make his own putty. As a matter of fact, however, the putty of commerce is made by ma-
I'MVnVG
fliiiurv;
25
and
also, us a
It
matter of
fact,
it
is
in ^nieral
atlnltt-rattil.
Wdiiltl sofni
lirjsti-d oil
uhominably were
and
can
Ik*
three cents a {x^nnd, or sixty dollars a ton; and a dollar's worth will pntty all the glass in an ordinary house. Pure putty, however, is almost impossihle to get. Marhh- dnst is sul)stitute<l for whiting,
and a mixture of
alH)Ut half.
It
rf)sin
and mineral
oils for
the
oil,
and the
c<ist
reducetl
is
miseraMe
stuff
If the glazier
his putty otherwise, he should make it himself. The best putty for glazing is a mixture of pure whiting putty with one-tenth white lead putty. This makes it set a little more <|uickly, and it hecomes harder. Pure white lea<l j)Utty gets too hanl; it is too
dinicult to
If
remove
it
in
the glass has not been biildeil in putty, it is customary to go around the indoors side of the glass, and crowd st)me putty into the
crack between
it
This
is callel
are held in place with .strijis plates of plate glass are not puttie<l, but of moulding nailed on the .siish, in which case the crack Ix'tween the
glass
is
REVIEW QUESTIONS.
PRACTICAL TEST QUESTIONS.
In
the
foregoing
illustrative
sections
of
this
Cydo[>ch'a
in
numerous
show the application of the various methods and principles. AccompanyiuR these are
detail in order to
examples
for practice
which mind.
will aiil
the reader in
number
of test questions and problems which afTortl a valuable means of testing the reader's knowledge of the
subjects treated. They will be found excellent practice for those preparing for College, Civil Service, or Engineer's License. In some cases numerical answers
are given as a further aid in this work.
!:
\v
Till-:
Q
M
I
I
' (
1-:
s
!
I
i'
<
>
xs
t>
1 .1
K1
<
KLKCT R
1.
C W
K*
XO
Explain the
Ill
2.
ca.sf
te.st
j;rouiiil
it?
or
.sliort
circuit,
;}.
and
use
ren)e<ly
(if
outlet-lxjxes.
the principal ditlerence hetween alternating aniJ (lirectK'urrent circuits, .so far as concerns the wiring system?
4.
is
What
5.
Compare
and three-wire
methods of wiring
A
at
amperes
220
single-phase induction motor is to he suj)plieil with 2o volts; alternations 12,()()() per minute; power factor. S.
is
The
No.
transfonner
1
200
feet
line consisting of
wire,
The
tnin.s-
fonner reduces
'
250
volts,
M.
and, when delivering this current and voltage, has a resistance-Iv CalF. of 2. per cent. jxT cent, and a reactance K. M. F. i>f
')
.'>
(I'.se
table
and chart.)
What
natal conduit?
Suppo.se |)ower to l>e deliven-d, :{(M) K. W.; F. M. F. to Ih' delivered, 2.2(M) volts; distance of transmi.ssion, !.').(H)0 feet; size of
0.
wire,
No. 00;
distjina"
Calctilat*- line lo.ss and .7; fre(|uency, KM) cycles [ht .second. ln>p in jM-r cent of \\. M. I', delivered. (I'.se table and chart.)
10.
In installing A.
till-
('.
circuits,
insistt|
on as
to
11.
s|><'eial
advantages of
armored cable.
ELECTRIC WIRING
12.
Which
is
to
be preferred?
13.
What
and distributing
centers,
what
cuss
its
16. 17.
What is "knob and tube" wiring? Explain its use and disadvantages or disadvantages. How far apart should insulators be placed? What tests should be made before an electric wiring equipfinally
ment
is
Give reasons.
18. 19.
20.
linework as compared with underground linework? 21. Describe and illustrate by sketches proper methods of supporting and protecting conductors.
22.
insulators.
Illustrate by diagram, proper and improper methods of conductors of two two-wire circuits. grouping 24. What dangers are inherent in the use of moulding? What
23.
precautions should be taken to avoid them? 25. Describe the proper methods of laying out branch circuits,
(a) in fireproof buildings; (b) sketches.
in
wooden frame
buildings.
Give
26.
What methods
(a) fireproof structures; (b) mills, finished buildings; (d) wooden frame buildings?
is skin effect? Its bearing on the problem of wiring? In selecting runways for mains and feeders, what precautions should be taken?
27.
What
28.
REVIKW QUKSTIONS
ov
TTXta
HcrnJiocx
ok
ELKCTRIC
1.
etc:
ir
I'TXG.
State the current, voltage, candle- jxnvi-r, and efficiency ot most conunonly used.
'
sinasliinir
point
"if
main points of diU'erence hetween the thri-t forms of arc lamp mechanism. ^[ention the three principal parts if the Nernst lamp. 4.
3. 5.
G.
AVhy
is
arc
'
li^ht
photometrv a mon-
ditli^Milt
problem
than incandescent
>5,
the center of a room IS feet square and 12 feet hi;h. lif^hted by four lO-candle-power lamps ! feet above the floor at the center of
the side walls, assumini; the coetlicient of retlection to be
It.
.'o
What
material
is
lamj)s?
K.xplain why. From the curve given in Fig. 4, ilelermine the etlicieiicy V Jiich coi re.-iponds to the tt-mjK'rature of 1 ;}()() C"entignde. 11. W'liat is the olijeci of ilouble carbons in an arc
10.
lamp?
I'l.
):!.
1
What What
is
is
meant by mean
I.
IT).
from that of
tilament uf
residencuri
IG.
Why
tlu<
incandenCM'nl lamps
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
17.
the
more rapidly ?
18. 19.
How
What
are arc
lamps rated
are the important advantages of the two-wire of distribution ? parallel system Name and describe the most desirable standard for pho20.
tometric measurements.
21.
How many
What
in the deter-
23.
24.
is meant by flashing? Explain. Define emissivity. If the voltage of an incandescent lamp be increased
4%
is
Explain
starting.
the
Cooper-Hewitt
lamp,
stating
two
methods of
2G. 27.
Compare
the positive carbon placed above the negative in a direct-current arc lamp?
Why
is
28.
Sketch and
name
the different
forms of incandescenf
lamp
filaments.
29.
a 3.1-watt incandescent
lamp
be used
30. 31. 32. cent
What What
is
lamp mechanism?
Why
are the advantages of the three-wire system ? is it necessary to exhaust the bulb of an incandesin their life should incandescent
lamps
be replaced
34.
in
lamp
What is the object of a resistance in series with the arc constant-potential direct-current systems? 35. Name the advantages of the Nernst lamp.
3G.
What
sort of
Give the
characteristics of the
What
?
M'ill
stant-potential
system,
437 lamps
of
16
candle-power
KKV
!:
(J
!:
ST
(>
Xs
ON
'r II
K MlTlUKi'T
CK
PLASTKRINCi
1.
I)f>(ril)c the
prDpcr
int'tlnMl of spaciii;,',
iiailiii;:,
ami joining
wood
lath.
2.
Of what
materials
is
mortar
comixjsttr;:'
retjuirements
for
of each to insure
gmxl results?
3. Compare the relative advantages of metal and wcmkI lathing both interior and exterior plastering.
1.
How
made?
the i)lacing
o.
in
of metal lath?
().
wood lathing
if
is
how should
it
be
laid?
7.
When,
ever,
in
8.
Describe
wire lath preferable to expanded metal? detail the process of slaking the lime and
is
work
in
dwelling-
What
."Should
in all its
Di.scuss this
question
10.
11.
How
If
work?
is
lime
likely to
develop?
!_'.
njortar?
i:!.
1.
What will b<- the etlect of u.siug too much lime in mixing too much siind? What are the e.s.sentials for lurable exterior plastering?
In
th' relative advantages of three-cojit anl fwiwojit what kind of work are three coats always nece.vijiry? In interior work, what precautions must U- observetl in
l)i.scu.s.s
work.
I.".
laying the
.succe.s,sivc
coats of plaster?
In exterior
work?
REVIET\^
QUESTIONS
ON THE SUBJECT OF
PAINTING
1.
is
Wliat
is
raw and
boiled oil?
\^lien
woodwork and
exterior finish of a
modern
How would
if
used as figments.
As
What
are thinnersf
Dryers?
Fillersf
in
6. 7.
good condition?
8. Describe the process of mixing the successive coats of paint for ordinary interior (not floor) and exterior woodwork. 9. Describe the process of preparing the woodwork and
applying the successive coats of paint in ordinary interior (not floor) and exterior work.
10.
What
of
an old job?
11.
12.
13.
Describe the process of painting a plastered wall. Describe the material and methods of work in roof painting. What is enamel paint? How would you do a job of
enameling the woodwork, say, in a bathroom? 14. Describe in detail the process of painting structural metal.
15.
16.
varnisn.
INDEX
The page numbers
of Ihia
vulumt
will be
juaud
al
the
buUum
uj the
Page
Altcrnatlng-curreni clrcuiw
INDEX
Page Page
INDEX
aK<1
li'iiii III
II
'II
rcKular rpfl>rtlon
unit of
liu'anilcM'i'iii
laiii|>->
urruiiK'n>fnt of lani|M
csrboa
i-omparlson of dIfTcrpnt types of
tlbirihiitliin of IIkIh
i-flUiency of
Intfiuilty fon.stant.s fur
tyiH*. compurt-ain of
MiltiiKo
and caiMlU'iHiwfT
on
ron-stant^
InttTfhanBcable arc
Interior pla-stcrinR
Intrin.sir l>ri|{litnr!vs
Irrrgular reflection
INDEX
Page
Plastering
plaster molding
Page
Single-pitch skylight
171
320 312
311
Skin
effect
52
163
rough
finish
Skylight work
bars, various shapes of
scratch coat
three-coat
166
163
167
310
313
80 63
27
construction
curbs, various shapes of
Poles
patterns
166
Polyphase circmts
Porcelain insulator
shop tools
Skylights
166
171
Power
distribution
140
double-pitch
flat
172
R
RakinK moldings Rating of arc lamps Reactance e.m.f. Reactance volts
Residence lighting
calculation of illumination
extension
172
173
171
hipped
228
114
single-pitch
Slaking of lime
Soldering joints
Special lamps
303 85
121 121
55 55
150 150
mercury vapor
Moore tube
Standing-seam rooflng Steel armored cable
123
plan of illumination
207
16
type of lamps
Resistance e.m.f. Resistance volts
150
55 55
11
Switchboard
65
Roman
234
193
Table
arc lamps, lighting data for
160
18
roof
194
195
armored conductors
conductors, sizes of in fibrous conduit
hipped roof
Roofing
corrugated iron
flat-seam
25
12 13
188
conduit
single wire in
212
197
metal
soldering
192
two wires
in
one
13
202
207
189-191
193
standing-seam
tables
tools required
159
214 57
134
drop
in a.c. Unes,
S
Sand
Scratch coat
Series distribution system
140
189 106
15
302
311
gem
140
163
candlepower
148 110
for 156
Sheet-metal skyUght
Sheet-metal work
cornice
163-294 225
281
work
curved moldings
miter cutting
rooflng
115
236
188
163
see fool of pages.
moldings, sizes
of,
22
126
skylight work
Note.
Moore tube
light
data
INDKX
Pagp
Tubl.
N>rii>i lumii iliita
IMili- (lattt
PiM(-
i-iin<lult (lata
rdoHoK. MtanUliiK-M-ain
Nkin cfTcct, (lata for cakrulatliiK
in (ilutc (lutu
tunK-<t<'n
lamp data
Tantalum lamp
Tcrno plate
r<Kj(lnK
TunKstcn lamp
Turret Nash
V'oltaKe
and candlepower
Voltmeter
W
Water-tlKlit outlet box
In
conduits
armored cable
flexible
metal conduit
Nnie.
683017
.f.