Prof.

Ravi’s Physics Tuitions

WAVE OPTICS

Question.
Explain Newton’s corpuscular theory of light. What are the drawbacks of this theory?
Answer.
According to Newton’s corpuscular theory of light, source of light emits extremely minute, elastic
particles of matter, having negligible masses. These particles are called corpuscles.
These particles travel in straight lines through the same medium.
The corpuscles are so small that they can pass through intermolecular spaces of certain material but
their size is larger than the intermolecular spaces of some other material.
When these particles fall on the retina of the eye, they produce the sensation of light.
Different colours of light are due to different sizes of these particles.
To explain the reflection of light, Newton proposed that reflecting surfaces repel the particles of light.
To explain the refraction of light, Newton proposed that refracting surfaces attract the particles of light
Drawbacks:-
Corpuscular theory of light could not explain simultaneous reflection and refraction of light.
According to the corpuscular theory, the velocity of light in a rarer medium should be less than the
velocity of light in a denser medium. But it has been proved that the velocity of light in a rarer
medium is greater than the velocity of light in a denser medium.
According to corpuscular theory, light consists of small particles. Since light is emitted from the
source, it should cause a reduction of the mass of the source. But it has been proved that there is no
such reduction in mass of the source.
Newton’s corpuscular theory could not explain phenomena like double refraction, interference,
diffraction and polarisation.
Question.
Explain Huygens’ wave theory of light.
Answer.
A Dutch physicist Christian Huygens put the wave theory of light forward in 1678. According to this
theory light travels in the form of longitudinal waves which travel with uniform velocity in
homogenous medium. (Later on it was proved to be transverse waves.)
Different wavelengths correspond to different colours of light.
When light waves enter our eyes, we get the sensation of light.
A medium is required by wave to travel. But light from the Sun travels through vacuum and reaches
the Earth. To explain this, Huygens suggested the existence of a hypothetical medium called
luminiferous ether, which is present everywhere in vacuum and in all material objects.
Question.
What are the merits of Huygens’ wave theory of light?
Answer.
On the basis of wave theory, Huygens deduced the laws of reflection and refraction.
Wave Optics / Pg... 90
Prof. Ravi’s Physics Tuitions
According to Huygens’ wave theory of light, velocity of light in denser medium is less than in rarer
medium. This was confirmed in Foucault’s determination of speed of light in air and water.
The wave theory of light gives explanation of the phenomena like interference, diffraction,
simultaneous reflection and refraction, double refraction.
Question.
What are the drawbacks of the wave theory of light?
Answer.
To explain propagation of light through vacuum, Huygens suggested the existence of hypothetical
medium called luminiferous ether. But all attempts to detect the existence of ether have failed.
Wave theory of light could not explain rectilinear propagation of light.
Wave theory of light does not explain the phenomena like photoelectric effect, compton effect.

Question.
Explain the terms wavefront, wave normal and ray of light.
Answer.
A wavefront can be defined as the locus of all the points of the medium to which the waves reach
simultaneously so that all the points are in the same phase.
Wavefront carries light energy in a direction perpendicular to its surface.
A perpendicular drawn to the surface of the wavefront at any point in the direction of propagation of
light is called a wave normal.
The direction in which light travels is also called a ray of light. Thus a wave normal is the same as a
ray of light.
Question.
What are the different types of wavefront? How are they produced?
Answer.
Spherical Wavefront:
Consider a point source of light at a point S. Light is emitted by the source in all direction. Let c be the
velocity of light. Each wave will cover the distance c.t in the time t. Each wave will reach the surface
of a sphere of radius c.t. Such a spherical surface is called spherical wavefront. Every point of the
spherical wavefront is in the same phase.
Plane Wavefront:
As time passes wavefront will expand and at a large distance from the source the surface of the sphere
is so large that a small part of it can be considered to be a plane wavefront. Plane wavefront is also
produced when a point source of light is placed at the focus of a convex lens.
Cylindrical Wavefront:
When the source of light is linear like a slit it gives rise to a cylindrical wavefront.

Wave Optics / Pg... 91

Prof. Ravi’s Physics Tuitions

Question.
State Huygens’ Principle. Explain Huygens’ construction for i) a spherical wave front and ii) a plane
wave front.
Answer.
Huygens’ Principle:
Every point on a wave front acts as a secondary source of light, sending out secondary waves.
They are effective only in the forward sense.
The waves travel with the speed of light in the medium.
The envelope of all these secondary waves at any later instant, gives the new wave front at that
instant.
Huygens’ construction of a spherical wave front and a plane wave front.
i) A point source of light is situated in a homogenous medium. Waves emitted by the source will
reach simultaneously at points P, Q and R.
These points are on the spherical wave front as shown. Now every point on the surface of
spherical wavefront will act a secondary source and will emit secondary waves.
Now draw spheres with every point on the surface P, Q, and R as centre and the radius c.t.
Where c is the velocity of light in air.
Each sphere represents a secondary wavefront. The surface tangential to all these spheres
i.e. envelope P  , Q  , R  of all these spheres will represent the new wavefront after time t.
Since light is propagated only in the forward direction backward moving waves do not exist.

ii) As shown in the diagram, AB represents a plane wavefront moving from left to right.
Now draw spheres with every point on AB as centre and radius c.t.

Wave Optics / Pg... 92

Prof. Ravi’s Physics Tuitions
The surface tangential to all these spheres i.e. envelope A’B’ of all these spheres will represent the
new wavefront after time t.
Since light is propagated only in the forward direction backward moving waves do not exist.
Question.
On the basis of wave theory of light, prove the theory of reflection of light.
Answer.
Consider a plane wavefront AB, which is bounded by two rays PA and QB. The wavefront AB is
incident obliquely on a plane reflecting surface XY.
The wavefront first will come into contact with the point A of the reflecting surface XY and then
successively it will touch the points from A to C.
Now point A becomes a secondary source and it will emit secondary waves.
Suppose the incident wavefront moves from point B to point C in time t. Therefore distance BC = ct.
In time t secondary waves starting from point A will cover a distance ct. The radius of the secondary
wavefront is ct.
CD is the tangent to the spherical surface. When N
incident wavefront reaches at point C, the
secondary waves from A will reach point D.
Point C and point D are in same phase of
vibration. CD is now the reflected wavefront. It is
bounded by the rays AS and CR.
AN is normal to the surface XY. PAN = i is the
angle of incidence. DAN = r is the angle of
reflection.
Consider triangle BAC and triangle DCA
BC = AD = ct, AC is common.
 ABC = CDA = 90
Therefore triangle BAC and triangle DCA are congruent.
 BAC = DCA
Also from diagram
BAC = PAN and ACD = DAN
  PAN =  DAN
 i = r.
The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
From the diagram we find that the incident ray and the reflected ray lie on the opposite sides of the
normal at the point of incidence
Also the incident ray, reflected ray and the normal lie in same plane.

Wave Optics / Pg... 93

Prof. Ravi’s Physics Tuitions

Question.
On the basis of wave theory of light, prove the laws of refraction of light.
Answer.
XY is a plane surface, which separates air and a denser medium like glass or water. Consider a plane
wavefront AB, bounded by two rays PA and QB.
The wavefront AB is approaching obliquely the plane surface XY. First the wavefront comes in contact
with the point A of the surface and then successively it
will touch the points from A to C.
When the wave reaches at point A, the point becomes a
secondary source of light and begins to emit secondary
waves.
Let c1 and c2 be the velocities of light in air and the denser
medium respectively.
Now the incident wavefront moves from point B to point
C in time t. Therefore distance BC = c1t.
During this time, the secondary waves from A will cover a distance c2t in the denser medium. A
spherical wavefront of radius c2t is formed. CD is the tangent to the spherical wavefront.
When the incident wavefront reaches the point C, at the same instant secondary waves refracted from
point A reaches the point D. Point C and point D are in same phase.
CD represents the refracted wavefront in the denser medium. AS and CR represents the refracted rays.
MN is a normal to surface XY.
PAM = i is the angle of incidence.
DAN = r is the angle of refraction.
From the diagram,
BAC = i and ACD = r
From triangle BAC and triangle DCA
BC AD
sin i = and sin r =
AC AC
BC
sin i AC = BC
 =
sin r AD AD
AC
BC c1 t c1
But = =
AD c2 t c2

sin i c1
 =
sin r c2
sin i
 = n , where n is the refractive index of the material of the denser medium with respect to air.
sin r

c1
 n=
c2
Thus Snell’s law is proved.
As n  1, c1  c2 . Hence the velocity of light in air is greater than the velocity of light in any denser
medium.

Wave Optics / Pg... 94

Prof. Ravi’s Physics Tuitions
From the figure we find that the incident ray and the refracted ray lie on two sides of the normal.
Also the incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal lie in the same plane.
Question.
What do you mean by polarisation? What is polarisation of light?
Answer.
The restriction of vibration to a single plane is called polarisation.
Polarisation can be exhibited by transverse waves (e.g. light waves).
The phenomenon of restriction of the vibrations of light waves in a particular plane perpendicular to
the direction of wave motion is called polarization of light waves.
Question.
Explain unpolarised or ordinary ray of light with schematic diagram.
Answer.
In an ordinary or unpolarised light, the vibrations of electric field vector are symmetrically distributed
in all the directions but perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the light. Such a ray of light is
called a ray of ordinary or unpolarised light.
It is schematically represented as shown in Fig. The arrows represent
vibrations in the plane of the paper, while the dots represent vibrations
in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the paper.
Question.
Explain plane polarised light.
Answer.
Light waves are transverse electromagnetic
waves. An electromagnetic wave consists of
vibrating electric and magnetic vectors.
These vectors are always perpendicular to
each other and also perpendicular to the
direction of propagation. In the electromagnetic waves, the electric vector is considered as optical or
light vector.
The direction of propagation i.e. propagation vector and the electric vector form a plane.
When the vibrations of electric vectors are confined in one plane, the light is called plane polarised.
Question.
Explain the terms: plane of vibration and plain of polarisation.
Answer.
A plane polarised light can be obtained by allowing natural light to pass through a polaroid. A
polaroid possesses certain characteristic polarising direction. The polaroid transmits only those wave
trains whose electric vector vibrates parallel to the polarizing direction.

Wave Optics / Pg... 95

Prof. Ravi’s Physics Tuitions

A B

E H

F G

D C
The plane of vibration in which the electric vector vibrates is called the plane of vibration. In the fig.,
the plane ABCD in which the electric vector vibrates is the plane of vibration.
The plane perpendicular to the plane of vibration is called plane of polarisation. In the fig, the EFGH
plane is the plane of polarisation.

Question.
Explain the use of polariser and analyser to detect plane polarised light.
Answer.
The naked eye or the polariser alone cannot make distinction between the unpolarised light and the
plane polarised light. Another such crystal used to analyse the nature of light is called analyser.
The tourmaline crystal or Nicol prism used to produce plane polarised light is called polariser. If the
polariser is rotated in the path of the ordinary light, the intensity of the light transmitted from the
polariser remains unchanged. It is because, in each orientation of the polariser, the plane polarised
light is obtained, which has vibrations in a direction parallel to the axis of the crystal in that
orientation.
If the analyser is rotated in the path of the light transmitted from the polariser, so that the axes of the
polariser and the analyser are parallel to each other, then the intensity of light is found to remain
unaffected (or maximum) as shown in fig below.

On the other hand, the intensity of light becomes minimum, when the axis of the polariser and the
analyser are perpendicular to each other. In the positions shown in fig below, the polariser and the
analyser are said to be in crossed positions.

Question.
Explain angle of polarisation or polarising angle.

Wave Optics / Pg... 96

Prof. Ravi’s Physics Tuitions
Answer.
Malus found that an ordinary beam of light on reflection from a transparent medium becomes partially
polarised. The degree of polarisation increases as the angle of incidence is increased. At a particular
value of angle of incidence, the reflected beam becomes completely polarised. This angle of incidence
is called the polarising angle for that medium.
When ordinary light is incident on transparent refracting medium, the angle of incidence at which the
reflected light is completely plane polarised is called the angle of polarisation or polarising angle.
Note:
The vibration of the reflected plane polarised light are found to be perpendicular to the plane of
incidence i.e. perpendicular to the plane of incident ray, reflected ray and the normal to the point of
incidence.
The value of polarising angle varies with the wavelength of light and hence complete polarisation can
be obtained only with monochromatic light.
Question.
State and explain Brewster’s law.
Answer.
The tangent of the polarizing angle is equal to the refractive index of the refracting medium at which
partial reflection takes place.
Consider a ray of unpolarised (monochromatic) light incident in air at the polarising angle (ip) on the
plane surface PQ of a transparent medium of refractive index n as shown in the fig.
In the figure,
IA = Incident ray of unpolarised light.
AR = Partially reflected ray. It is completely plane polarised. iP
AT= Partially refracted ray.
N1 N2 = The normal at A.
ip = Polarising angle, r = Angle of refraction.
Brewster discovered that at the polarising angle (ip), the partially
reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each other.
  RAT = 90° and by the laws of reflection  IAN1 = N1AR = ip
Since,  N1AN2 = 180°
 ip + RAT + r= 180°
 ip +r = 180° –  RAT = 180° – 90°
 ip +r = 90°
 r = 90° – ip
sin i p sin i p sin i p
By Snell’s law, n = = =
sin r sin (90 − i p ) cos i p

 n = tan i p

This is Brewster’s law.

Wave Optics / Pg... 97

Prof. Ravi’s Physics Tuitions

Note:
From Brewster’s law, it follows that the polarising angle is wavelength dependent i.e. for different
colours the polarising angle is different. But in the case of most transparent media it is found that the
dispersion is too small to affect the polarising angle appreciably. However, Brewster’s law does not
hold good for polished metallic surface.

Question.
What are polaroids? How are they manufactured? State some uses of polaroids.
Answer.
Polaroids are devices based on the principle of selective absorption to produce plane polarised light.
They are usually in the form of a thin film prepared by using special technique.
When unpolarised light is passed through a transparent sheet impregnated with oriented dichroic
crystals of iodosulphate of quinine, the transmitted light is strongly plane polarised. In a polaroid,
these crystals are transfixed on thin sheets of cellulose by a special process in which the crystals are
aligned to give the material a strong dichroic property.
A polaroid which is obtained by stretching a sheet of polyvinyl alcohol and then impregnating it with
iodine is called H-polaroid. If the stretched film is heated with a dehydrating catalyst like HCI, it turns
slightly dark and strong dichroism is developed. This is called K-polaroid.
The polaroid has a characteristic transmission axis. When unpolarised light is incident on the polaroid,
it allows E vibrations parallel to the transmission axis to pass through. Symbolically the transmission
axis is shown by a line.

Two polaroids are held in front of each other so that their transmission axes are parallel. Now we turn
on polaroid about the direction of light as the axis. It is found that no light emerges from the polaroid
when the transmission axes of the two are crossed. Light passing through one polaroid is stopped by
the other polaroid which has its transmission plane perpendicular to that of the first. If light waves
were longitudinal, the orientation of transmission plane would not matter at all.
Uses of polaroid:
1) In motor car head lights to remove headlight glare.
2) In three dimensional moving picture.
3) To produce and analyse polarized light.
4) It is used as filter in photography.
5) In window of aeroplanes to control amount of light.
6) In polarizing sunglasses (goggles) to protect the eyes from glare of sunlight.
7) They are used to improve colour contrast in old oil paintings.
8) They are used in calculators, watches, monitors of laptops which have LCD screens.

Wave Optics / Pg... 98

Prof. Ravi’s Physics Tuitions
Question.
State the principle of superposition of waves.
Answer.
Principle of superposition of waves:
When two light waves, travelling through a medium, arrive at a point simultaneously, each wave
produces it’s own displacement at that point independently of the other. The resultant displacement at
that point is equal to the vector sum of the displacements due to the two waves.

Question.
Explain the concept of interference of two light waves.
Answer.
Phenomenon of enhancement or cancellation of displacement produced due to the superposition of
light waves is called interference.
The two light waves of same amplitude and of same frequency, travelling through the same medium
arrive at a point simultaneously.
When at a point the crest due to one wave coincides with the crest due to other wave or the trough due
to one wave coincides with the trough due to the other wave, i.e. when the waves arrive in phase, the
resultant displacement at the point is maximum. The point appears bright. This is called as
constructive interference.
When at a point the crest due to one wave coincides with the trough due to the other wave, i.e. when
the waves arrive out of phase, the resultant displacement at the point is minimum. The point appears
dark. This is called as destructive interference.

Question.
Explain the conditions for obtaining steady interference pattern?
Answer.
1. The two sources of light must be coherent.
When the phase difference between two sources is zero or constant, the two sources are called
coherent. This condition is necessary for obtaining steady interference pattern.
When two different sources of light, emitting waves of equal amplitude and wavelength are used,
the interference pattern obtained is not steady. Because the phases of the waves emitted by the
independent sources change at random and the two waves cannot maintain a constant phase
difference and hence the steady interference pattern cannot be obtained.
To obtain steady interference pattern, the two sources are derived from the same original source.
Two virtual images of a single source can act as coherent sources. In this case the phase difference
between the two sources always remains constant even though changes of phase take place
randomly in the parent source.
2. The two sources of light must be monochromatic.
The two sources of light must emit light waves of the same wavelength. This condition is
necessary for obtaining a sharp and well-defined interference pattern.
3. The two interfering waves must be in the same state of polarization.

Wave Optics / Pg... 99

Prof. Ravi’s Physics Tuitions

4. The two sources of light must emit light waves of equal amplitude (equally bright sources) and
hence of equal intensity.
If the amplitudes are not equal, then at the point of destructive interference, the resultant amplitude
will not be zero and the point will not be completely dark. The interference pattern will consist of
bright points and less bright points.
To get clear and distinct interference pattern, the two sources of light must emit light waves of
equal amplitude.
5. The two sources of light must be narrow.
A wide source is equivalent to a number of narrow sources. Each of these narrow sources, form its
own interference pattern. As a result of this, there is an overlapping of fringes and the interference
pattern is not sharp and clear.
6. The two sources should be close to each other.
This is necessary to get sufficient separation between the fringes.
7. The two interfering beams must be propagated in nearly the same direction.

Question.
How the coherent sources are produced?
Answer.
In Young’s double slit experiment, a monochromatic light illuminates slit. The light emerging from the
slit is allowed to pass through another parallel slits. These parallel slits act as coherent sources.
In biprism experiment narrow slit is illuminated by monochromatic light and it is placed parallel to the
refractive edge of the biprism. The biprism produces two virtual images of the slit by refraction. These
two virtual images act as two coherent sources of light.

Question.
State the condition for brightness and darkness at a point, in an interference pattern.
Answer.
Conditions for bright point.
When the two waves of light arrive at a point and if the point is bright, the resultant intensity at the
point is maximum.
The condition for brightness at a point is that the two waves of light should be in phase or the phase
difference between them should be 0, 2, 4, 6, ...
If  is a wavelength of light, then condition for brightness at a point is
Path difference = 0,  ,2 ,3 ,...
= n where n = 0,1,2,3,...
Conditions for dark point:
The conditions for darkness at a point is that the two waves of light should be out of phase or the
phase difference between them should be  ,3 ,5 ,...
If  is a wavelength of light then condition for darkness at a point is

Wave Optics / Pg... 100

Prof. Ravi’s Physics Tuitions

 3 5
Path difference = , , ,...
2 2 2

= (2n − 1) where n = 1,2,3,...
2

Question.
Derive formula of intensity at maxima and minima in an interference pattern.
Answer.
Let, the two waves originating from the two sources A and B as shown in diagram will be denoted by
y1 = a1 sin ωt
and y2 = a2 sin (ωt +  ), where  is the phase difference between the waves.
It can be shown that, the resultant displacement at P is
y = y1 + y2 = R sin (ωt +  )
where the resultant amplitude
R= a 12 + a 22 + 2a 1a 2 cos  and the phase angle θ = tan-1
 a 2 sin  
 
 a 1 + a 2 cos  
The resultant wave is also a harmonic wave of the same
frequency. Since the intensity of a wave is proportional to
the square of the amplitude, we have
IR α a12 + a 22 + 2a1a 2 cos 
For constructive interference
 = 0, 2π, 4π, …. or cos  = +1
 Imax α (a1 + a2)2
For destructive interference
 = π, 3π, 5π, …. or cos  = –1
I max (a 1 + a 2 ) 2  r + 1 
2

 Imin α (a1 – a2) or 2

= = 
I min (a 1 − a 2 ) 2  r − 1 
a1
where r = is called amplitude ratio.
a2

Note:
If I1 and I2 are the intensities of two interfering waves, then
IR = I1 + I2 + 2 I1I 2 cos 
If I1 = I2 = I, then
IR = I + I + 2 I.. I cos 
= 2I (1 + cos  )
 
OR IR = 4I cos2 [ (1 + cos  ) = 2 cos2 ]
2 2
i.e. Imax = 4I and Imin = 0

Wave Optics / Pg... 101

Prof. Ravi’s Physics Tuitions

Question.
Give the theory of interference of bands and hence obtain an expression for the bandwidth.
Answer.
Consider two coherent monochromatic linear sources of light,
A and B separated by a distance d. A screen is placed at a large
distance D from the source.
The screen is parallel to the plane of the slits. Interference
pattern is produced on the screen.
AM and BN are the perpendiculars to the screen drawn from
points A and B respectively.
The perpendicular bisector of AB meets the screen at point P.
The interference pattern on the screen consists of alternate dark and bright bands.
Let Q be a point on the screen at a distance x from the point P.
The path difference between the waves of light reaching the point Q is (BQ – AQ)
The condition for bright band at Q is
Path difference = (BQ – AQ) = nλ, where n = 0, 1, 2, ….
The condition for dark band at Q is
 1
Path difference = ( BQ − AQ) =  n −   , where n = 1,2,3,...
 2
Now from the diagram,
2
 d
BQ 2 = BN 2 + QN 2 = D 2 +  x + 
 2
2
 d
AQ = AM + QM = D +  x −
2 2 2 2

 2
2 2
 d  d
BQ − AQ = D +  x +  − D 2 −  x − 
2 2 2

 2  2
 ( BQ + AQ)( BQ − AQ) = 2xd
2xd
 BQ − AQ =
BQ + AQ
Distances x and d are very small compared to the distance D.
 BQ + AQ = 2 D

2 xd xd
 Path difference BQ − AQ = =
2D D
The point Q will be bright if,
xd
= n , where n = 0,1,2,3,...
D
The point Q will be dark if,
xd  1
=  n −   , where n = 1,2,3,...
D  2
There is bright band at P since BP − AP = 0
Expression for bandwidth or fringe width.

Wave Optics / Pg... 102

Prof. Ravi’s Physics Tuitions
The distance between two consecutive bright bands or dark bands in an interference pattern is called
the bandwidth or the fringe width.
Let xn be the distance of the nth bright band from the point P and let xn+1 be the distance of the (n+1)th
bright band from the point P. Let X be the band width or the fringe width.
X = xn +1 − xn
xn d
For the nth bright band, = n
D
x d
For the (n+1)th bright band, n+1 = (n + 1)
D
x n +1d x n d
− = (n + 1) − n
D D
d
 ( x n +1 − x n ) = 
D
D
 x n +1 − x n =
d
D
 X=
d
Let xm be the distance of the mth dark band from the point P and let xm+1 be the distance of the (m+1)th
dark band from the point P. Let X be the band width or the fringe width.
X = xm+1 − xm
xm d  1
For the mth dark band, = m − 
D  2
For the (m+1)th dark band,
xm+1d  1
= m + 1−  
D  2
xm+1d xmd  1  1
 − = m + 1−   − m −  
D D  2  2
d
 ( xm+1 − xm ) =
D
D
 x m +1 − x m =
d
D
 X=
d

Question.
Describe Young’s double slit experiment.
Answer.
The first experiment to demonstrate interference of light was performed by sir Thomas Young.
As shown in the diagram, pinhole S is illuminated by sunlight. The light emerging from S is allowed
to fall on two more pinholes S1 and S2, which are very close to each other.

Wave Optics / Pg... 103

Prof. Ravi’s Physics Tuitions

Pinholes S1 and S2 act as two coherent sources and they give

rise to secondary spherical wave fronts.
It was observed that since the sunlight is polychromatic, the
interference bands are coloured and indistinct and very few
bands are formed.
To obtain well-defined alternate dark and bright bands,
sunlight is replaced by a monochromatic source of light and the
pinholes are replaced by narrow slits parallel to each other.
These bands are called interference bands or fringes.
Young’s experiment is important for the following reasons. i) It
was the first experiment to demonstrate interference of light.
ii) It proved that light is propagated in the form of waves. Since
corpuscular theory could not explain the destructive
interference, only wave theory could provide a satisfactory
explanation of the phenomenon of interference. iii) We can determine the wavelength of
monochromatic light.

Question.
Describe the biprism experiment for determining the wavelength of monochromatic light.
Answer.
As shown in the diagram, in the biprism experiment
two coherent sources of light are obtained with the
help of biprism. The refracting angle of biprism is
very large, it is almost 180
A narrow slit S is illuminated by a monochromatic
source of light and it is placed parallel to the
refracting edge of the biprism. The slit and the
refracting edge of the biprism are perpendicular to the
plane of the figure.
S1 and S2 are the two virtual images of the slit. These two virtual images act as two coherent sources
of light.
The shaded portion shows the region where interference occurs. We can see the interference fringes
through the micrometer eyepiece.
Description of the apparatus.
In the biprism experiment the slit, the biprism and the
micrometer eyepiece are kept on adjustable stands.
These stands are mounted on an optical bench.
The optical bench is about 1.5 meters long.
The scale is attached to the optical bench.
One more stand is mounted on the optical bench to
carry convex lens.
The slit and the biprism can be rotated about the horizontal axis.
Adjustments
Initially the slit, the biprism and the eyepiece are kept at the same height.
Wave Optics / Pg... 104
Prof. Ravi’s Physics Tuitions
The slit is made narrow and it is illuminated by monochromatic light.
The slit and the biprism are kept close together.
The slit is kept vertical. By slowly rotating biprism about the horizontal axis, the refracting edge of the
biprism is aligned parallel to the slit.
A sharp and clear interference pattern is obtained. The interference pattern consists of alternate dark
and bright bands.

Measurements
The wavelength of monochromatic light is given by the formula,
Xd
=
D
Where X is the fringe width, d is the distance between the two sources. D is the distance between the
sources and the screen or eyepiece.
The two virtual sources are in the plane of the slit. Therefore D is the distance between the slit and the
eyepiece. It is directly measured on the bench scale.
To measure bandwidth X, micrometer eyepiece is used. Initially vertical cross wire of the eyepiece is
adjusted on bright band. The reading of the micrometer is taken. Now vertical cross wire is shifted to
the next bright band and the reading is taken. And so on readings are taken for the successive bright
bands. Let these readings be x1, x2, x3, ... The average value of (x2 – x1), (x3 – x2) and so on gives the
value of X.
The two sources are virtual; therefore the distance d between them cannot be directly measured. A
convex lens is mounted between the eyepiece and the biprism. The distance between eyepiece and the
slit is kept more than four times the focal length of the lens.
Now the lens is moved towards the eyepiece till the two diminished images of the slit are clearly seen
through the eyepiece. With the help of cross wire and micrometer screw distance d1 is measured. Now
the lens is moved towards the biprism till the two magnified images of the slit are clearly seen through
the eyepiece. Distance d2 between two magnified images is measured with the help of cross wire and
micrometer screw.
size of image distance of image
By property of conjugate foci we get, =
size of object distance of object
d1 y d2 x d1d 2 y x
 = and =  2
=  = 1  d1d 2 = d 2  d = d1d 2
d x d y d x y
X d1 d 2
From the above formula we get  =
D

Wave Optics / Pg... 105

Prof. Ravi’s Physics Tuitions

B1

A1

B1

A1

Question.
What is diffraction?
Answer.

(1) (2)
Light travels in a straight line. As a result, light casts the shadow of the object coming in its path.
When a narrow slit AB is placed in the path of the light, only the part A’B’ of the screen should get
illuminated and no light should enter the regions A’X and B’Y of the screen as shown in the figure 1.
On the other hand, when an obstacle AB is placed, then its distinct geometrical shadow A'B' should be
obtained on the screen as shown in the figure 2.
It happens so only when the size of the slit or the obstacle is large. However, if the size of the slit or
the obstacle is made small, then light enters in the geometrically prohibited regions, showing thereby
that the light bends round the comers of the slit or the obstacle.
The phenomenon of bending of light round the sharp corners and spreading into the regions of the
geometrical shadow is called diffraction.
Note:
The light waves are diffracted only when the size of the obstacle is comparable to the wavelength of
the light. In principle, all the types of wave motion exhibit diffraction effect. The diffraction of radio
waves and sound waves is readily observed in the daily life.

Wave Optics / Pg... 106

Prof. Ravi’s Physics Tuitions
Question.
What are Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction?
Answer.
Diffraction phenomena are broadly classified into two types:
1) Fresnel diffraction
2) Fraunhofer diffraction.
Fresnel diffraction: In Fresnel diffraction, the source and the screen are at finite distances from the
obstacle.
The incident wave front is not a plane wave front but spherical or cylindrical depending upon the
source. In Fresnel diffraction, no lens system is involved.
Fraunhofer diffraction: The diffraction phenomenon in which the source and the screen are effectively
at infinite distances from the obstacle is called Fraunhofer diffraction.
The incident wavefront is a plane wavefront. A convex lens is kept between the aperture (obstacle)
and the screen so that the diffraction pattern is obtained in the focal plane of the convex lens.

Question.
Explain the formation of bright and dark fringes of Fraunhofer diffraction pattern at a single slit and
find the condition for secondary minima and maxima.
Answer.
When a beam of light passes through a narrow slit, it spreads out to a certain extent in the region of
geometrical shadow due to diffraction.

Consider a narrow slit with rectangular aperture of large length compared to its breadth AB = a as
shown in the figure 1. The slit is set with its longer dimensions perpendicular to the plane of paper and
illuminated by parallel monochromatic light of wavelength λ from a narrow slit source kept at the
principal focus of the lens L. The light is focused by another lens L1 on a screen placed at its focal
plane and forms a diffraction pattern. Most of the incident light proceeds straight through the aperture
and when received by the lens L1 converges to a point P at its principal focus as shown in the figure.
The optical path difference between all the wavelets travelling straight and arriving at the point P is
zero and hence the point P is always bright.
If the aperture is small, a portion of the light is bent in passing through the
aperture and is diffracted in all directions. Let us consider the rays
diffracted in a direction inclined at an angle θ with the normal to the slit.
They are brought to a focus at a point R as shown in the figure 2.
Suppose the optical path difference between the wavelets from A and B on
reaching R is λ. If C is the mid-point of AB, then the optical path difference
between the wavelets from A and C reaching R is λ/2. Similarly the optical
path difference of the wavelets arriving at R from C and B is also λ/2.
Hence the rays arriving at R from parts AC and CB of a plane wavefront
Wave Optics / Pg... 107
Prof. Ravi’s Physics Tuitions

falling on the slit AB arrive at R out of phase. The point R is, therefore, a point of minimum intensity
and the optical path difference (BR – AR) = λ.
From figure 3, if AK is normal to the diffracted beam, then the optical path difference is BK = AB sin
θ1 = a sin θ1. Hence the condition for intensity to be minimum at R is a sin θ1 = λ.
In general the condition for the mth secondary minima is,
 a sin  m = m , where m = 1 , 2 , 3
The minima will be symmetrically situated about the central maximum Po.
If R1 is another point on the screen such that (BR1 – AR1) = 3λ/2 then the
slit can be divided into three equal parts as shown in the figure 4. The
optical path difference between the wavelets reaching R1 from the
corresponding points of the first and second parts is λ/2. This results in a
destructive interference at R and the illumination at R1 is only due to the
3rd part of the slit. Hence there is certain intensity at R1 which will be
much less than that at P, since the net effect is only due to 1/3rd of the
exposed part of the wavefront (obliquity of R1 with respect to the
wavefront also contributes to the decrease in intensity at R1).
Hence the condition for R1 to be bright is a sin θ2 = 3λ/2.
The condition for secondary maxima will be
 1
a sin  m =  m +  where, m = 1 , 2 , 3
 2

Intensity distribution on the screen is shown in the figure 5. P is the central maximum. R.R 1, R2, R3,
…….etc. and R1’, R2’, R3’, ......etc. are the minima. P1, P2, P3, …….etc. and P1’, P2’, P3’, ......etc. are
the maxima.
Note:
Width of central maximum:
If the lens L is very near the slit screen is far away from the lens L, then focal length (f) of the lens is
approximately equal to the distance (D) of the slit from the screen.
If θ is small, then
x x
sin  =  = = Where x is the distance of the first secondary minimum from P0,
f D
For first secondary minima
x
sin  = ..............(II)

From equation (I) and (II)
x 
=
D a

Wave Optics / Pg... 108

Prof. Ravi’s Physics Tuitions
D
x = ..............(III)
a
The width of central maxima = 2x which is given as
2D 2f
w= = ...............(IV)
a a
 2
The angular half width of the central maximum is given by  = and Angular width 2 = if θ is
a a
small.

Question.
Explain resolving power of an optical instrument.
Answer.
When two objects are very close to each other; they appear as one. Such objects when watched
through a microscope or telescope appear distinct and we say the images are resolved.
The ability of an optical instrument to form distinct images of two objects close to each other is called
resolving power.
Note:
An objective of a telescope or microscope acts like a circular aperture and produces a
diffraction pattern. For a point object, the diffraction pattern is a bright disc
surrounded by alternate bright and dark rings of decreasing intensities as shown in
fig. Such pattern is called Airy's disc.

Question.
What is Rayleigh’s criteria?
Answer.
The images of two point objects close to each other are regarded as resolved (separate) if the central
maximum of one falls on the first minimum of the other. This is called Rayleigh's criterion for
resolution.
Consider the intensity distribution in the diffraction pattern produced by the two objects.

Let α be the angular separation of the two objects O1 (A) α < θ : Unresolved
and O2 at the optical system and θ be the angular
separation between the central maximum and first
minimum in the diffraction pattern due to each source.
Depending upon the value of α, the three cases of
resolution are as follows:
(i) α < θ : The central maximum due to one source is
within the first minimum due to other source. The two (B) α = θ : Just Resolved

Wave Optics / Pg... 109

Prof. Ravi’s Physics Tuitions

central maxima show considerable overlapping and the resultant diffraction

pattern resembles that of a single source as shown in
fig (A). Hence the objects are not resolved.
(ii) α = θ : The central maximum due to one source
coincides exactly with the first minimum of the other.
The resultant pattern shows two peaks with a distinct
dip at a point half-way between the two principal (C) α > θ : Separate
maxima. The images are said to be just resolved
shown in fig (B).
(iii) α > θ : The central maximum of one source is beyond the first minimum of the other. The
resultant pattern clearly indicates the two separate principal maxima. The objects O1 and O2 are seen
to be completely resolved shown in fig (C).
Note:
For a normal human eye, the limit of resolution is 0.1 mm when the objects are at distance of distinct
vision.

Question.
Explain resolving power of microscope. On what factors does it depend?
Answer.
The resolving power of a microscope is determined by the reciprocal of the least distance of
separation between two point objects.
For this least distance, it is assumed that the images will be seen as separate points. This minimum
distance of separation between two point objects is called limit of resolution.

In the fig. P' and Q' be the images of two point objects P and Q formed by a microscope. Since the
images of objects are obtained after light passes through a circular aperture, the actual images will be
two diffraction discs with centers at P' and Q'. If P' and Q' are just resolved, then according to
Rayleigh's criterion, the central maximum of P' must fall on the first minimum of Q'.
If dx be the least distance of separation of two point objects,

dx =
2n sin 
where λ is the wavelength of illuminating monochromatic light falling on the point objects and n is the
refractive index of the medium between the object and the objective of the microscope. θ is the semi-
vertical angle of the cone of light rays formed by the marginal rays from the object entering the
microscope objective. The expression n sin  is called the numerical aperture.
 The resolving power of the microscope is,
1 2n sin 
R.P. = =
dx 

Wave Optics / Pg... 110

Prof. Ravi’s Physics Tuitions
The above formula is applicable when points are illuminated with light. If the points are self luminous
then,
2n sin 
R.P. =
1.22
R.P. of a microscope therefore increases if refractive index of the medium between the object and the
objective of the microscope is increased.

Question.
Explain resolving power of telescope. On what factors does it depend?
Answer.
Resolving power of a telescope is the reciprocal of the smallest angular separation between two
distant point objects at which their images will be just resolved.
When the telescope is focused on a distant star, the image formed in the focal plane of the objective is
a small central bright disc surrounded by a number of faint alternate dark and bright rings. This is due
to the diffraction effect produced at the circular edge of the object glass.

In the above fig pp and qq represent light rays coming from two distant stars S1 and S2 close to each
other. The images formed lie close to each other and each image is surrounded by diffraction rings.
According to Rayleigh's criterion the two images are just resolved if the central maximum of one falls
on the first minimum of the other. Let D = AB be the diameter of the objective (circular aperture).
The path difference between AP and BQ is zero and hence P is the position of central maxima of the
image of first object. The path difference between the secondary waves travelling in the direction BQ
and AP is equal to BC.
From Δ ABE
BC = AB sin dθ
= D.dθ
If this path path difference D.dθ = λ, the position of Q corresponds to the first minimum of the first
image. But Q is also the position of central maximum of the second image. Thus Rayleigh’s condition
for just resolution is satisfied, if

D.dθ = λ or d =
D
This equation holds good for rectangular aperture.
According to Airy, the equation for circular aperture is:
1.22
d =
D
This gives the limiting angle of resolution in the case of a telescope. The RP. of telescope is inversely
proportional to the limiting angle of resolution. Hence

Wave Optics / Pg... 111

Prof. Ravi’s Physics Tuitions

1 D
R.P. = =
d 1.22
The R.P. of telescope increases directly with increase of diameter of the object.
Note:
A large diameter objective would also collect more light and this would make fainter stars and nebulae
visible. This is the reason why astronomical telescopes have objective lenses of large aperture.

Question.
State differences between the diffraction and interference.
Answer.

Interference Diffraction
1. Interference is the result of superposition of Diffraction is the result of limited portion of the
different wave. light wave of the same wavefront.
2. Interference fringes are of the same width. Diffraction fringes are not of the same width.
3. All bright bands are of equal intensity. The intensity of the central maximum is the
highest and the secondary maxima are of
decreasing intensity.
4. The regions of minimum intensities are dark. The regions of minimum intensities are not
perfectly dark.

  ➢

Wave Optics / Pg... 112