Renewable Energy 36 (2011) 1227e1235

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The role of hydroelectric power and contribution of small hydropower plants

for sustainable development in Turkey
Bahtiyar Dursun a, *, Cihan Gokcol b
a
Department of Electricity and Energy, Pinarhisar Vocational School, Kirklareli University, 39050, Pinarhisar / Kirklareli, Turkey
b
Department of Automation Technologies, Luleburgaz Vocational School, Kirklareli University, 39050, Luleburgaz/ Kirklareli, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Turkey is a rapidly growing country regarding its economy and population and therefore has a large and
Received 8 February 2010 continuously increasing energy demand. Turkey mostly meets its energy demand from imported fossil
Accepted 3 October 2010 sources. However apart from petroleum and natural gas, Turkey has almost all kinds of energy resources
Available online 23 October 2010
and hence it would not need to meet its energy demand through import. In addition, Turkey has very
large potential of hydraulic energy but to date only one-third of this significant economical potential
Keywords:
could be used. This ratio seems insufficient when compared with that of European countries.
Small scale hydropower plants
In this paper the role of hydroelectric power, its potential and its present status are investigated in
Turkey
Hydropower
detail for Turkey. Especially the small scale hydropower plant is emphasized as Turkey’s renewable
Renewable energy energy source. Furthermore the water resources of Turkey are examined.
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction continuously increasing annual electricity demand of next 10 years,

the indigenous renewable energy resources should be employed
Turkey’s geographical coordinates are 36
e42
north latitude more instead of the noneabundant fossil sources to mitigate the
and 26
e45
east longitude. It has a total area of 814,578 km2 [1,2]. energy dependence on foreign countries. This gives a strong
Turkey’s geographical location makes it a natural bridge between motivation to explore the potential of hydropower as a renewable
the energy-rich Middle East and Central Asian regions. energy source, which has not been utilized sufficiently so far. It
Energy plays a vital role in the socio-economic development and should be seriously considered as a major contributor to meet
in raising the standard of living. Turkey is a rapidly growing country significant portion of all energy demand from now on.
where both its population and economy are expanding each year, Turkey has a total hydropower potential of 433 TWh that
resulting in a corresponding increase in its energy demand. This accounts for almost 1.1% of the total hydropower potential of the
increasing demand has to be met to keep a sustainable develop- world and for 13.75% of European hydropower potential. Only
ment in the economy and to raise the living conditions of the 130 TWh of the total hydroelectric potential of Turkey can be used
people. Although Turkey has many energy sources, it is a big energy economically. By the commissioning of new hydropower plants,
importer. Turkey has a lot of potential to supply its own energy, which are under construction, 43% of the economically usable
which could be harnessed in order to avoid this energy depen- potential of the country would be exploited. At present the
dency. Additionally, Turkey is a country with an abundance of hydropower energy is an important energy source for Turkey due to
renewable energy sources and can essentially provide all energy its useful characteristics such as being renewable, clean, and less
requirements from its own indigenous energy sources [1]. impactful on the environment, as well as being a cheap and
The main indigenous energy resources of Turkey are lignite, domestic energy source [5].
hydro and biomass. Table 1 shows Turkey’s present and future Hydropower is still the most efficient way to generate elec-
energy consumption (taken from Ministry of Energy and Natural tricity. Modern hydro turbines can convert as much as 90% of the
Resources of Turkey) with respect to various resources [3]. available energy into electricity while the efficiency of the best
Turkey’s annual electricity demand in 2010, 2015 and 2020 is fossil fuel plant is only about 50%. Additionally, hydropower is an
predicted to go up to 270 TWh, 410 TWh and 571 TWh, respectively outstanding source to generate electricity in all over the world and
[1,4]. It can be noticed from Table 1 that in order to meet the will seemingly keep on growing especially in the developing
countries [6,7]. While large dams have become much riskier
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ90288 6153303; fax: þ90288 6153750. investment, there still remains much unexploited potential for
E-mail address: [Link]@[Link] (B. Dursun). small hydro projects around the world.

0960-1481/$ e see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/[Link].2010.10.001
1228 B. Dursun, C. Gokcol / Renewable Energy 36 (2011) 1227e1235

Table 1 Table 3
Turkey’s final energy consumption by resources. Turkey’s drainage basins [8].

Type of Resources (ktoe) 2006 2010 2015 2020 No Name of basin Rainfall Annual Share in Annual
Hard coal 14,721 17,282 26,884 48,156 area (km2) average total (%) average yield
Lignite 11,188 18,001 24,190 32,044 flow (km3) (l/s/km2)
Asphaltite 259 301 301 301 1 Meric-Ergene 14,560 1.33 0.7 2.9
Oil 32,551 41,184 50,420 60,918 2 Marmara 24,100 8.33 4.5 11
Natural Gas 28,867 37,192 44,747 51,536 3 Susurluk 22,399 5.43 2.9 7.2
Nuclear 0 0 8229 8229 4 N. Aegean 10,003 2.09 1.1 7.4
Wind 11 421 571 721 5 Gediz 18,000 1.95 1.1 3.6
Solar 403 495 605 862 6 K. Menderes 6907 1.19 0.6 5.3
Fuelwood 4023 3383 3075 3075 7 B. Menderes 24,976 3.03 1.6 3.9
Animal and Vegetable residues 1146 1034 926 850 8 W. Mediterranean 20,953 8.93 4.8 12.4
Geothermal (Heat) 1081 1750 2836 4584 9 Antalya 19,577 11.06 5.9 24.2
Geothermal (Electricity) 330 330 330 330 10 Burdur 6374 0.5 0.3 1.8
Hydraulic 3556 4903 7060 9419 11 Akarcay 7605 0.49 0.3 1.9
Growth rates (%) 29 35 31 12 Sakarya 58,160 6.40 3.4 3.6
13 W. Black Sea 29,598 9.93 5.3 10.6
14 Yesilirmak 36,114 5.8 3.1 5.1
In this paper, the role of hydroelectric power, its potential and its 15 Kizilirmak 78,180 6.48 3.5 2.6
present status are investigated in detail for Turkey. Especially the 16 Konya(closed) 53,850 4.52 2.4 2.5
17 E. Mediterranean 22,048 11.07 6 15.6
small hydropower plant could be emphasized as a new renewable 18 Seyhan 20,450 8.01 4.3 12.3
energy source of Turkey because it assists in increasing the 19 Asi 7796 1.17 0.6 3.4
economical usage of hydropower potential of Turkey. 20 Ceyhan 21,982 7.18 3.9 10.7
21 Euphrates-Tigris 184,918 52.94 28.5 21.4
22 E. Black Sea 24,077 14.90 8 19.5
23 Coruh 19,872 6.30 3.4 10.1
2. Turkey’s water resources and its potential 24 Aras 27,548 4.63 2.5 5.3
25 Van lake 19,405 2.39 1.3 5
Contrary to the general thought, Turkey is not a rich country in Total 779,452 186.05 100
terms of water resources. In Turkey, the gross water potential per
capita was 3000 m3 at the beginning of 2000. The annual per capita
followed by Black Sea region with 13.3%, Mediterranean region
water potential is presently 1652 m3. When Turkey is compared
with 10.8%, Marmara region with 4.5% and others.
with the countries such as Israel, Jordan, Yemen which have
The rivers in general have irregular regimes, and natural flows
a 150e400 m3/year per capita water potential, Turkey seems to be
cannot be taken directly as usable resources. The average annual
‘‘water-rich’’ in the region. But being a ‘‘water-rich’’ country
precipitation, evaporation and surface runoff greatly vary
requires having a water potential greater than 10,000 m3/year
geographically. On the other hand, Turkey has 665,000 ha of inland
water per capita. Thus, Turkey cannot be considered a ‘‘water-rich’’
waters, excluding rivers and small streams. There are 200 natural
country. Therefore, it is clearly understood from the gross water
lakes, with a total area of 500,000 ha, and 775 dam lakes and ponds
potential per capita values of Turkey, both at present and in the
with a total surface area of 165,000 ha [11,14].
future, that some regions of the country will face water scarcity in
In view of the considerable variation in runoff in terms of
drought seasons and Turkey will become a water-deficit country in
seasons, years and regions, it is absolutely necessary for the major
the future [8e11].
rivers in Turkey to have water-storage facilities to allow the use of
Turkey has an annual average precipitation of 643 mm, but the
the water when it is necessary. Consequently, priority has always
distribution is quite uneven. This average annual precipitation
been given to the construction of water-storage facilities. Signifi-
corresponds to an average of 501 km3 (501 billionm3 (bcm)) of water
cant progress has taken place in the construction of dams in the last
per year. However, from the economic and technical points of view,
55 years that have elapsed since the establishment of the State
the average exploitable water potential of the country is 112 km3 per
Hydraulic Works (DSI) [15].
year [8e12]. Turkey’s water potential is given in Table 2 [13].
Although Turkey has an adequate amount of water in general, it
3. Role of hydroelectric power (generated from water
is not always in the right place at the right time to meet present and
resources) in Turkey for sustainable development
anticipated needs. Turkey is divided into 25 drainage basins in
regard to the concept of hydrology, as given in Table 3 [11].
The obvious benefits of hydropower projects in Turkey or in any
All drainage basins are shown in a Turkey map in Fig. 1. Annual
other country where hydropower potential exists abundantly, is
average flows of these basins are approximately 186 km3. The
associated with the generation of electrical power, which has the
Euphrates and Tigris, among all basins, is the largest with about
ability to both assist the sustainable economical development and
185,000 km2 of land area. Most of country’s water potential lies in
increase the quality of life. Furthermore, they are labor-intensive
the southeast region (Euphrates and Tigris basin) with 28.5%,
during construction, as well as providing long term employment
Table 2 opportunities [14]. Another benefit of exploiting water resources is
Water potential in Turkey [9]. about environmental concern. Because it is a renewable, clean and
Precipitation Aver. ann, Flow Economically
green energy source, it is less harmful than fossil fuel sources
(mm/m2) prec. (billion m3/yr) consumable causing dangerous gas emissions.
(billion m3/yr) (billion m3/yr) With the considerable contribution of few organizations such as
Domestic 643 501 186 95 DSI and others, hydropower development in Turkey has been
Off country e e 7 3 carried out for about a century for different purposes, namely
Total e e 193 98 electricity generation, irrigation of regional lands, water supply for
Underground e e e 14
General total e e e 112
domestic and industrial utilization and flood control in the
surrounding area. In order to be able to determine the role of
 B. Dursun, C. Gokcol / Renewable Energy 36 (2011) 1227e1235 1229

Fig. 1. A map of Turkey’s drainage basins (numbers as in Table 3) [11].

hydropower potential in Turkey for satisfying the sustainable elsewhere. Besides, reservoirs can provide electricity energy for
economical development, the amount of theoretical economical fisheries and the possibilities for agricultural production in the
water resources potential contribution to meet the annual energy reservoir drawdown area, which in some cases can compensate for
needs should be considered. In 2007 almost 18% of total annual losses in these sectors arising from dam construction [5,6,14,18].
electricity production in Turkey, which is equal to almost 35TWh/yr General characteristics of hydropower plants can be summa-
(meaning 27% of theoretically economical hydropower potential rized as follows [6,7,17]:
which is estimated to be 130 TWh/yr), was provided by evaluating
water resources. But 27% is too little compared to the correspond-  Its resources are more widely spread around the world
ing ratios of European countries which are not less than 60%; for compared with fossil and nuclear fuels and thus they can
example Sweden, Norway and France have 98.8%, 82.8% and 87.8%, supply an auxiliary power to the countries struggling with
respectively. This means that Turkey allows its water resources energy dependence on fossil fuel resources. Potential exists in
flowing freely without generating electricity. In fact if it could about 150 countries and about 70% of the economically feasible
efficiently exploit its remaining hydropower potential with an potential remains to be tapped into.
amount of about 90 TWh/yr, while its total electricity consumption  Hydropower continues to be the most efficient way to generate
is presently about 190 TWh/yr, Turkey would be able to decrease its electricity. Modern hydro turbines can convert as much as 90%
energy dependence on foreign countries considerably. It could be of the available energy into electricity, which is also an envi-
concluded from this overview that priority in the process of ronmental benefit. The best fossil fuel plants are only about 50%
supplying all energy needs and satisfying sustainable development efficient.
of Turkey must be given to the indigenous energy sources. Turkey  It has the lowest operating cost and the longest plant life
can be counted as a rich country regarding renewable and indige- compared with other large-scale generating options. Typically
nous energy sources more than fossil fuel sources which are scarce a hydropower plant in service for 40e50 years can have its
in Turkey and mostly provided by imports. Also that Turkey should operating life doubled.
diversify energy supplies and avoid dependency on a single source  Because of the fact that its fuel as a renewable source is only
or country in the framework of Turkish energy policy. water leading to no fuel cost, it is never affected by any fluc-
tuations in market.
4. General characteristics of hydroelectric power

Hydropower can supply extra benefits which seldom exist in 4.1. The historical development
other energy forms. These benefits can be associated with elec-
tricity itself. Hydro turbines convert water pressure into mechan- In 1902 the first hydroelectric plant (60 kW) in Turkey was
ical shaft power which can be used to drive an electricity generator constructed in Tarsus. The total installed capacity of the country
or other machinery. The power available is proportional to the was 29,664 kW and the electricity was available only in Tarsus,
product of pressure head and water discharge. Hydropower is the Istanbul, Adapazari and Izmir. With the development of industry,
largest renewable resource used for electricity. Table 4 gives usage of electrical energy other than for lighting started in 1930 and
detailed information strengths and weaknesses of hydropower large industrial establishments began trying to produce their own
option [8,15e17]. electricity [19e22].
Reservoirs with a great volume of water can supply a major Some of the important projects in 1935 were: Seyhan, Sariyer,
multipurpose facility including flood control and provision of Hirfanlı, Kesikkopru, Demirkopru and Kemer dams and hydro
a more reliable and higher-quality water supply for irrigation, plants. By 1940 there were 28 hydro plants corresponding to 3.2% of
domestic and industrial use. Intensification of agriculture locally the total energy production. Etibank and the Bank of the Provinces
through irrigation can in turn decrease pressure on unclear forest implemented the construction of small hydropower (SHP) plants as
lands, entire wildlife habitat, and unsuitable areas for agriculture well as the electrification of villages and towns [19,20,23].
1230 B. Dursun, C. Gokcol / Renewable Energy 36 (2011) 1227e1235

Table 4 In 1950 the installed capacity of hydroelectric power plants was

Advantages and disadvantages of hydropower option. 18 MW accounting for only 4.4%. But, after the establishment of DSI
Advantages Disadvantages in 1954, the hydroelectric capacity rose to 412 MW (34% of the total
Economic aspects installed capacity) within 10 years, corresponding to 44% of total
Provides low operating High upfront investment energy production. After 1963 with ‘‘Five Year Development Plan’’,
and maintenance costs as shown in Table 5, in recent years the share of thermal resources
Provides long life span Precipitation
in the total installed capacity has increased as a result of the rapid
(50-100 years and more)
Provides reliable service Requires long-term planning increase in natural gas plants; while the share of hydro plants has
Includes proven technology Requires long-term agreement decreased from almost 40% in 1995 to 18.7% in 2007 [14].
Investigates and fosters Requires multidisciplinary
regional development involvement
Provides highest Often requires foreign 4.2. The potential, installed capacity and production as well as
energy efficiency rate contractors and funding
existing and planned hydropower projects
Generates revenues
to sustain other water
Creates employment While total theoretical hydropower potential of Turkey is
opportunities and saves fuel 433 TWh/yr, it has not only the largest technically feasible potential
Social aspects with 216 TWh/yr in Europe, but also a technically economical
Leaves water May involve resettlement
available for other uses
potential of 130 TWh/yr. The gross hydroelectric potential of Turkey
Often provides May restrict navigation is about 1% of the world total and about 16% of the European total,
flood protection as shown in Table 6. Although Turkey is not rich in terms of
May enhance Local land use patterns hydroelectric energy potential, it is ranked in the first within
navigation conditions will be modified
European countries in terms of technical hydropower potential, as
Often enhances recreation Waterborne disease vectors
may need to be checked seen in Table 6.
Enhances accessibility Requires management of Since 2009 172 hydroelectric plants are in operation with the total
of the territory and its resources competing water uses installed capacity of 13,700 MW. Average annual total production is
Improves living conditions 47,871 TWh which corresponds to 36% of the total economical
Sustains livelihoods
(fresh water, food supply)
potential, as mentioned in Table 7 and Table 8. Furthermore, it is
Environmental aspects obvious from Table 9 that there have been 94 hydroelectric plants still
Produces no atmospheric Inundation of terrestrial habitat under construction with the total installed capacity of 5,206 MW
pollutant and only very corresponding to average total production of 17.560 TWh/yr (11.3% of
few GHG emissions
the total economical potential). In order to exploit the remaining
GHG emissions
Enhances air quality Modification of hydraulic potential of Turkey with the installed capacity of
hydrological regimes 44,200 MW and average total potential of 87.7 TWh/yr, 542 hydro-
Produces no waste Modification of aquatic habitats electric plants will be constructed in the future. Thus the total
Avoids depleting Water quality needs installed capacity and annually average production will reach to
non-renewable fuel resources to be managed
Often creates new freshwater Temporary introduction of
63,235 MW and almost 155 TWh/yr, respectively. Incidentally, the
ecosystems with increased methyl mercury into the food number of hydroelectric plant is planned to reach up to 811, as seen in
productivity chain needs to be monitored / Table 8 and Table 9. Furthermore, 78% of the total installed capacity
managed (10,750 MW) has been fulfilled by DSI which has constructed 20 of
Enhances knowledge and improves Species activities and populations
the largest 25 hydroelectric plants in Turkey [3,5,12e15].
management of valued need to be monitored
species due to study results As of 2009, Turkey has constructed 673 dams, which are pres-
Helps to slow down Barriers for fish migration, ently in operation. Of these 673 dams, 260 facilities have been
climate change fish entrainment constructed as large dams and 413 as small dams. With the addition
Neither consumes nor Sediment composition and transport of dams under construction or scheduled, the number of dams
pollutes the water it uses for may need to be monitored
electricity generation purposes and managed
including both large and small type is estimated to reach 819.
Furthermore by means of dams located in the region, currently
a total land area of 5.28,106 ha has been irrigated and 3.16 bcm of
water supply has been serviced to public for domestic utilization.

Table 5
Electricity generation by energy resources [14].

Energy Sources 1995 2000 2005 2007

Prod. GWh/yr % Prod. GWh/yr % Prod. GWh/yr % Prod. GWh/yr %

Coalþimported 2232.1 2.6 3819.0 3.1 13,246.2 8.2 14,927.2 7.8
Lignite 25,814.8 29.9 34,367.3 27.5 29,946.3 18.5 38,348.4 20.1
Oil 5498.2 “ 7459.1 6.0 5120.7 3.2 7630.8 4.0
Motorine 273.8 0.3 980.6 0.8 2.5 0.0 8.3 0.0
LPG 0 0 324.0 0.3 33.7 0.0 461.8 0.2
Petroleum naphtha 0 0 547.1 0.4 325.6 0.2 600.8 0.3
Natura Gas 16,579.3 19.2 46,216.9 37.0 73,444.9 45.3 92,769.2 48.5
Total Termal 50,398.2 58.4 93,714.0 75.0 122,119.9 75.4 154,746.5 80.9

Geothermal and Wind 86.0 0.1 108.9 0.1 153.4 0.1 516.7 0.3
Rest of renewables 222.3 0.3 220.2 0.2 122.4 0.1 175.9 0.1
Total hydro 35,540.9 41.2 30,878.5 24.7 39,560.5 24.4 35,797.9 18.7
Total 86,247.4 100 124,921.6 100 161,956.2 100 191,237.0 100
 B. Dursun, C. Gokcol / Renewable Energy 36 (2011) 1227e1235 1231

Table 6 In the frame of GAP projects, about 75% of all projects con-
Hydroelectric potential of the world [20,24]. cerning energy have been completed so far whereas almost only
Gross theoretical Technically viable Economically viable 16% of the whole irrigation projects has been implemented.
potential of HEPP potential of HEPP potential of HEPP The project of Coruh with a total electricity generation of
(GWh/year) (GWh/year) (GWh/year)
8260 GWh/yr, is being realized on Coruh river basin by DSI. After
World 40,150,000 14,060,000 8,905,000 the completion of all the planned projects, 6.4% of Turkey’s hydro
Europe 3,150,000 1225,000 800,000
electric production will be met through this basin [12].
Turkey 433,000 216,000 127,381
In addition to the large hydroelectric projects with the installed
capacity of greater than 10 MW, it is estimated that in Turkey there
are many small hydropower plants (SHEP) potential with the ability
Also total land area of 106 ha has been protected against probable of supplying a considerable amount of total energy demand. DSI
flood in the region, as shown in Table 8 [12,15]. has launched a pre-investigation study on ‘‘The Place of SHEPs
The important river basins [11,24] given in Table 3, with an Within Estimated Hydroelectric Potential’’. This study concluded
annual hydropower potential of more than 5 TWh are: Euphrates that an additional technical hydroelectric energy potential of
and Tigris (54,782 GWh), East Black Sea (11,271 GWh), Coruh 57 TWh/year could be utilizable. 38 TWh/year of hydroelectric
(10,630 GWh), Seyhan (7968 GWh), Kizilirmak (6229 GWh), Yesi- energy potential, corresponding to two-thirds of this additional
lirmak (5308 GWh), East Mediterranean (6212 GWh), Antalya potential, has been estimated to be economically utilizable. Hence
(5089 GWh) and Ceyhan (5996 GWh) [5,14]. Comprehensive water the total economically utilizable hydroelectric potential of Turkey,
planning activities have been carried out in Turkey since the 1950s. which is 130 TWh excluding the generated electricity from Small
These have led to the construction of structures on rivers to regu- hydropower projects, will reach 168 TWh/year [5,18,26,27].
late the flow and to meet the energy and food requirements of Approximately 50% of the additional potential with 38 TWh could
a growing population while achieving the socio-economic devel- be realized as SHEPs with installed capacities of less than 10 MW.
opment goals. To be able to evaluate the current potential of these The share of SHEP potential in the total, which is 3% at present,
river basins for the raise in the electricity production, there have would be 14%. On the other hand, in accordance with the results
been many great hydropower projects conducted by DSI and other obtained from the pre-evaluation study, about 15% of the increase
organizations. in 130 TWh/year exploitable energy potential might be achieved by
With the great aid of some regional projects being realized on developing additional SHEP potential. However, this study gives
Euphrates- Tigris and Coruh basins, such as Southeastern Anatolian only approximate results about the additional SHEP potential of the
Project (Turkish initials “GAP”) and Coruh project which are inte- country, and the potential must be evaluated more precisely with
grated development projects, Turkey is expected to benefit from comprehensive master plan studies for each hydrological basin
the regional potential of water resource. Therefore it is believed to [5,14].
affect the entire structure of the region in economic, social, and
cultural dimensions through a process of transformations to be 5. Small hydroelectric plants
triggered by agricultural modernization.
GAP, which has been conducted by DSI, is one of the largest The development of hydro-electricity in the 20th century was
power generation, irrigation, and development projects of its kind usually associated with the building of large dams. Hundreds of
in the world. It covers 9 cities in the region with the population of massive barriers of concrete, rock and earth were placed across
7.35 million people and 3 million ha of agricultural land. This is over river valleys world-wide to create huge artificial lakes. While they
10% of the cultivable land in Turkey; the land to be irrigated is more created a major reliable power supply plus irrigation and flood
than half of the presently irrigated area in Turkey. It is regarded control benefits, the dams necessarily flooded large areas of fertile
both to bridge the gap between the southeastern region and land and displaced many thousands of local inhabitants. In many
the more advanced areas of Turkey and to increase the welfare of cases rapid silting up of the dam has reduced its productivity and
the region. The GAP including 13 projects (of which 7 is on the lifetime. There are also numerous environmental problems that can
Euphrates and 6 is on Tigris basin) encompasses 22 dams, 19 HEPPs result from such major interference with river flows [28].
(Hydro Electric Power Plants) and irrigation schemes on an area Small, mini and micro-hydro plants (usually defined as plants
extending over 1.79 million ha are carried out. The total cost of the less than 10 MW, 2 MW and 100 kW, respectively) play a key role in
project is 32 billion dollars. The total installed capacity of its power many countries for rural electrification. Small scale hydro is mainly
plants is 7490 MW, which implies an annual production of 27 ‘run of river,’ so does not involve the construction of large dams and
billion kWh [12,25]. reservoirs. Therefore there have been minimal and ignorable

Table 7
Comparison of Turkey hydropower potential with some European countries.

Country Technical hydropower Economically feasible Actual generation Developed economical

potential (TWh/year) hydropower potential in in 2005 (TWh/year) potential (%)
2005 (TWh/year)
Turkey 216 130 47.87a 36
Norway 200 187 136.6 73
Sweden 100 85 72.9 86
France 100 70 56.4 81
Italy 105 65 42.9 66
Austria 75 56 38.6 69
Switzerland 43 41 33.1 81
Spain 66 32 23.0 72
Germany 25 20 26.7 134
United Kingdom 3 1 7.9 789
a
Actual generation in 2009.
1232 B. Dursun, C. Gokcol / Renewable Energy 36 (2011) 1227e1235

Table 8
Current situation of Turkey’s dams and HEPs, including in operation and under construction ones [12].

In operation Under construction/scheduled

DSI Others Total DSI Others Total

Dam Number 655 18 673 145 1 146
Large 242 18 260 63 e 63
Small 413 e 413 82 1 83
HEP Number 57 115 172 23 235 258
Installed capacity (MW) 10,784 2916 13,700 3576 7270 10,845
Production (GWh/yr) 38,410 9461 47,871 11,555 27,849 39,404
Irrigation (106 ha) 3.06 2.22 5.28 0.23 e 0.23
Water Supply (bcm) 2.58 0.58 3.16 0.50 e 0.50
Flood Control Area (106 ha) 1 e 1 0.4 e 0.4

environmental problems with small scaled hydro plants in irrigation and drinking purposes; they also create job opportunities
comparison with those of HEPs with large dams. In medium head in rural areas and thus can prevent migration to cities. They provide
(5 m < head< 15 m) or high head (head >15 m) installations, water significant forward and backward linkages. Increasing demand for
is carried to the forebay by a small canal. Low head installations power-generating turbines and other equipment will benefit the
(head < 5m) generally involve water entering the turbine almost industrial sector and reduce import demand. Therefore the use of
directly from the weir [28]. SHEPs is important for sustainable development and economic
SHEP is the main prospect for future hydro developments in growth in Turkey.
Europe, where the large-scale opportunities have either been It can be considered to have the lowest capital cost per kW
exploited already or would now be considered environmentally among the whole kinds of renewable energy alternatives in Turkey.
unacceptable. Small hydro technology is extremely robust (systems Table 10 presents a comparison of capital cost of some renewable
can last for 50 years or more with little maintenance) and also has energy sources in the world and in Turkey. In addition to this, the
the capacity to make a more immediate impact on the replacement investment and the operating costs in Turkey are fairly lower than
of fossil fuels because unlike other sources of renewable energy, it those in European countries. Table 11 comprises of the data about
can generally produce some electricity on demand with no need for the operating and investment costs of SHEP in some European
storage or backup systems (at least at times of the year when an countries as well as in Turkey. It is clear that those low costs offer
adequate flow of water is available). It is also in many cases cost attractive opportunities for the domestic and foreign entrepreneurs
competitive with fossil fuel power stations or diesel generated to make more investment on small hydropower plants.
power used for remote rural areas [28]. Furthermore it is highly sensitive to environment like other
Small hydro (<10 MW) currently contributes over 40 GW of renewable energy sources. Table 12 compares potential environ-
world capacity. The global small hydro potential is believed to be in mental impacts of renewable energy development. These negative
excess of 100 GW. China alone has developed more than 15 GW and effects, however, can be ignored compared to those of primary
plans to develop a further 10 GW in the current decade. Hydro- energy sources such as oil, coal and gas. In addition, SHEP plants
power provides about 17% of EU electricity supply. Small hydro also have effects on natural environment. They cause disadvantages
provides over 8 GW of capacity and there is an estimated 18 GW of such as blockage of fish passages and protection, and interruption
further small hydro potential, including refurbishing projects. The of sediment transport. For this reason, effective fish passages for all
European Commission has a target to increase small hydro capacity fish species in the region where SHEP was set up must be achieved.
by 4500 MW (50%) by the year 2010 [28]. Various local SHEP projects are under investigation and the
preliminary reports of some of them are either under preparation
5.1. Importance and development of SHEPs in Turkey or ready. The adoption of SHEP will lead to an improved rural
economy through increased employment in their construction and
Turkey has a mountainous landscape with an average elevation provision of cheaper electricity for domestic use. In addition
of 1132 m that is about three times higher than the European deforestation caused by using wood for heating will decrease.
average. This topography favors the formation of high gradient
mountain streams which are suitable locations for SHEP develop-
5.2. Brief historical development of SHEPs in Turkey
ment [29].
Many adverse effects of large hydroelectric projects on the
Development of SHEP began in 1902 in Turkey. In 1902 the first
environment and local people can be prevented or reduced if SHEPs
SHEP (88 kW) in Turkey was constructed in Tarsus-Adana. In the
are used. The use of SHEPs causes minimal changes in natural
period of the Republic of Turkey, the utilization of hydroelectric
habitats. Protection against both floods and droughts can be ach-
power was first initiated in 1929 with the establishment of the
ieved easily. SHEPs not only provide electricity and water for both
Visera power plant with a capacity of 1 MW in the city of Trabzon. A
Table 9
number of SHEPs were built to meet the increasing demand on
Total installed capacity and annually average production of all HEPs in Turkey, with electricity from 1950 to the 1960s, reaching a total installed
either in operation or under construction, updated regarding the 2009 HEP data
taken from DSI [11,12]. Table 10
Comparison of average capital costs for some renewables in World and Turkey [19].
Potential Number Total installed Annual average Ratio (%)
of HEP capacity (MW) production (GWh/yr) Type of renewable Average capital Average capital
In operation 172 13,700 47,871 31 cost in world (V/kW) cost in Turkey (V/kW)
Under 94 5206 17,560 11 Small Hydropower Plant 1000 650
construction Wind 920 900
Planned 542 19,100 87,700 58 Geothermal 1230 1440
Total 811 38,006 153,131 100 Solar PV 5400 NA
 B. Dursun, C. Gokcol / Renewable Energy 36 (2011) 1227e1235 1233

Table 11 Table 14
Operating and investment costs of SHP in some European countries [19]. Turkey’s small hydropower potential [20].

Country Operating cost (Vcent/kWh) Investment cost (V/kW) Potential Generation Capacity (MW)
Belgium 1.8 3700e4960 GWh/year %
Germany 5 4000e6000
Gross theoretical 50,000 100 16,500
Greece 2.4e4.2 1000e2000
Technical feasible 30,000 60 10,000
Spain 3.5e7 1000e1500
Economically feasible 20,000 40 6500
France e 1200e3000
Economically feasible potential 664 3.3 175
Ireland 3.75e9.1 1500e3750
that has been developed
Italy 5e10 1500e3000
Remaining economically 19,336 96.7 6325
Austria 3.6e14.5 2900e4300
feasible potential
Portugal e 1300e2500
Remaining economically feasible w19,300 96.7 6325
Finland 3e3.5 2200
potential taking into account
Sweden 4e5 1500e2500
environmental constraints
UK 5e7 2000e4800
(for example,
Turkey 1 300e1000
rivers exempted from damming

Table 12
The gross theoretical SHEP potential of Turkey is 50,000 GWh/
Comparison of potential environmental impacts of renewable energy sources. year. The technically and economically feasible potential is
30,000 GWh/year and 20,000 GWh/year, respectively. Conse-
Type of renewable Potential environmental impact
quently, a huge untapped potential exists for SHEP in Turkey. As
SHP Blockage of fish passage and interruption of sediment
seen from both Table 13 and Table 14, the remaining potential of
transport
Wind Noise, visual impacts, avian and bat mortality SHEP for Turkey is 19,336 GWh/yr, corresponding to approximately
Geothermal Thermal pollution, damage to natural geothermal 97% of economically feasible potential. Only 3.3% of the economi-
features, subsidence cally feasible potential has been developed so far. It is well known
Solar PV PV panel disposal that in year 2007, energy demand of Turkey was almost 190 TWh/
yr. Suppose that if all the remaining SHEP potential of Turkey was
capacity of 38 MW in 1955. In later years, it was understood that the completely exploited, it would cause the electricity generation of
payback periods for these SHEPs were not economically feasible. about 20 TWh/yr which equals almost 10% of the total annual
Therefore the larger HEPPs began to be installed. Following the two electricity demand of the country. Consequently in Turkey there
oil crises of the 1970s the SHEPs started to be rebuilt. By the end of have been several projects and studies carried out by DSI and other
2002, the total number of SHEP stations in operation throughout organizations on some river basins of Turkey, especially Eastern
the country was 59 with a total installed capacity 175.5 MW. The Black Sea. Among 25 hydrological basins in Turkey, the Eastern
installed capacity (175.5 MW) of SHEPs is less than 2% of the total Black Sea Basin (EBSB) has great advantages in terms of SHEP
hydropower potential (13,700 MW) in Turkey [19e22,30]. potential because of the fact that the annual average precipitation is
the highest in the country as it reaches 2329 mm in Rize Province.
Furthermore, the basin covers sharp valleys and there are a lot of
5.3. The existing and planned SHEP projects steep streams with considerable discharges and heads [32].
EIE is carrying out a study to determine the energy potential of
There is a clear growth trend for SHEP plants, as can be seen in small streams in Turkey. The preliminary results of this study are
Table 13. Since 1990, number of SHEPS and their capacity has more given in Table 15. The preliminary results of only eight of 25 basins
than doubled. Installed capacity and power generation of SHEP in Turkey have been obtained and the other basins are being
plants are expected to be 260 MW and 968GWh/year by 2010 and studied. As seen in Table 15, 59 of 132 projects (44.7%) are in EBSB
335 MW and 1250GWh/year by 2015. Table 13 gives the growth and annually total electricity production for EBSB projects is
trend of SHEPs during the period 1996e2002 and short term and 886.56 GWh, which is equal to 52.18% of the annual electricity
long term forecast of SHEP development [24,31]. production for all the SHEP projects. The potential of SHEP projects
85% of all SHEP plants have been recently constructed for the by regions for varying coefficient of profitability (CP) is also given in
last two decades. Around 20% of generating capacity of SHEP plants Table 15 It is obvious that most (81%) of the projects in EBSB are
is in private hands. According to their gross head the percentage of with a CP greater than 1 (CP > 1), hence can be called as profitable
SHEP plants is as follows: Low head (up to 5 m) - 0%; Medium head projects. The profitable projects in EBSB cover 56.4% of the whole
(5e15 m) - 5% and High head (more than 15 m) - 95%. High head profitable projects [26].
SHEP plants are mostly used in Turkey [24].
Small hydro contributes 0.52% to the electricity mix in Turkey
but total hydro contribution is around 34% of the total electricity 6. Development of Turkish energy sector policies from the
generation. Small hydro and total hydro contribution in the perspective of hydropower plants
renewable energy-based electricity production is dominant in
Turkey (2% and 97.7%, respectively) [24]. Estimated SHEP potential Among the renewable energy sources of Turkey, hydropower,
of Turkey can be tabulated as in Table 14. especially the small hydropower for which the exploitable potential

Table 13
Small hydropower development in Turkey during 1996e2002 [20].

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Forecast

2010 2015
Total number of SHP 55 56 59 61 67 70 71 100 130
Capacity (MWh) 124.9 137.7 138.6 144.1 146.3 170.2 175.5 260 335
Generation (GWh) 499 500 524 533 636 664 673 968 1250
1234 B. Dursun, C. Gokcol / Renewable Energy 36 (2011) 1227e1235

Table 15
Preliminary results of studied SHP projects by EIE [16].

Basin Num. of Project Capacity (MW) Annual Energy Potential (GWh) Energy Potential (%) Potential of Projects According to
Coefficient of Profitability (CP)

CP>1 1 < CP<0.7 CP<0.7

East. Black Sea 59 157.75 886.56 52.18 718 (81%) 130 (15%) 38 (4%)
Mid Mediter. 20 69.09 278.52 16.39 260 (94%) 10 (3%) 8 (3%)
Gediz 7 41.76 166.20 9.78 116 (70%) 27 (16%) 23 (14%)
West. Mediter. 9 23.51 111.78 6.58 99 (89%) 8 (7%) 4 (4%)
Susurluk 15 23.74 110.55 6.51 23 (21%) 77 (69%) 11 (10%)
Wes. Black Sea 15 21.90 108.86 6.41 40 (37%) 47 (43%) 22 (20%)
Aegean 5 4.76 20.33 1.2 0 (0%) 14 (67%) 7 (33%)
B. Menderes 2 3.38 16.06 0.95 16 (100%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%)

Table 16
The status of hydropower plants in Turkey in 2006 and 2007.

In operation (2006) In operation (2007) Under construction (2006) Under construction (2007) Planned (2006) Planned (2007)
Total number 142 148 40 158 573 977
Installed capacity (MW) 12,788 13,306 3197 6554 20,765 22,260
Energy (GWh/yr) 45,930 47,590 10,518 23,620 73,851 79,177

is only 664 GWh/yr (about 3% of total economical potential), is date stating that hydropower plants having an installed capacity
considered as one of the most stable and economical green energy between 0.5 and 25 MW have to undertake an EIS [29].
sources in the renewable energy alternatives in Turkey. The share of Table 16 indicates the influence of the Renewable Energy Law on
renewables is only 19% of the total electrical energy sources in the development of hydropower plants in Turkey. The hydropower
Turkey. Several laws and regulations have been published in Turkey potential increased by 15% in 2007 as compared to 2006. Further-
in order to draw the public attention to renewable energy partic- more the number of hydropower plants under construction in 2007
ularly in the concept of hydropower, and also to increase the minor was almost twice more than that in 2006 and the planned plants
share of renewable in total. With the implementation of these laws almost doubled during the period of 2006 through 2007. New
compatible to EU laws and policy financial investments, interests of projects are mostly SHEP plants, as the planned installed capacity
both domestic and foreign entrepreneurs in renewable energy rose 7% from 2006 to 2007.
including hydropower, is expected to increase. For instance in As of March 2008, the private sector developed totally 1064
Germany, after Renewable Energy Law was published in 2000, hydropower projects in Turkey with a total installed capacity of
electricity generation from wind and solar power increased 5 and 6500 MW. These projects included mostly SHEPs. This shows that
50 times by the year 2007, respectively. the Turkey’s economically feasible hydropower potential is much
In Turkey Electricity Market Law with law no. 4628 was pub- higher than 130 TWh/yr which was calculated before the publica-
lished in March 2001 which has led to the establishment of Elec- tion of Law no. 5346. After this law, it is currently estimated that the
tricity Market Regulatory Authority. Thus the private sector has total potential will reach 150 TWh/yr [29].
been registered as a legal entity and hence it has the right to obtain
a license granted from this authority in order to build and operate
power plants. Moreover, with the publication of Renewable Energy 7. Conclusions
Law (law no. 5340) in May 2005, Turkish government assured to
buy electricity from legal entities with a price of 5.5 Vcent/kWh for The following concluding remarks may be drawn from this
10 years. Besides, 85% discount is applied for forest and land paper:
acquisition to build SHEP plants. Furthermore, a law was published
with law no. 5784 in July 2008, which is strongly expected to attract  Hydropower energy is an important energy source for Turkey
entrepreneurs to invest on mini and micro-hydropower plants. because it is renewable, clean, and less impactful on the envi-
After the publication of this law, applying for a license to generate ronment. Plus it is a cheap and domestic energy source.
electricity from renewable energy up to a capacity of 500 kW does  The average exploitable water potential of the country is
not require legal entities and also government guarantees the 110 km3/year. Therefore, hydropower possesses sufficient and
purchase of the excess electricity [29]. suitable characteristics in Turkey to maintain sustainable
In Turkey, for hydropower plants, law no. 5346 encloses a reser- development.
voir area less than 15 km2 and there is no limitation regarding  There are numerous environmental problems associated with
installed capacities. This makes the interest of private sector move large dams. Therefore, SHEPs of less than 10 MW play a key role
from the river type hydropower plants to the large hydropower in many countries for rural electrification.
system due to potentially higher profit rates, the private sector  Turkey’s hydropower potential can meet 33e46% of its electric
investments in SHEP construction have increased [29]. energy demand in 2020 (571 TWh). By evaluating SHEPs, of
In Turkey, a company must sign the Water Usage Rights Act with which potential can be estimated to be in the order of some
DSI to have an SHEP license. In this context, the company must tens of TWh/yr, Turkey will provide an important part of its
meet the requirements expressed in the act. To have an SHEP total electric energy demand from its own hydropower
license, river basin plan prepared by DSI is considered. In Turkey resources.
before 17 July 2008, the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIS)  Only 3.3% of economically feasible SHEP potential has been
report was not required for hydropower plants with the installed developed so far. If all the remaining SHEP potential of Turkey
capacity of below 50 MW. But, a regulation was published on this was completely exploited, it would bring about an amount of
 B. Dursun, C. Gokcol / Renewable Energy 36 (2011) 1227e1235 1235

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