Cl

assXI
I-Phy
sics WaceOpt
ics
Chapt
er10 “
Thelocusofal lt
hepointsofamedium osci
ll
ati
nginthesamephase
Wav
eopt
ics: atagiveninst
antoft imeiscall
edwav ef
ront
”.Thuswav ef
ronti
sdefi
nedas
sur
faceofconstantphase.
Wav ef ront( pl
ane, spher icalandcy l
indri
cal)–Huy genspr i
nciple.Refractionofpl anewav eatapl ane
surface( r
arert odenser ):DerivationofSnel l’
slaw-Ref lecti
onofapl anewav ebyapl anesur f
ace: “
Theener gyoft hewav etrav
elsinadirect
ionperpendi
cul
artothe
Derivat i
onoft hel awofr efl
ection.Expl anati
onofr ef
ractionofpl anewav et hroughat hinpr i
sm and
wavefr
ontandthisdirect
ioni
scal l
edaray”
.
conv exl ens-Ref lect ionofpl anewav ebyaconcav emirrorthroughdi agrams.
Coher entsour ces-Theor yofi nterfer
ence( withequalampl it
ude– ar riv
ingatt hecondi ti
onsf or
const ructiveanddest ructiveinterference)– Young’sexper i
ment :Br i
efdescr i
pti
on-Der ivat
ionof
fri
ngewi dth.
Diffraction:Expl anat ion oft hephenomenon -Di ff
raction duet o a singlesl i
t–Ment ion oft he
condi t
ionsf ordi ffract i
onmi nimaandmaxi ma- I
ntensitydistribut
ioncur ve-Resol vingpowerof
opticali nstrument s:Ment i
on ofexpr essions forli
mi tofr esolut
ion of( a)mi croscope and ( b)
tel
escope-Met hodsofi ncreasingr esolvi
ngpowerofmi croscopeandt elescope.
Polarisat i
on:Expl anat ionoft hephenomenon- Pl
anepolar i
sedl i
ght-Pol aroidandi tsuses-Passaxi s
I
NTRODUCTI
-Mal us’
ON:
sl aw-Pol ar isationbyr ef l
ection:Brewster’
sangl e–Ar ri
vingatBr ewst er’
slaw-St atementof

1. Newt on’ scor puscul art heor y: Theshapeoft hewav efr

ontdependsupont heshapeoft hesour ceofl i
ght .
Accor di ngt ot hi stheor y,l i
ghtemi ttedf rom t hesour ceconsi stsofast r
eam ofv erymi nute (i)When t hesour ceofl i
ghti sa poi ntsour ce( S)ofl i
ght ,wav efronti s
par t
iclescal ledcor puscl es.
Thi stheor ycoul dexpl aint her ectil
inearpr opagat ionofl ightandr efracti
onofl i
ght .
sphericalasshowni nf i
gure( i)
.I tisbecausel ocusofal lsuch
Thi stheor yf ailst oex plainr ef ractionofl i
ght .Accor dingt othist heory,thev el
oci tyofl ightin points whi ch ar e equidistantf rom t he pointsour ce i sa
adensermedi um i sgr eat ert hani nr arermedi um.Butex per imentswer econduct edby sphere.
Foucaul tandMi chel sonshowedt hat ,thev eloci tyofl i
ghti ndensermedi um i sl esst hani n
rarermedi um. (
ii
) I
nc aseofnar row li
nearsour cet hewav efrontiscy l
indrical.
2. Huy gen’ swav et heor y: (fi
g.ii
)
Accor di ngt ot hist heor yev er ypoi ntofal umi nousbodyi sasour ceofdi sturbance.Hencet he
li
ghtt r av elsi nt hef orm ofmechani calwav e.Thepr opagat ionofmechani calwav emust
(
ii
i)Parall
el beam gi verisetoapl anewav efront.(fi
g.iii
)
require mat erialmedi um.So,Huy gens assumed t hatt he whol e space i sf i
ll
ed wi h  No
t t
e:* Di ver
ging and conv erging bean giver ise to spher i
calorcy li
ndrical
hypot het ical medi um cal l
ed‘ et her’ thr oughwhi chl ightpr opagat esaswav e. wavefronts.{fi
g.(i
)and( i
i)
}.
Ev ent hought heet hermedi um coul dnotbedet ect edbyanyex per iment,thei nterferenceand
diffr
act ion exper i
mentconf i
r med t he wav e nat ure ofl i
ght.Thus i nt he mi ddle oft he *
As ma l
lpo r
tiono fan ywavefrontisconsi deredplaneatal argedi st
ance.( f
ig.ii
i)
.
nineteent hcent ur y,thewav et heor yseemedt obev erywel lestabl i
shed. Huy genspr inci pleofconst ruct ionofwav ef ront :
Theonl ymaj ordi fficultywast hatsi ncei twast houghtt hatal ightwav er equi r
edamedi um
fori t
spr opagat ion,how coul dl i
ghtwav espr opagat et hroughv acuum.Thi swasex plained Accor di ngtoHuy gen’spr inciple,
whenMaxwel lputf or war dhi sf amousel ect romagnet i
ct heoryofl i
ght. 1.Everypoi ntont hepr imarywav ef rontact sasacent r
eofnewdi sturbance
3. Maxwel l’
sel ect romagnet i
ct heor y:
and emi t
si tsownsetofspher icalwav escal led secondar ywav el
et s.
 Maxwel lobt ainedt hewav eequat ionbyusi ngl awsofel ectr
icityandmagnet i
sm.Fr om t hi
s
equat i
on he pr edict ed t he exi stence ofel ect romagnet i
c wav es.Usi ng t hese equat i
ons, Thesesecondar ywav el
et sspr eadouti nal ldi rectionswi tht hesame
Maxwel lcoul dabl et ocal cul atet hespeedofel ectromagnet icwav esinf reespaceandhe speedast hatoft heor i
ginalwav e.
foundt hatt het heor eticalv aluewasv erycl oset ot hemeasur edv alueofspeedofl ight.From
this,hesuggest edt hatl ightmustbeanel ect romagnet i
cwav e.Thus,accor dingt oMax well,2.Thenew wav efrontatanyl atert imei sobt ainedbyt akingt het angent ial
li
ghtwav es ar e associ ated wi th changi ng el ectri
c and magnet i
cf ields r esul tint he surfacei nt hefor warddirectiont oal lthespher esofsecondar ywav elets.
propagat ionofel ect romagnet icwav es( orl i
ghtwav es)ev eninv acuum.
Letusconsiderapoints1,2,
3,.....
etconpr i
marywavefront‘
AB’.From
t
hesepointsthespheresofr adi
us‘ Ct’aredrawn,where‘C’isthespeedof
HUYGENSPRI
NCI
PLE: l
i
ght.Thesespheri
calsurf
acesr epresentsthesecondarywaveletsaft
ert i
me
Wav
efr
ontandTy
pesofwav
efr
ont
: ‘
t’
.Thesur f
aces‘A1B1’t
ouchi ngtangential
lyallthesecondarywav elet
si n
f
orwarddir
ecti
onisthepositi
onoft henewwav efr
ont.I
tisshowni nfig.(
i)
.In
1
 Cl
assXI
I-Phy
sics WaceOpt
ics
si
milarmanner
,fi
g.(
ii
)showsHuy
gen’
sconst
ruct
ionf
oranout
goi
ngpl
ane ∴BC=v 1
t
wave. I
nti
me‘
t’
,thesecondar
ywavel
etf
rom poi
nt‘
A’wi
l
ltr
aveladi
st vt
ance‘ ’i
n 2
densermedi
um wi
th‘
A’ascent
reand‘
v2
t’
asr
adi
us.Thear
c‘E’
isdr
awn.
∴AE=v
2
t

AsurfaceA2B2ist hesecondarywaveletsi
nbackwar ddi
rect
ion.Butno
backwardwav ef
rontexists.Thi
sisbecause,thebackport
ionofthesecondary
wavelet
saddsupt oz ero.Itcanbeshowni nmat hemati
call
y.Accordingto
Fr
om point‘C’aplanetangent‘CE’isdr
awnt othesecondar
ywav
elet
Huygens,onlytheforwardwav ef
rontshouldbeconsi ed,si
der ncethereisno
‘
E’.
backwardfl
owofener gydur ingthepropagati
onofthewav e.I
tisshowni nfi
g
Then,
‘CE’istheref
ractedwavefront,
(i
)andfig(
ii
)
I
nfigure, Angl
eofincidence,i=∠BAC and
Angl
eofrefracti
on,r=∠ACE
BC v t
si
ni= = 1
AC AC
And
AE v t
sinr= = 2
AC AC

ni v
si -
--
--
-(1)
∴ =1
 Huygenspr
inci
plecanbeusedt
oexpl
aint
hephenomenaofr
efl
ect
ion si
nr v
2

andr
efr
act
ionofl
ightont
hebasi
sofwav
etheor
yofl
i
ght
. Intheabov eequat i
on,ifr<i(i
.e.ther aybendstowar dsthenor mal)
Ref ract i
onofpl anewav esusi ngHuy genspr inciple: thespeedoflight(v2)i
ndensermedi um islesst hant
hatinrarermedium (v1)
.
1
Consideraplanesur f
acePP t hatsepar
atesar ar
ermedi um 1fom Thi
r sresul
tisopposi t
et otheassumpt ionmadebyCor pusculart
heory.Lat
er
densermedi um 2asshowni nf i
gure. experi
mentspr ovedthatwav etheoryiscorrect.
Letv1a ndv
2b ethev elocit
iesoflighti
nr areranddensermedi um c c
If‘
c’i
sthespeedofl i
ghtinvacuum, t
hen,n1= and n2=
respectiv
ely
. v1
v
2

Supposeapl anewavef
rontABi ncidentatanangl e‘i’
.AccordingHuygens n c v
∴ 2
= .1
princi
plethesecondarywav el
etgener atedf
rom t
hepr imarywav efr
ont‘
AB’
,at n1
v2
c n2 v
1 =1
thepointsAandBandst r
ikesthesur facePP at‘
C’ i
n‘t’seconds. ⇒ n v
1 2 -
--
--
-(2)
2
 Cl
assXI
I-Phy
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ics
Fr
om equat
ions(
1)and(
2) I
nor dert oconstr
uctar efl
ectedwav efr
ont,l
etusdrawaspher eofradiusAE=
vtfr
om t hepoint‘A’
.Now‘ E’act sasasecondar ywavelet
.Apl anewav efr
ont
n2 si ni This pr ov es Snell’
s law of ‘
CE’isdr awnf r
om point‘C’to‘ E’
.ThenCEr epresentst
herefl
ectedwav efr
ont.
= =n21
ref
racti
on. n1
si
n r ∴AE=BC=v t
I
nf i
gure, l
ettheangl
eofr eflect i
on,r=∠AEC
Effectofref r
acti
ononf r
equency( ‫)ץ‬: I
nr ightangledtr
iangleABCandAEC, ACiscommon
Itcanbeshownt hat, A E= BC=V t
n2 v λ1 ∠AEC=∠ABC=900
1
n21= = = ∴Thet wot r
iangl
esarecongruent.
n1 v2
λ2
∴∠BAC=∠ACE
Hencet hewav elengthinamedi um isdirect
lypr oport
ionaltothewave
i.
e.
speedinitandinverselyproport
ionaltot
herefracti
veindexoft hemedium. i=r
 Whenwav erefractstodensermedi um,thewav el
ength( λ)andspeed(v
)
Therefore,theangleofi ncidencei sequaltot heangleofr ef
lect
ion.This
decreasebutfrequencyr emainsthesame.
provest helawofreflecti
on.
 Ref ractionofapl anewav einci
dentonar arermedi um:
Behav
iourofpr
ism,
LensandSpher
icalmi
rr
ort
owar
dsPl
ane
wavef
ront:
(
1) Pr
ism: When a pl
ane wav
eis
i
nci dent on a pr i
sm,t he emer gent
war fr
onti sal soapl anewav efront.(fi
g1)
Si ncet hespeedofl ightIlessi n
glass,thel owerpor ti
onoft hewav efront
hast ot rav ell
ongerpat hi nt heglasswi l
l
getdel ay ed r esul
ting i nat i
lti nt he
:Re fl
ectionofapl anewav esusingHuy gensprincipl
e: emer gentwav efrontasshowni nf i
gur e
Considerapl anewav efr
ont‘AB’i
nci
dentatanangl
e‘i’onr
efl
ect
ing (1).
surf
aceMN.
According t o Huy gens (2)Lens:Whenapl anewav efr
onti s
pri
ncipl
e ev er y point on t he i
nci dentonaconv exl ens, t
heemer gent
wavefront ‘ AB’is a sour ce of wav efront i s conv erging spher ical
secondary wav el
ets. Let t he wav efront .(fi
g2) .
secondary wav el
et f rom ‘ B’ Int hi
scasedi f
ferentpor ti
onsof
tr
aveli
ngwithspeed‘ v’st
rikesat‘
C’ i
nci dent wav efront hav e t o t ravel
i
n‘ t
’seconds,thendistance BCi s, through,di ff
erentt hicknessoft hel ens
BC=v t beforeemer gingout .Themi ddlepor ti
on

3
 Cl
assXI
I-Phy
sics WaceOpt
ics
oft he wav efr
onti s delayed most .Ther efor
e,emer ging wav efronthas Wher e‘ ϕ’isthephasedi fferencebet weent hewav es.
depressi onatt hecent reandt hewav efr
ontbecomesspher i
calandconv erges Ther esul tantdi splacement s‘y
’canbef oundbyusi ngthepr i
nci
pleof
tothepoi nt‘F’
,whi chi sknownast hef ocus. superpositi
on.
(3)Concav emi rror :Whenapl anewav efr
ontinci dentonaconcav emi r
ror, y=y 1
+y 2
ther eflectedwav ef rontisconv ergingspher icalwav efr
ont.(fi
g.ii
i). y={ asinωt+asi n( ωt+ϕ) }=a{sinωt+si n(ωt+ϕ) }
Inthiscase, centrepor ti
onoft he ⇒ y=a{ sinωt+si nωt cosϕ+ cosωt sinϕ}
wav ef ront has t ot ravell onger pat h [
∵si n(A+B)=si nAcosB+cosAsi nB]
befor eget ti
ngr ef l
ect ed.Ther efor e,t he ∴ y =a sinωt (1+c osϕ )+ac osωtsinϕ
emer ging wav ef r
ont i s conv er gi ng Put,a( 1+cosϕ)=Rcosθ- --
--
--(1)
spher icalwav efr
ont .Inasi mil
armanner , and asinϕ=Rsi nθ- -
--
---(2)
we can under stand r efraction and ∴ y=Rsi nωtcosθ+Rcosωt si
nθ
refl
ect ionbyconcav elensesandConv ex ⇒ y =R ( si
nωt +θ )
mi r
ror s. Thisshowst hat,ther esultantwav eisalsoasi mpleharmonicwav eof
Theabov edi scussionexpl ainswhy amplitude‘R’ andphasedi ff
erence‘ θ’withthefir
stwav e.
apar allelbeam ofl i
ghtonr efr
actiont hroughaconv exl ensandar eflectionfrom a Squar i
ngandaddi ngequat i
ons( 1)and( 2),weget ,
concav emi rr
orgetsconv erged. 2 2
R cos θ+R si 2
n θ=a (
2 2
1+cosϕ)+a2si
2
n2 ϕ
INTERFERENCEOFLI GHT: ⇒ 2
R( 2
cos θ+si 2
n θ)=a( 2
1+cos ϕ+2cosϕ)+a2si
2
n2 ϕ
Theli
ghtemi t
tedbyasi nglesour cespr eadsoutuniforml
yinalldi
rections.Butwhen ⇒ R2=a2(1+cos2 ϕ +si n2 ϕ +2cosϕ)
twoadj acentsour
cesofl i
ghtemitti
ngwav esofsamef r
equencyandwav eshav ingzeroor ⇒ R2=a2(2+2cosϕ)=2a2(1+cosϕ)
constantphasedif
ference,li
ghtenergyisnotuni f
orm.Atcertainpoi
nts,t
heintensityofl
ighti
s
But, I ntensi y∝R2
t
maxi
mum whi
leatcert
ainpoint
s,thei
ntensi
tyofli
ghti
smini
mum duetothesuper
posi
ti
onof
t
hesetwowav
es.Thus,l
ightener
gyisredi
str
ibut
edduetoaphenomenoni
scall
edint
erf
erence ∴ I=R2=2a2(1+cosϕ)
ofl
i .
ght
Inter
ferencei st hephenomenoni nwhi chredistr
ibut
ionofl i
ghtener gy Thisist heexpr essionf orther esul
tantint
ensi
tyatapoi ntduet o
takespl aceinamedi um duet osuperpositionoftwoormor elightwav es. superpositi
onoft wowav es.
When i nterference occur si nt he case ofmonochr omat i
cl i
ght,Case1:Condi ti
onf orconst r
uct iv
einter
ference:
consi st
s ofal ternate br ightand dar k bands ofequalwi dth are call
ed Theresultantintensi t
yi sgivenby,
i
nt er
f er
encef ri
nges.Buti ncaseofwhi telightcolouredbandsar eobser ved. I=2a2
(1+cosϕ)
Thecol ourpat t
ernsobser vedonasoapbubbl eandonat hi
nf i
lm ofoilspr
ead I
fconst r
uct iv
ei nt erferenceoccur satanypoi nt,then,t
her esult
ant
outonwetr oadsar eduet oi nt
erf
erenceofl i
ght. amplitudeandhencet hei ntensi t
yatthatpointismaximum.
Theor yofi nter ference: Iti
sclearf r
om theabov eequat ionthat,
the‘I’
ismaximum, whencosϕ=+1
⇒ ϕ=0, 2π, 4π….
Considersuper positi
onoft wol i
ghtwav esinamedi um havingsame
Or , ϕ=n( 2π) wher en=1,2,3,
---------aninteger
.
frequency( orwav elength)and sameampl it
ude‘ a’
.Lety 1 and y2 bet he
Thus,ther esultanti ntensi
tyismaxi mum and henceconst ructi
ve
displacement softhepar t
iclesinamedi um duet othesewav es.
i
nterf
er encetakespl ace,whent hephasedi ff
erencebetweenthetwowav es
∴y =asinωtandy =asin( ωt+ϕ)
1 2
i
sintegr almult
ipleof2π.
4
 Cl
assXI
I-Phy
sics WaceOpt
ics
Pathdi
ff
erence‘
Δx’betweentwowav eshav
ingphasedi
ff
erence‘
ϕ’i
s Or,
gi
venby, Pat
hdiff
erence=
λ
2π ()
Phasedif
fer
ence
Thus,intensit
yi smi ni
mum when t
hepat
h di
ff
erencei
shal
fodd
⇒ Δx=
λ
2π
ϕ() i
nt
Al
egr
so,
almul
themi
ti
pl
ni
eofwav
mum i nt
elengt
ensit
yi
h(λ)
sgi
v
.
enby
,

Δx=( )2nπ
λ I =2a2(1-1)
∴ mi
n
2π
∴I =0
Or
, mi
n
Δx=nλ
Coherentsources:
Thus,i
ntensi
tyis maximum when t
he pat
h di
ff
erence i
sint
egr
al Twosour
cesofl
ightar
esai
dtobecoher
ent
,ift
heycont
inuousl
yemi
tt
ing
mult
ipleofwavel
ength(λ)
. l
ightwav es ofsame f
requencyand hav
ing zer
o orconst
antphase
Al
so,themaximum int
ensit
yisgiv
enby , dif
fer
ence.
I =2a2(1+1)
max I
nter
fer
encecanonl
yoccurwi
thcoher
entsour
ces.Coher
entsour
cesar
e
∴I =4a2 gener
all
yobt
ainedbyder
ivi
ngt
hem f
rom asi
ngl
epar
entsour
ce.
max
I
ncoher
entsour
ces:
Case2: Conditi
onf ordest ructiveinterference:
Ther esult
antintensit yisgivenby ,  Anyt woi ndependentsour cesofl ightalway sincoher ent,becauseev en
I=2a2(1+cosϕ) though t hey may emi tl i
ghtwav es ofequalf requenci es and equal
I
fdest r
uctiveint erferenceoccur satanypoi nt
,then,theresult
ant ampl itudes, theymaynothav eaconst antphasedifference.
ampli
tudeandhencet hei ntensityatt hatpointi smi ni
mum. I ncoher entsour cesgivebr ightnessont hescreenandnoal t
ernat
ebr i
ght
∴Ii smi ni
mum, whencosϕ=- 1 and dar kf r
inges are observ ed.I ntensi
ti
es ofl i
ghtcomi ng fr
om t he
i
.e.
,ϕ=π, 3π,5π, 7π…. i
ncoher entsour cesjustaddup.
Or , ϕ=( 2n+1)π Interesting! !
!:Ifweuset wosodi um l amps
wher en=1, 2,
3,---------ani nt
eger. i
llumi nating t wo pi nhol
es ( see Fi g.gi ven
Thus,t he resul tanti ntensityi s mi nimum and hence dest ructi
ve below)wewi llnotobserveanyi nt erference
i
nterf
erencet akesplace,whent hephasedi fferencebetweent hetwowav es fri
nges.Thi si sbecauseoft hef actt hatt he
i
soddmul t
ipleofπ. l
ig ht wa vee mi t
tedf r
om ano rdina r
ys ou r
ce
Pathdiff
erence‘ Δx’bet weent wowav eshav ingphasedi ff
erence‘
ϕ’isgiven (li
keasodi um lamp)under goesabr uptphasechangesi nt i
mesoft heorderof

by, Pathdifference= ()λ

2π
Phasedi fference
10–10seconds.Thust
sour cesofl ightwi l
hel
lnothav
ightwav
eanyf
escomi
i
ngoutf
xedphaser elat
i
rom t
onshi
woi ndependent
pandwoul dbe
⇒ ()
Δx=
λ
2π
ϕ
i
ncoher
sect i
on,
ent
t
,whent
hei ntensi
hi
ti
shappens,asdi
esonthescr eenwi
scussedi
lladdup.
nt hepr ev i
ous

Δx=( )(
∴
λ
2n+1)
π
Young’
sdoubl
esl
itexper
iment
:
2π I
n 1801, Thomas Young f
ir
st demonst
rat
ed
Δx=(
2n+1)
λ/2
5
 Cl
assXI
I-Phy
sics WaceOpt
ics
exper i
ment all
yt he phenomenon ofi nterference ofl i
ghtand t hereby he
establishedt hewav enatur eofl i
ght .
Inthisex peri
ment ,amonochr omaticlightemer gi
ngf rom anar rowsl it
‘
S’ i
smadet ofallontwonar rowandpar all
elslit
sS1andS2cl oset oeachot her.
S1 andS2 ar eequi dist
antf r om ‘ S’andpar allelto‘S’
.Accor dingt oHuy gen’ s
pri
nci ple,thecy l
indri
calwav ef rontf r
om ‘ S’arriv
ingatS1andS2sendsoutt wo
similarcy li
ndr i
calwav ef
r onts.NowS1 andS2 behav easi ndividualsourcesof
l
ightwhi char eini nphase.Si ncet heyar eor i
ginatefrom thesamecy l
indrical
wav efronts.i.e.S1andS2behav el i
ket wocoher entsources.
Considerapoint‘P’atadist
ance‘x’from ‘C’.I
nor dertodeci
dewhicht
ypeof
fr
ingei sfor
medat‘ P’thepat hdif
ferencebet weent wowav esr
eachi
ngthe
point‘
P’ mustbeconsider
ed.
Two ∴Pat
hdi f
ference=(S2P-S1P)
wav es arri
ving Fr om thetri
angl
eS2RP,
i
n phase ( 2
S2P) =(S2R)2
+(RP)2

at a points
B0, B1,
B2,
………. etcont hescr eeni nter f
ereconst ructivel
yt ogiveabr ightbandsat
⇒ ( 2
S2P) ( )
=D2+ x+
d2
2

thosepoi nts.Whi letwowav esar r

ivingoutofphaseatpoi ntsD1,D2,D3, ………. 2 d2
⇒ (S2P) =D2+x2+ +xd
etconscr eeni nterf
eredest ructivelytogi veadar kbandsatt hosepoi nts. 4
Int
erfer encepat ternobt ainedont hescr eenconsi stsofal t
er natebrightand Fr om thetri
angl
eS1QP,
darkbandsofequal width.Theyar ecal l
edi nterfer
encef r
ingesofbands. (SP)2
=(SQ) 2
+(PQ)2
1 1
 Not
e:I
n Young’
s exper
iment
,ifone oft
he t
wo sl
it
sis cl
osed,t
he
i
nt
ar
er
er
fer
encepat
equir
edf
t
ori
er
nt
ndi
erf
er
sappear
ence.
s.Thi
sshowst
hatt
wocoher
entsour
ces ⇒ ( 2
S1P)
d2
=D2+ x-
2 ()
d2
Expr
essi
onf
orf
ri
ngewi
dth: ⇒ ( 2
S2P)=D2+x2+ - xd
4
Considert wocoher entsourcesS1 andS2 separ atedbyadi st
ance‘d’
andemi tt
ingwav esofwav elength‘λ’.Let‘D’bet hedi stanceofthescreen 2 2 d2 d2
∴Now, (
S2P)-(
S1P) =D2+x2+ +xd-
(D2+x2+ - xd)
4 4
fr
om S1 andS2. Thepoi nt‘
C’ont hescr eenisequidistantf r
om S1andS2 and
hence thepathdi ff
erencebetweent het wowav esr eachingat‘C’f
rom S1and 2 2 d2 d2
⇒ (
S2P)-(
S1P)=D2+x2+ +xd-
D2-
x2- +xd
S2iszer
o.Ther eforeatthispointabrightfr
ingeisformed. 4 4
2 2
∴ (
S2P)-(
S1P)=2xd
Or
, (
S2P-
S1P)
(S2P+S1P)=2xd -
--
--
-(1)

6
 Cl
assXI
I-Phy
sics WaceOpt
ics
2xd consecut
ivedar
kfr
inges(
Xn–Xn-1)i
s,
⇒ S2P-
( S1P)=
(S2P+S1P)
λD
β= -
--
--
-(8)
But
,S2P≈S1P=D d

2xd 2xd xd Hence,thedist

ancebet
weenanyt wo consecut
ivebri
ghtfri
ngesordark
∴ S2P-
( S1P)= = =
fr
ingesi
ssame.Thisdi
stancei
scal
ledfr
ingewidt
h.Thus,f
ri
ngewi dt
hist
he
(D+D) 2D D
xd di
stancebet
weenanytwoconsecut
ivebr
ightf
ri
ngesordarkfr
inges.
∴ S2P-
( S1P)=
D
λD
Fr
ingewi
dth=β=
∴ Pat
hdi
ff
er
d
ence= x-
D
--
--
-(2)() d

I
ntensi
tydi
str
ibut
ioncur
vef
ori
nter
fer
ence:
Forbrightf
ri
ngeat‘ P’
:
Thevari
ati
onofint
ensi
tywithphasedi
ff
erencei
sshowni nf
igur
e.
Pathdi
ff
erence=nλ --
--
--(
3)
Theint
ensi
tyoflighti
smaximum att hepoi
ntsofconstruct
ivei
nter
ference
From equat
ions(2)and(3)
(wav
es meeti n phase)and is minimum att he poi
nts ofdestructi
ve
d
D ()
x=nλ i
nter
fer
ence(wavesmeetoutofphase).
∴Distanceofthenthbri
ghtf
ri
ngefrom ‘
C’i
s

xn= (Dd)nλ------(4)
t
h
Si
mil
arl
ythedi
stanceoft
he(
n-1) br
ightf
ri
ngef
rom ‘
C’i
s,

xn-1= (Dd)(n-1)λ------(5)
∴Di
stancebet
weent
woconsecut
ivebr
ightf
ri
ngesi
s
β=xn-
xn-1
Howev er
,ener
gyisneithercreat
edatpoi ntsofmaxi mum intensit
y
⇒ ( ) [( ) ]
D
d
D
β= nλ- (
d
n-
1)λ nordest
tr
ansferr
r
oy
edf
ed att
r
he poi
om adar
nts ofmi
kbandtoabr i
ni
mum intensit
ghtband.Thus,t
y.The ener
hel
gy i
s onl
awofconservat
i
y
on
β=( )
D
⇒ λ[n-
n+1] ofenergyholdsgoodduri
ngthephenomenonofi nter
ference.
d
DI
FFRACTI
ONOFLI
GHT:
λD
⇒ β= -
--
--
-(6) Thephenomenonofbendingofli
ghtar
oundt
heedgesofanobst
acl
e
d
oraper
tur
eiscal
leddi
ff
ract
ionofli
ght
.
Thi
sistheexpressi
onforfr
ingewidth.
Expl
anat
ionoft
hedi
ff
ract
ion:
Foradarkfr
ingeat‘P’
:
Accor
ding t
or ect
il
inearpr
opagati
on,li
ght
Pathdiff
erence= (
2n+1)
λ/2-
--
--
-(7)
t
rav
elsinstr
aightl
inesformingdi
sti
nctshadowsof
Compar
ingequat
ions(
2)and(
7),i
tcanbeshownt
hat
,di
stancebet
weent
wo
7
 Cl
assXI
I-Phy
sics WaceOpt
ics
opaque obj ect s.Butcar efulobser v ation r ev ealst hatl ightbendsatt he t heysuper posei nphasepr oduci ngmaxi mum i ntensi t
yat‘ O’ .Iti scal led
corner sofsmal lobst acl esandent er st her egionofgeomet ri
calshadow.pr incipal maxi mum orcent ralmaxi mum.
Closet ot her egi onofgeomet ri
calshadow,t her ear eal ter nat ebr ightand ( 2) I ntensi t
yatpoi nt‘P’:Supposet hesecondar ywav eletsdi ff
ractedatan
darkr egions.I tmeanst hegeomet ricalshadowont hescr eeni snev ershar p.angl e‘ Ө’r eachest hegener alpoi nt‘P’ont hescr een.Thesewav eletsst art s
Thisi sduet odi ffract i
onofl ightwav es. from dif fer entpar tsoft hesl itABar ei nt hesamephasebutt heyr eachpoi nt
Allt ypesofwav esbendr oundt heobst aclespl acedi nt heirpat h.The ‘ Pi ndi fferentphases, becauset hesecov erunequaldi stances.
amountofbendi ng depends upon t he si ze oft he obst acles and t he Thepat hdi ff
er encebet weent hesecondar ywav eletsor igi
nat i
ngf rom ext r
eme
wav elengt hsoft he wav e.The di ffract i
on occur s onlywhen si ze oft he poi nts‘A’ and‘ B’ isBN
obst aclei scompat iblewi ththewav elengt hofi ncidentl i
ght .Thewav elengt h ∴Fr om ΔleABN,Pat hdi fference=BN=dsi nӨ,
-6
oflight( ≈10 m)i sv erysmal lascompar edt ot hesi zeofor di naryobst acl es wher e‘d’ ist hewi dthoft hesl it.
andaper tur es.Ther ef ore, dif
fracti
onofl ighti snoteasi lynot icedi ndai lyl i
fe.ItFordi ff
er entv aluesof‘ Ө’ ,
wehav edifferentv aluesofpat hdi fference.
canbest udi edi nlabor ator i
es. Ift hispat hdi fferenceBN i s ‘ λ’t henpoi nt‘ P’wi l
lhav emi nimum
Thewav elengt hofsoundwav ei sv eryl argecompar edt ot hatofl i
ghti nt ensity.i .e.‘ P’i s apoi ntoff ir
stmi nimum.Thi scanbeunder stoodas
wav e.Hencesoundwav esbendr oundt hecor nersofbui l
di ngsandot herf oll
ows.Thesl itcanbeconsi deredt obedi videdi ntot woequalhal vesACand
objectswhi chhav elar gerdi mensi ons.Soper sonhi ddenf or m di r
ectv iewcan CB,t hent hepat hdi ff
erence( P.d)oft hesecondar ywav esst artingf rom t he
behear d. toppoi ntoft heupperhal f(AC)andt oppoi ntoft hel owerhal f( CB)i sλ/2.i .e.
Di f
f ract i
onofl ightatasi ngl esl i
t: aphasedi fferenceof180˚( π).Thesewav eswi llbeoutofphaseat‘ P’.
Accor di ngt oHuy genspr incipl e,ev erypoi ntont hepl anewav efrontSi mi l
arl
y ,f orev er ypoi ntint heupperhal fAC,t her ei scor respondi ngpoi nti n
reachingt hesl i
tABsendsoutsecondar ywav elets.Thesewav eletsor i
ginat et helowerhal fCB.Sot hatt hep. dbet weensecondar ywav esf rom t hesepoi nt s
from t hewav ef ronti nt hesamephase.Thesecondar ywav essuper poset or eaching‘ P’i sλ/ 2.Asar esul tdest ruct i
v ei nt erferencet akespl aceandt he
producedi ff ract ionpat ternont hescr een. point‘P’ isofmi nimum i ntensi t
y.Itiscal ledt hef i
rstmi nimum.
Thei nt ensi tyofl ightatdi fferentpoi ntsont hescr eendependsont he Si mi l
arly, i
ft hepat hdi fferenceBN=2λ, thenagai nt hei ntensityont he
pathdi fferencebet weensecondar ywav esr eachi ngt hosepoi nt s. sc r
een is mi nimu m. I
tis calleds ec onda r
y mi nimu m.
Ingener al ,condi tionf ormi ni mai s,
Pat hdi ffer ence=nλ, n=1, 2,3,--------
i.e. dsi nθ=nλ
nλ
Forsmal l‘θ’,si
nθ≈θ ∴θ=
d
(3)Intensi t yatpoi nt‘Q’:
Consi derapoi nt‘ Q’ont hescr eensucht hat ,thep. dbet weent he
secondar ywav esemer gingf rom ‘A’ and‘ B’ i
s( 3λ/ 2).
(1)Int ensityatpoi nt‘ O’:I maginet hesl i
ttobedi vi
dedi ntoanumberofv ery Imagi net hesl ittobedi vi
dedi ntot hr eeequalpar ts.Thewav esf rom
narrowst ripsofequalwi dt h.Let‘O’ beapoi ntont hescr eenwhi chisopposi tet hecor respondi ngpoi ntsoft hef irsttwopar tswi llhav epat hdi fferenceofλ/ 2.
tot hemi dpoi nt‘ C’oft hesl i
t.Allt hewav elet sor igi
nat ef r om eachnar row Hencet heyi nt erfer edest ruct ively.Howev er,t hewav eletsemer gingf rom t he
stri
psar riveat‘ O’ int hesamephase.Hencet hei rpathdi ffer encei szer oand t hirdpar twi llpr oducesomei ntensityat‘ Q’.Thi si nt ensityi sv erymuchl ess
8
 Cl
assXI
I-Phy
sics WaceOpt
ics
thanthatatpoint‘ O’.Thepoi nt‘Q’i
sknownast hefi
rstsecondar
ymaxi
mum. From equations(1)and( 2)
Si
milar
ly,t hesecondsecondar ymax i
mum isl ocat
edonthescr
een λ x
=
whent hepathdi ff
er encei s5λ/2. d D
Ingeneral,condi tionf orsecondarymaxi
mi s, Or,
Pathdiff
erence= (
2n+1)λ/2 λD
x=
⇒ dsi nθ= (2n+1)λ/2 d
∴Forsmal l ‘
θ’,sinθ≈θ, But
,w idthofthe cent
ralma xi
mu m = 2x.
(2n+1)λ Hence,
∴θ= 2λD 2λf
2d widthofthecentralmaximum =2x= =
I
ti s clear f rom d d
the abov e di scussi on Di f
fer encebet weenI nterferenceanddi f fr
act i
on:
that
, t he di ffraction I
nterfer
ence Diff
raction
patt
ern ata si ngl e slit 1. I nter
ference i s due t o 1. Di f
fracti
on i s due t o
consists of cent ral super posi
ti
onoft wo dif
ferent superposition of secondar y
max i
mum and al ternate wav efront
s comi ng f r
om t wo wav el
ets comi ng fr
om di ffer
ent
minima and secondar y coher ent sources. pointsoft hesamewav ef
ront.
max i
ma( fi
g). 2. Bright and dar ki nterf
erence 2.Di f
fraction bands are unequal
Wi
dthofcent
ralmaxi
mum: f
ri
ngeshav
esamewi
dth wi
dth.
Thewi dthoft hecentralmax imum isthedi
stancebet
weent
hef
ir
st 3.I ntensi tyofal lbrightfri
ngesi s 3. The i ntensity of di ffraction
mi nimum on ei t
hersi de oft he central same. maximadecr easeswi thorder.
max imum.
4.Inter ference bandsar e equal l
y 4.I n diffracti
on,wi dth ofcent ral
Let‘ d’bet hewi dthoft hesli
t.
spaced maximum i sdoubl et hanthewi dth
From t hecondi t
ionofmi ni
ma,
ofothermaxi ma.
dsinθ=nλ
5. Ther e i s a good cont r
ast 5.Cont rastiscompar ati
vel
ypoor .
But ,n=1f orfirstmi ni
mum
betweenmax i
maandmi nima.
λ
∴si nθ= -
---
--(1) 6.I
ninter ferencebandsar elargein 6.I ndi ff
ract i
onbandsar ef ew i n
d
number number .
If‘f’bet hef ocallengthofl ensplacedv ery
closet ot hesl i
tand‘ x’isthedistanceof Val i
dityofr ayopt i
cs( Fr esneldi st ance) :
fi
rstmi nimum onei t
hersideoft hecentral Fresneldi stancei sthatdistancef r
om t hesl it(aperture)tot hescr een
max imum, t
hen, f=D atwhicht hespr eadi ngofl i
ghtduet odiffr
actionbecomesequalt othesi ze
‘
D’ i
st hedi stanceoft hescreenf r
om thesl
it
. oftheslit.Itisdenot edZF.
Forsmal langleof‘Ө’, Accor dingtor ayoptics,l
ighttravelsinst raightline.Indi f
fracti
onata
x x si
ngleslitt hehal fangul arwidthofacent r
almaxi mum gi v
est hespreadingof
sinθ≈θ=t anθ= = - -
--
--(2)
f D l
ight.I
ft hiswi dt
hi sequalt oslitwidth,therei snospr eading,andt henr ay
9
 Cl
assXI
I-Phy
sics WaceOpt
ics
opticsisv al
id. i
nst r
ument ”
.
Weknowt hat,angularposit
ionoffir
stmi nimum is, Limi tofr esol ution: “ Themi ni
mum di st anceofsepar ati
onbet ween
dsinθ=nλ twopoi nts,sothatt heycanbeseenassepar ate( orjustresolved) by
d.θ=1λ (Өi
ssmall) theopt i
cal i
nstrumenti sknownasi t
slimitofresol uti
on” .
λ
∴θ= - --
-(1) Resol ving power :“ The abil
it
yoft he opt i
cali nstrumentt o produce
d
clearl
ysepar ateimagesoft wonearbypointobject s”.
Thisis‘halfangul arwidthofcentralmaximum’ .
“Resolvi
ngpoweri salsodef i
nesast her eciprocaloft helimitof
Thel i
nearspr eadoft hecentralmaximum i sgivenby,
resoluti
on” .
x=D.θ
Usingequat ion( 1), 1
Resol vi
ngpower=
λ Li
mitof resolution
x=D.
d
When, x=d, weget ,  Smal l
erist hel imitofr esol
uti
on ofan opt i
cali nstr
ument ,lar
gerits
λ r
esolvingpowerandv iceversa.
d=D.
d Limi tofr esol utionoft heey e:
Or,
 Theeyecanseet woobj ectsassepar at
eonl yiftheangl esubtendedby
d2
D= t
hem att heey eisgr eaterthanonemi nut
eofanar c( 1’
).Thisangleref
ers
λ
t
ot helimitofresol utionoftheeyeandi tsr eciprocalisameasur eofthe
Thisis“ thel eastdistancethroughwhi chl i
ghtt rav
elsbeforeitappr
eci
abl
e
r
esolvingpower .
bendsf rom itsst r
aightli
nepath”.Thisdistancei sFresnel
dist
ance.
i
.e.D=ZF Then,  Di f
fracti
onofl ightl i
mi t
st heabil
it
yofopt icali nstrumentst oform cl
ear
ZF i
magesofobj ects,whi chtheyareclosetoeachot her.
d2  Not
e:I
nint
erf
erenceanddi
ff
ract
ion,l
i
ghtener
gyi
sredi
str
ibut
ed.I
fit
=
Thi
sist
heexpr
essi
onf
or“
Fresneldλ
i
stance”
. r
educesinoner egi
on,producingadarkfringe,i
tincr
easesinanot
her
I
fD<ZF,
thendif
fract
ionef
fect
scanbeneglect
edandrayopt
icsi
sval
id. r
egi
on,produci
ngabrightfr
inge.Ther
eisnogainorlossofener
gy,
which
i
sconsi
stentwit
htheprinci
pleofconser
vat
ionofenergy.
I
fD>>ZF,thespreadi
ngduet odi
ff
ract
ionisv er
ypr
onouncedandr ay
opti
csi snotv ali
d.So,rayopt i
csmayber egardedasal imit
ingcaseof Ra yleigh’ scr it
erionofr esol ution:
wav eoptics. “Accordingto Ray l
eigh,t het wo poi ntobj
ect
sar
esai
dto bej
ust
resolved,whent hecent r
almaxi mum oft he
RESOLVI NGPOWEROFOPTI CALI NSTRUMENTS:
diff
ractionpat t
ernofonef allsov ert hef ir
st
Thei mageofapoi ntobj ectproducedint heopt i
calinstr
umenti snot
minimum oft he other” Or“ The di stance
simplyapoi ntbuti tissurroundedbyadi ff
racti
onpat ter
n.Thusanopt i
cal
betweent hei
rpr i
ncipalmaxi mai sjustequal
i
nstrumentissai dt obeablet oresolvetwopoi ntobjects,i
fthecor respondi
ng
to t he di stance bet ween t he pr inci
pal
dif
fract
ionpat t
ernsar edi
stinguishable.
maxi mum ofoneandi t
sfir
stmi nimum” .
“Twonear bypointobj ectsaresaidt ober esolv
ed,ift heyareseenas
twosepar atedi sti
nctobjectsei therwithnakedey eort hroughanyopt cal Not
i e:Twoobj ectsareunr esol v
ed,i fthe

10
 Cl
assXI
I-Phy
sics WaceOpt
ics
separ
ati
on between thei
rcent
ralmaxima isless t
han bet
ween t
he 2.Theresol
vi
ngpowerofami cr
oscopecanbeincreasedbyusi
ngal i
ghtof
pri
nci
palmaximum ofoneanditsfi
rstmi
nimum andwellr
esol
vedi
fiti
s shor
terwavelengt
h( ul
trav
iol
etli
ghtandquar t
zl enses)
.Int hi
scase
morethant
hisdistance. i
magecanbephot ogr
aphedandt hemicr
oscopei sthencal
ledUltr
a-
RESOLVI NGPOWEROFAMI CROSCOPE: micr
oscope.
Li
mitofr
esol
uti
onofmi
croscope: RESOLVI
NGPOWEROFTELESCOPE:
“I
tisdef i
nedasthemi ni
mum di stancebet weent wopointobj
ects,so “The l
imitofr esolut i
on oft elescope isdef ined as the mi nimum
thatthetwoi magescanj ustbeseensepar atelyinthemi cr
oscope”. angul
ar separat
ionb etw ee ntw od i
s t
inct obj
e ct
s( e.g. stars)wh oseima ges
Thismi ni
mum distance( dmin)whent heai risthemedi ween ar
um bet ejustseenassepar atet rought hetelescope”.
objectandobj ecti
vei
sgivenby, Theangularsepar ation‘ dӨ’isgivenby ,
1.22λ 1.22λ
dmin= Limi tofresoluti
on=dθ=
2sinθ D
where,D=di amet eroft heaper t
ureoft heobj ectiv
el ens.
1.22λ
∴Limitofr esol
ution= λ=Wav elengt hofthelight.
2sinθ
“Theresol
vingpowerofat elescopeisdef inesast hereciprocalofthe
I
ft hemedi um betweentheobjectandt heobj ecti
v elensi
snotairbutmedium mi ni
mum angul arsepar ationbet weent wodi stantobj ectswhosei magesar e
ofr ef
ract
iveindex‘n’
,t
hen, j
ustseenassepar ate”.
1.22λ 1 D
dmin= R.P= =
2nsi nθ dθ 1. 22λ

wher
e‘λ’
ist
hewav
elengt
hofl
i
ght
.  Thi
s equat
ion shows t
hatr
esol
vi
ng powerofa t
elescope can be
i
ncr
easedbyusi
ngobj
ect
ivesofl
argedi
amet
ers.
‘
Ө’i
sthesemi
ver
ti
cal
angl
eoft
heconeofr
aysf
rom apoi
ntobj
ect
.
Resol
vi
ngpowerofmi
croscope:
“Theresolvi
ngpowerofami croscopei sdef i
nedast hereciprocalof
POLARI
SATI
ONOFLI
GHT:
theminimum distancebet weent wopoi ntobj ects,sot hatt
woi magescan Accor di
ng to Maxwel l
’stheor y,l
i
ghtwav
es consistofoscill
ati
ng
j
ustbeseensepar atel
y”. el
ectricandmagnet icf i
elds.Theyar e
1 perpendicul art o each otherand al so
Resolvingpower( R.P)= perpendicul ar t o t he di rect
ion of
Limitofresoluti
on
propagation.Thi s means l i
ghtwav es
2nsi nθ
∴R. Pofmi croscpoe= aret r
ansv er seelectromagnet i
cwav es.
1.22λ
Li
ghti s gener all
yr epresent ed byt he
Theproduct‘nsinθ’ i
scall
ednumer icalaper t
ure. ⃗
Theabov eequati
onshowst hat
, el
ectricf ield (E)cal led l i
ghtv ector
1.Resol vi
ng powerofa mi croscope can be i ncreased by using high al
one.
r
efracti
veindexoil(cedarwoodoi l)inbet weenobj ectandobjective.The  The t ransv erse nature ofl ightcannotbe expl
ained wi
ththe hel
p of
microscopeisthencalledanoi li
mmer si
onobj ecti
vemi cr
oscope. interf
er enceanddi f
fractionphenomenabecausebot hthel
ongi
tudi
naland
transver sewav esexhi bitthesephenomena.
11
 Cl
assXI
I-Phy
sics WaceOpt
ics
 Onl
ythephenomenonofpol
ari
sat
ionest
abl
i
shest
het
ransv
ersenat
ure molecul
esofthepolar
oidi
sknownaspass-
axi
softhepol
aroi
d.Thel
i
nes
ofl i
ght . dr
awnont hesur
faceofthePol
aroi
dshowst
hepass-
axi
s.
 Or dinaryl ightconsi stsofsy mmet ri
calv i
brationsofel ectri
cf iel
dsi lEx
nal per iment aldemonst rationoft het ransv er senat ureofl ightusi ng
direct i
onsasshowni nf i
gure( 1).Bysomemet hodsi tispossi bleto polaroi ds:
restrictt hev ibr ationst oonepl anebyel i
minatingallothers.(fi
gure.2)  Whent heor dinarylighti sallowedt opasst hr oughapol ar oidP1, itisf ound
 Thel ighti nwhi chv i
br ationsar er est r
ictedt oonedi r
ectioni napl ane thatt he i ntensityi sr educed byhal f.No change i nt hisi nt ensi t
yof
per pendi cul art hedi rect i
onofpr opagat ionofl ightisknownaspl ane transmi ttedl i
ghtisseenwhent heP1i sr otated.
pol ri
sedl ight .  Anot heri dent i
calPol aroi dP2 i spl acedi nf r ontofP1,sot hatt hei rpass-
 The phenomenon ofr estri
cting t he v i
brati
ons ofal ightv ectorina axesar epar allelt
oeachot her .
par ti
cul ar di rect ion i n a pl ane per pendicular t o the di recti
on of  Now keepi ng P1 i sf i
xed,P2 al one i sr otat ed;t he i ntensi tygr adually
propagat ionofl ighti scal ledpol arisationofl ight. decr easesandbecomesz erowhenP2i srot atedt hrough90˚ .Ther otati
on
Repr esent at ionofunpol ar i
sedl ightandpl anepol arisedlight: iscont inued,t hei ntensi t
yi ncr easesgr adual lyandbecomesmaxi mum
Unpol ar i
sed l ight :Or dinar yl i
ghti s al so whenr otatedt hrough180˚ .Foronecompl eter otationofP2,t hei ntensity
called unpol rised l ight consi sting l ar ge ofl ightbecomesmi nimum t wi ceandmaxi mum t wice.
numberofv ibrat ionsi nal lpossi bledi r
ect i
on Thev ari
at i
oni nintensi tyofl ightshowst hatt r
ansv er senat ur eofl i
ght.
i
napl aneatr ightangl est ot hedi recti
onof Ift heywer elongi t
udi nal,nochangei ni ntensi tyofemer gentl i
ghtwoul d
propagat ion i sr epr esent ed i nf igure( 1) . hav ebeenobser ved.
Figur e( 2)al sor epr esent st heor dinaryl i
ghti nwhi chv i
brat
ionsar eresol
ved Thi sex per imentshowst hatwhenanor di nar yli
ghti spassedt hr ougha
i
nt o component s al ong any t wo mut ually Polar oid( P1),onl ythosev ibrationspar al
leltopass–axesoft hePol ar oidar e
perpendi culardi rect ions. comesout .Ot herv i
brat i
onsar ebl ocked.Hence, t
r ansmi ttedl ightf rom af i
rst
Plane pol arised l ight :Fi gure( 3) and ( 4) Polar oidi sapl anepol arisedl ight .Thus, t hefirstPol aroidpr oducest hepl ane
represent spl anepol ari
sedl ight.Inf i
gure( 3) Polar i
sedl i
ght ,thenitiscal l
edpol ar iser(P) .
arrowsr epr esent sv ibrati
onsar e par all
elt o Whent hepass–ax i
sofP2i sper pendi culart ot hepass–ax isP1, t
he
the pl ane oft he paper .I nf i
gur e( 4)dot s planepol arisedl ightist r
ansmi ttedf rom P2aspl anepol ari
sedl ight.
represent sv ibr ationsar eper pendicul artot hepl aneoft hepaper .
Pol
aroi
ds:
Polaroi disadev i
ceusedt opr oduceplanepol ari
sedl i
ght.APol aroid
consi
stsofl ongchai nmol eculesalignedinapar ticulardirecti
on.Whenan
unpol
ar i
sedl ightisincidentonsuchaPol aroi
d,osci l
lati
ngel ectr
icvectori n
Whent hepassaxisofP2isper
pendicul
artothepassaxisofP1,
thevi
brati
ons
thedi
rectionoft heali
gnmentoft hemol eculesoft hePol ar
oi dareabsor bed.
ofpl ane pol
ri
sed li
ghtis completel
y blocked.Thus,thereis no li
ght
Onlytheel ectricfi
eldv ectoroscillat
ingint hedirect i
onper pendicul
art ot he
tr
ansmi t
tedbyt hesecondPolaroi
d( P2)
.ThesecondPol aroi
ddetectsthe
dir
ect
ionoft heal i
gnmentoft hemol eculesoft hePol aroidpassest hroughi t
.
polar
isat
ionofl
ightandhencei
tisknownasanal yser(
A).
Thus,thetransmi tt
edlightisknownasl i
nearl
yorpl anepol ar
isedlight.
 The di rect i
on perpendi culartot he di
recti
on oft he alignmentoft he

12
 Cl
assXI
I-Phy
sics WaceOpt
ics
2
accor
dingas I=I
0
cos θ.Thi
sisMal
us’
law.
Usesofpol
aroi
ds:
1.Theyar eusedi nwi ndowgl assesoft r
ainsandaer oplanest ocontroltheintensit
y
oflight
.
2.Theyar eusedi nsunglassestocutof ftheglareproducedbyl ight
.(Fisher
menuses
them)
Thefollowingfi
gur eshowst wosheet
sofpolr
oidsi
nthreedi
ff
erent3.Theyar eusedi nphotographiccamer asand3Dmov i
ecamer as.
positi
ons. 4.Th eyareus edtoe l
i
mi nat
ingthe headli
g htgl
areo fvehicl
es.
I
nfigure(i)
,thePolaroidar eat0˚al
l
owi
ngmaxi
mum li
ght
. 5.Polaroi
dsar eusedinmi croscopestoseev eryminutepar t
iclesbyel i
minati
ngt he
glare.
I
nfigure(ii
),Pol
aroid( P2)is
6.Polaroi
dsl aserbeamsar eusedasneedl esforproducingsoundf rom compactdi sc
rot
ted t hr
ough some angl e,t he
inCDpl ayers.
shaded por t
ion shows t he 7.Inmobi l
es, cal
culat
orsetc,lett
ersandnumber sareformedbyl i
quidcrystaldispl
ay
decreasedintensit
yoflight. (LCD)throughpol ari
sati
onofl i
ght.
I
nfigur
e(i
ii
),Pol
aroid(P2)i
s
rot
tedthr
ough90˚,t
hedar kshaded
Pol
ari
sat
ionbyr
efl
ect
ion:
Whenor di
naryl i
ghti sreflectedf r
om t hesur f
aceofat ransparent
port
ionshowsthel
ighti
scompl etel
ybl
ocked.
medium l ikegl assorwat er,ther eflectedr aybecomespar t
lypol ari
sedor
Mal us’ Law: complet el
y pol ari
sed.Degr ee ofpol ar
isati
on depends on t he angl e of
Thisl aw stat
es that“i
ntensit
yoft he pol
ari
sed l
ightt
ransmit
ted i
ncidence.Forapar t i
cularangl eofi ncidence, t
her efl
ectedli
ghtiscompl etel
y
thr
ought heanalyservari
esasthesquar eofthecosineoft
heanglebetween polar
ized.Thatangl eisknownaspol ar i
singangl eorBrewst er
’sangle( i
B).
the transmi ssi
on axes oft he analyserand t he Thepl aneofv i
brationi nar eflectedl i
ghtisperpendiculartot heplane
polar
izer”. ofincidence.TheBr ewst er’sangledependsont henat ur
eoft her ef
lecti
ng
2
i
.e. I∝cos θ medium.
Ift
heanl yserpass–ax i
smakesanangl e‘Ө’wit
hthe Brewst er’slaw:
pass–ax i
soft hepolari
ser,t
hent heelectr
icvect
or Thislawst atest hat, t
het angentoft hepol ar
isi
ngangl eisnumer i
call
y
componentEcosӨwi ll
passthroughtheanalyser. equaltot herefractiveindexoft her eflecti
ngsur face.
∴Intensit
yofthet r
ansmitt
edli
ghtthroughthe i
.e., n=t ani B
2
anal
yseri
sgi
venby
, I∝(
Ecosθ) Leti
Bist
heBr
ewst
er’
sangl
eand‘
r’i
stheangl
eofr
efr
act
ion.Br
ewst
er
2 2
I=KEcos θ showedt
hat
,ther
efl
ect
edr
ayandr
efr
act
edr
ayar
eper
pendi
cul
art
oeach
Or
, ot
heratpol
ari
zingangl
e.
I=I
0
cos2θ
0
where, I 2
0 =K E ist
heintensi
tyofthepl
anepol
ari
sedli
ghti denton ∴Fr
nci om f
igur
e,∠MOB+∠NOC=90
anal
yser
. i
B
+r=900
Thus,wer otat
etheanal
yserthroughanangl
e‘Ө’
;theint
ensi
tywillvar
y

13
 Cl
assXI
I-Phy
sics WaceOpt
ics
0
Or
, r=(
90 -
iB
) Questi
ons:
OneMar kQuest ions:
From Snel l’
slaw,
1.Whopr oposedwav et heor yofl ight ?
si ni sini si
ni 2.Wh atis pr edictio n o f w ave theo ry?
n= B
= B
= B
=tani
sinr si n(900- i
B
) cos i
B
B
3.Whopr oposedel ect romagnet i
cwav et heoryofl i
ght?
4.Whati sawav ef ront ?
∴
n=t ani B
5.Wh atis sh ape o fw av ef r
ontnearapoi ntsour ce?
6.Whati sshapeofwav ef r
ontnearal inearsour ce?
ThisisBr ewst er’sl aw 7.Whati sconst ruct ivei nter ference?
8.Whati sdest ruct ivei nt erfer ence?
Pol arisat ionbyscat ter ing: 9.Whati sl i
mi tofr esol utionofanopt ical i
nstrument ?
Lighti s al so pol arised due t o scattering ofl ightbyat mospher i
c 10.Whati sr esol vingpowerofanopt ical i
nst r
ument ?
part
icles( molecul es) . 11.Whati sFr esnel dist ance?
Whenasunl ightpassest hroughear t
h’sat mospher e,itisabsor bed 12.Whati spol ari
z at i
onofl i
ght ?
byt heat omsoft hepar ticles( ormol ecules)and r e-emit t
edi ndif
ferent 13.Givether epresent ationofpl anepol ari
z edlight .
di
rect i
oni sknownasscat teringofl i
ght. 14.Givether epresent ationofunpol ar i
zedl i
ght.
 Thescat teredl i
ghti nadi recti
onper pendi culart ot hedi r
ect i
onofsun 15.Givether epresent ationofpar t
iallypol ar i
zedl ight.
lightispol ar ised.So,t heobser v
eratr ightangl est ot hedi rect
ionoft he 16.StateBr ewst er ’sl aw.
suncanseet hispol ar
isedl ight.Atotherv i
ewi ngangl es,scat teredl
ightis 17.Wh oinv es ti
ga te ds cat teringofl ightbymol ecul es?
par t
iall
ypol ar i
sed.Thi scanbev eri
fiedbyusi ngpol aroids. TwoMar kQuest ions:
18.StateHuy gen’ spr incipl e.
19.Drawt hedi agr am showi ngr efract i
onofpl anewav ebyaprism.
20.Drawt hedi agr am showi ngr efract ionofpl anewav ebyaconv ex
l
ens.
21.Drawt hedi agr am showi ngr efract i
onofpl anewav ebyconcav e
mirror.
22.Whatar ecoher entsour ces?Gi veoneexampl e.
23.Whatar ei ncoher entsour ces?Gi veoneexampl e.
24.Wr i
tet wo di ff erences bet ween const r
uct i
v e and destr
uctive
 Thescat teringofl ightbymol eculeswasi ntensiv
elyi nvestigatedbyC. V. i
nterference.
Ramanandhi scol labor atorsinKol katainthe1920s.Ramanwasawar ded 25.Wr i
teth eex pressi onf orf ri
ngewi dt hincaseofYoung’ sdoubl e
theNobel Pr izef orPhy sicsin1930f orthiswor k. sl
itexper iment .
26.Wr i
tet hecondi tionf ormi ni mai ncaseofdi ffracti
onatsinglesli
t.
27.Wr i
tethecondi tionf orsecondar ymaxi mai ncaseofdi ffr
acti
on
--- - atsinglesl i
t.
28.Wr i
tetheexpr essi onf orr esol v
ingpowerofmi croscope.
29.Wr i
tetheexpr essi onf orr esol v
ingpoweroft elescope.
14
 Cl
assXI
I-Phy
sics WaceOpt
ics
30.
Howr esolvingpowerofmi croscopecanbei ncreased?
31.
Howr esolvingpoweroft elescopecanbei ncreased?
32.
ExplainRay lei gh’ scr i
terionofr esol uti
on
33.
Explainpol arizat i
onbyscat t
ering.
34.
Whatar epol ar oi ds?Ment i
oni tsuses.
35.
Stateandexpl ai nMal us’ l
aw.
Thr
eeMar kQuest ions:
36.
Explainthel awofr efl
ect i
onusi ngHuy gen’sprinciple.
37.
Explainther ef ract ionatr arermedi um usi ngHuy gen’spri
ncipl
e.
38.
Discusst hev al idityofr ayopt i
cs.
39.
Explainthet ransv ersenat ureofl ightusi ngpol ari
sation.
40.
Whati spol ar izat ionbyr eflection?Showt hattangentoft he
poarisingangl ei sequal tor efractiveindexofr efl
ectingsurf
ace
(Stateandpr ov eBr ewst er’
sl aw)
Fi
vemar kquest ions:
41.
Whati sinter fer ence?Der ivet hecondi ti
onf orconst r
ucti
veand
destructiveint er fer enceofi nterferenceofl ight.
42.
Def i
nef r
ingewi dt h.Der ivet heexpr essionforf ri
ngewi dthi
n
caseofYoung’ sdoubl esl i
texper i
ment .
43.
Whati sdi ffract ion?Gi vet het heor yofdi ff
ractionofl i
ghtat
singleslit.
44.
Disti
ngui shi nt erfer enceanddi ffr
act i
on.

-
--
-

15