1. Definition 2: Let R is a ring and m is a positive integer, is defined a R: i. 0 a = 0R , with 0 Z and 0R is neutral element of ring R. ii.

ii. ma = a + a + a + + a until m times, and iii. (-m)a = m(-a) = (-a) + (-a) ++ (-a) until m times. 2. Theorem 2: Let R is a ring and m, n is integer and a, b R so: a. (m + n)a = ma + na b. m(a + b) = ma + mb c. m(na) = (mn)a Proved: a. (m + n)a = ma + na (m + n)a = a+a+a++a
(m + n) times

= a+a+a++a + a+a+a++a
m times n times

= ma + na b. m(a + b) = ma + nb m(a + b) = (a + b)+ (a + b)+ (a + b)++ (a + b)

m times

= a+a+a++a + b+b+b++b
m times m times

= ma + mb c. m(na) m(na) = (mn)a = na + na + na ++ na

m times

= (a+a+a++a) + (a+a+a++a) + (a+a+a++a) ++(a+a+a++a)

n times n times n times m times n times

= a+a+a++a
mn times

= (mn)a

3. Definition 3 Let R is a ring, is defined a R: am = a x a x a x x a until m times Theorem 3 Let R is a ring, m and n is integer so a R satisfied: i. ii. Proved: i. am. an = am+n am. an = a x a x a x x a x a x a x a x x a
m times n times

am. an = am+n (am)n = amn

=axaxaxxa
m + n times

= am+n ii. (am)n = amn (am)n = am x am x am xx am

n times

= am+m++m
n times

= amn

Example: Find an integer n that shows that the rings Zn need not have the following properties that the ring of integer has. a. a2 = 0 implies a = 0 or a = 1 b. a b = 0 implies a = 0 or b = 0 c. ab= ac and a 0 imply b = c is the n you found prime? Answer: Choose n = 6, so we get Z6 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }. + 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 proved Z6 = Ring 1 1 2 3 4 5 0 2 2 3 4 5 0 1 3 3 4 5 0 1 2 4 4 5 0 1 2 3 5 5 0 1 2 3 4

1. Closed properties satisfied because all of result operation in set Z6 2. Associative properties in additional integer in Z6 satisfied. 3. Identity properties satisfied: 0 Z6 as a identity unsure because a Z6 satisfy a * = * a 4. Inverse properties satisfied 0 inverse of 0 1 inverse of 5 2 inverse of 4 3 inverse of 3 4 inverse of 2 5 inverse of 1 5. Commutative properties satisfied. It can be seen from symmetric unsure belongs to main diagonal. 6. Will be shown: a(bc) = (ab)c An associative property is satisfied in integer multiplication. Z6 is subset of Z. So, associative property is satisfied in Z6 7. a(b + c) = ab + ac and (b + c)a = ba + ca a, b, c Z satisfied distributive property because Z6 Z then distributive property is satisfied in Z6

So, Z6 is ring. Show that Z6 is need not have those properties.

Z6 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } x 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 2 0 2 4 0 2 4 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 4 0 4 2 0 4 2 5 0 5 4 3 2 1

a. a2 = a implies a = 0 or a = 1 (not satisfied) Contrary example: 32 = 3, it means a = 3 not 0 or 1 b. ab = 0 implies a = 0 or b = 0 (not satisfied) Contrary example 2.3 = 0 c. ab = ac and a 0 imply b = c Example: 3.1 = 3.3; 13 8. An element a from ring R is said Nilpotent if an = 0 for any n Z+. Show that if a,b are nilpotent element from ring commutative R than a.b is nilpotent too. Answer: Because a,b are nilpotent element, there is n,m Z+ an = 0 and bm = 0, will be shown a.b is nilpotent. Choose k = m + n Z+ , (a.b)k = 0 (a.b)k = ak .bk = am+n .bm+n = aman .bmbn = am .0 .0.bn (a.b)k =0 so a.b is nilpoten