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com
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UNI
TV–STAFFI
NGI
NSOFTWAREPROJECTS

5.
1Managi
ngPeopl
e

Under
standi
ngBehav
ior
 Handl
i
ngofpr
oject
swi
thpr
act
icalexper
iencebecomesav
italr
olei
ntheaspect
ofpr
ojectmanagement
.
 Themanager
smustbeabl
etodeci
deonwhet
heri
tisbet
tert
ohav
eexper
ienced
st
afforgetanexper
tadv
ice.
 Ther
ear
enumer
oust
heor
iesdef
inedt
oex
plai
npeopl
e’
sbehav
ior
.
 Thet
heor
iesar
est
ruct
uresbasedon“
IfAi
sthesi
tuat
iont
henBi
sli
kel
ytobet
he
sol
uti
on”
.
 Ot
hert
hant
hest
ruct
ures,t
her
eawi
der
angeofi
nfl
uencesonasi
tuat
ionwhi
ch
ar
einv
isi
blet
otheuser
swhi
chmakesi
tdi
ff
icul
ttodeci
deont
hesol
uti
on.

5.
2Or
gani
zat
ional
Behav
ior

5.
2.1Wor
kObj
ect
ives
 Fr
edr
ickTay
loranal
yzedt
hepr
oduct
ivewayofdoi
ngt
hingsandt
rai
nedt
he
wor
ker
swi
tht
heseobj
ect
ives:
 Tosel
ectt
hebestpeopl
efort
hej
ob
 Toi
nst
ructt
hem i
nthebestmet
hods
 Togi
vet
hem i
ncent
ivesbasedont
hei
rper
for
mance
 Thesewor
kobj
ect
ivesdef
inedbyTay
loremphasi
sexcl
usi
vel
yont
hef
inanci
al
basi
soft
hest
affmot
ivat
ionandper
for
mance-
rel
atedpay
.
 Thi
sencour
agementt
othest
affwi
l
lhel
pthepr
ojectgr
oupt
owor
ktoget
heri
n
achi
evi
ngt
hei
rgoal
swhi
chul
ti
mat
elyi
ncr
easest
hepr
oduct
ivi
ty.
 Peopl
emaybemot
ivat
edbymoney
,butt
heyar
emot
ivat
edbyot
herf
act
orsas
wel
l
.

5.
2.2Theor
yXandTheor
yY
 Some manager
s’wor
kformoneybei
ng i
nst
rument
alorcal
l
ed ascash-
or
ient
edper
sonscanbecat
egor
izedbasedont
hei
rindi
vi
dual
att
it
udes.

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 Donal
dMcGr
egorl
abel
edt
wodi
ff
erentat
ti
tudesasTheor
yXandTheor
yY.
 Theor
yXi
ncl
udes
 Onanav
erage,
notev
eryhumanl
i
kest
owor
k.
 Somebodymusthav
ethecont
rol
anddi
rectt
heper
sont
owor
k.
 Gener
all
y,peopl
edonotl
i
kehol
dresponsi
bil
i
ties.
 Theor
yYi
ncl
udes
 Peopl
emustl
i
ket
owor
knotf
orcedt
odoi
t.
 Ext
ernal
cont
rol
isnott
hewayt
oreachor
gani
zat
ional
goal
s.
 Ther
emustacommi
tmentt
owar
dst
hewor
kal
l
ocat
edt
oindi
vi
dual
s.
 Anav
eragehumancanl
ear
ntoacceptandseekr
esponsi
bil
i
ty.
 Cr
eat
ivequal
i
tiesmustbewi
del
ydi
str
ibut
ed.
 I
ndi
vi
dual
’
sbehav
iort
owar
dst
heor
gani
zat
ioncanbeobser
vedwhent
hei
r
bossi
snotav
ail
abl
e.
 Theor
yXenv
ironmentmakesev
ery
bodyt
orel
axwhi
chcanbeseenv
isi
bly
wher
easTheor
yYi
smor
eagoalor
ient
edappr
oachoft
hepeopl
einv
olv
edi
n
t
hedev
elopment
.
 Ar
ewar
ddoesnotneedt
obeaf
inanci
alr
ewar
dbuti
tcoul
dbesomet
hingl
i
ke
asenseofachi
evement
.
 Thi
stheor
yexpl
ainst
heexpect
ati
onswhi
chhav
eagr
eat
eri
nfl
uencet
owar
ds
t
heor
gani
zat
ional
behav
ior
.

5.
3Bestmet
hodsf
orst
affsel
ect
ion

5.
3.1Sel
ect
ingt
her
ightper
sonf
ort
her
ightj
ob
 Tay
lorf
ormul
atedt
hisf
act
orofsel
ect
ingt
her
ightper
sonf
ort
her
ightj
ob.
 Theot
herf
act
orswhi
chi
ncl
udest
heuseofsof
twar
etool
s,met
hodol
ogi
es,
pr
ogr
ammi
ngpr
oduct
ivi
tyandsoon.
 I
tisal
way
sbet
tert
ohav
ethebestpeopl
eempl
oyedi
nther
ightpl
aceofwor
k
f
oref
fect
ivepr
oduct
ivi
ty.
 Say f
or exampl
e,a st
udy on compar
ing exper
ienced pr
ogr
ammer i
n
debuggi
ngacodewi
thal
essexper
iencedper
sonwasf
uti
l
ewhent
her
esul
ts

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wer
edr
awn.
 Accor
ding t
o Ger
ald Wei
nber
g,“
Mostpr
ogr
ammer
spr
efert
o wor
kal
one
wher
etheyar
enotdi
stur
bedbyot
herpeopl
e”.

5.
3.2Recr
uit
mentPr
ocess
 Ther
eisal
otofst
ressf
orev
erypr
ojectmanageraboutchoosi
ngt
her
ight
peopl
etomakeupt
hei
rteam.
 Recr
uit
menti
s an or
gani
zat
ionalr
esponsi
bil
i
ty pr
ocess ofsel
ect
ing t
he
per
sonf
ormt
hei
ror
gani
zat
ion.
 Mer
edi
thBel
bincat
egor
izespeopl
einr
ecr
uit
ingpr
ocessi
ntot
wodi
ff
erent
t
ypes.
 El
i
gibl
ecandi
dat
esar
ethoseper
sonswhohav
ether
ighti
nfor
mat
ion
needed byt
heor
gani
zat
ioni
npaper
,i.
e.t
hecur
ri
cul
um v
itaecont
ains
t
her
ightnumberory
ear
sandr
ightpaperqual
i
ficat
ions.
 Sui
tabl
ecandi
dat
escanact
ual
l
ydot
hej
obwel
lbutar
enotof
fi
cial
l
y
el
i
gibl
e.I
dealcandi
dat
esoncegi
venapostar
eli
kel
ytobemor
eloy
al
t
owar
dst
hewel
far
eoft
heor
gani
zat
ion.
 Act
ualski
l
lshav
etobet
akeni
ntoaccountwhi
l
esel
ect
ingaper
sonr
ather
t
hanmer
eel
i
gibi
l
ity
.
 Ther
ecr
uit
mentpol
i
cymustav
oiddi
scr
imi
nat
ionofr
ace,gender
,ageor
i
rr
elev
antdi
sabi
l
iti
es.
 Ar
ecr
uit
mentpr
ocessmusti
ncl
ude:
 Cr
eat
ionofj
obspeci
fi
cat
ion:t
ypeoft
askt
hathast
obecar
ri
edout
mustbedocument
edandagr
eed.
 Cr
eat
ionofj
obpr
ofi
l
e:const
ruct
sapr
ofi
l
eoft
heper
sonneededt
o
car
ry out t
he j
ob wi
th qual
i
ties,qual
i
ficat
ions,educat
ion and
exper
ience.
 Obt
aini
ngappl
i
cant
s:pl
aci
nganadv
ert
isementwi
thi
ntheor
gani
zat
ion
ort
hel
ocal
presst
ogetamaxi
mum numberofpot
ent
ial
appl
i
cant
s.
 Exami
neCur
ri
cul
um Vi
tae:al
lther
ecei
vedCV’
sar
ecompar
edwi
tht
he
j
obhol
derpr
ofi
l
eandi
fsat
isf
iedar
ecal
l
edf
ori
nter
view.

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 I
nter
views: t
hese i
ncl
ude t
he apt
it
ude t
est
s, t
echni
cal t
est
s,
per
sonal
i
tyt
est
sandexami
nat
ionofpr
evi
ouswor
k.Gr
oupdi
scussi
ons
ar
eal
sousedf
orev
aluat
ingandexami
ningt
hest
atement
spr
ovi
dedi
n
t
heCV.
 Ref
erences:needt
obev
eri
fi
edandamedi
calexami
nat
iont
estcan
al
sobedonei
fneeded.

5.
3.3I
nst
ruct
ioni
ntheBestMet
hods
 Ther
esponsi
bil
i
tyoft
het
eam l
eaderbecomesv
eryhi
ghi
ncaseofr
ecr
uit
ing
newmember
sint
othet
eam.
 Hal
fwayt
hrought
hepr
ojectpr
ocess,
maxi
mum ef
for
tmustbet
akent
omake
t
hei
nduct
ionofanewmemberi
ntot
het
eam asanef
fect
iveone.
 Team member
smustbecont
inual
l
yassessedbyt
het
eam l
eadert
omeet
t
hei
rdemandsi
nthedev
elopmentpr
ocess.
 Pr
opert
rai
ning mustbe gi
ven t
o ev
ery st
affmemberi
nvol
ved i
nthe
dev
elopmentoft
hepr
oject
.
 Ther
ear
emanycompani
eswhi
chpr
ovi
det
rai
ningt
othest
aff
sbyconduct
ing
speci
fi
ccour
sesandgi
vi
nghand-
ont
rai
ningaboutt
henewsof
twar
etoolby
demonst
rat
ion.
 What
evermaybe,
thet
rai
ningpr
ocessmustbeact
ual
l
yimpl
ement
edbyt
he
t
eam member
sasawhol
einor
dert
omeett
heobj
ect
ives.

5.
4Mot
ivat
ion

Mot
ivat
ionTheor
ies
Ther
ear
evar
ioust
heor
iesf
ormul
atedbydi
ff
erentper
sonsf
ormot
ivat
ing
t
hepeopl
etowor
k.Theyar
e,
 Tay
lor
istModel
 Masl
ow’
sHi
erar
chyofNeeds
 Her
zber
g’sTwo-
Fact
orTheor
y
 Expect
ancyTheor
yofMot
ivat
ion.

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5.
4.1Tay
lor
istModel
 I
nthi
smodel
,Tay
loremphasi
sont
hepi
ece-
rat
esandday
-rat
es.
 Pi
ece-
rat
esar
ethosewher
ethewor
ker
sar
epai
daf
ixedsum f
oreachsi
ngl
e
i
tem t
heypr
oducewher
easday
-rat
esr
efert
othedai
l
ypayt
hati
sgi
vent
othe
wor
ker
sonat
imel
ybasi
s.
 Thet
endencyt
owar
dsdi
sper
sedorv
irt
ualpr
oject
swher
ethest
aff
sei
ther
wor
kinor
gani
zat
ionorwor
kathomehasadi
ff
erencei
nthepay
mentbased
ont
imewor
ked.
 Theamountpai
dtot
hewor
ker
swi
l
lnotdi
rect
lyr
elat
etomaxi
mizet
heout
put
i
nor
dert
omaxi
mizet
hei
rincome.
 Theamountofout
putwi
l
lnor
mal
l
ydependont
hewor
kinggr
oupandnot
basedonani
ndi
vi
dual
.
 Ar
ewar
dbasedonpi
ece-
rat
esi
sdi
rect
lypr
opor
ti
onalt
othewor
kpr
oduced.
Butasuppor
tteam cannotbeadj
udgedbyasi
ngl
eper
son,
inst
eadi
tisgr
oup
act
ivi
tyandt
her
ewar
dmustbegi
vent
othegr
oupasawhol
e.
 I
nTay
lor
istmodel
,ther
ewar
dsy
stem makesexcessi
vedi
sti
nct
ionsbet
ween
co-
wor
ker
sthatr
esul
tindamagi
ngmor
aleandpr
oduct
ivi
ty.
 Thi
scanbebal
ancedbygi
vi
ngbonusest
opr
ojectt
eam member
saf
ter
compl
eti
onofasuccessf
ulpr
oject
.

5.
4.2Masl
ow’
sHi
erar
chyofNeeds
Thebasi
chumanneedspl
acedbyMasl
owi
nanascendi
ngor
derofi
mpor
tancear
e:

1.Phy
siol
ogi
calNeeds:Thesear
ethebasi
cneedsf
orsust
aini
nghumanl
i
fei
tsel
f,
suchasf
ood,wat
er,war
mth,shel
ter
,andsl
eep.Masl
ow f
eltt
hatunt
ilt
hese
needsar
esat
isf
iedt
othedegr
eenecessar
ytomai
ntai
nli
fe,ot
herneedswi
l
lnot
mot
ivat
epeopl
e.

2.
Secur
it
yorSaf
etyNeeds:
Thesear
etheneedst
obef
reeofphy
sical
dangerand
oft
hef
earofl
osi
ngaj
obpr
oper
ty,
food,
orshel
ter
.

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3.
Aff
il
iat
ionorSoci
alNeeds:Si
ncepeopl
ear
esoci
albei
ngs;
theyneedt
obel
ong,
t
obeaccept
edbyot
her
s.I
tincl
udesf
ri
endshi
p,t
heneedt
olov
eandbel
oved,
soci
ali
zi
ng,
etc.

4.Est
eem Needs:Oncepeopl
ebegi
ntosat
isf
ythei
rneedt
obel
ong;t
heyt
endt
o
wantt
o
behel
dinest
eem bot
hbyt
hemsel
vesandbyot
her
s.Thi
ski
ndofneedpr
oduces
suchsat
isf
act
ionsasr
espect
,power
,pr
est
ige,
stat
us,
andsel
f-
conf
idence.

5.Sel
f-
act
ual
i
zat
ionNeeds:Thi
sist
hehi
ghestneedi
nthehi
erar
chy
.Iti
sthe
desi
ret
o become whatone i
s capabl
e ofbecomi
ng—t
oful
l
yreal
i
zes one'
s
pot
ent
ial
andt
oaccompl
i
shwhatonei
scapabl
eofachi
evi
ng.

5.
4.3Her
zber
g’sTwo-
Fact
orTheor
y
 Peopl
etendt
obedi
ssat
isf
iedaboutt
hei
rjobduet
ocer
tai
nfact
ors.Theyar
e
 Hy
gieneormai
ntenancef
act
ors
 Mot
ivat
ors
 Ahy
gienef
act
ormakest
heper
sondi
ssat
isf
iedi
ftheyar
enotr
ight
lyused.
Forexampl
e,t
hewor
kingcondi
ti
onoft
hewor
ker
.
 Mot
ivat
orscanmaket
heper
sonf
eelt
hatt
hej
obi
swor
thdoi
ngi
t,l
i
kea
senseofachi
evementort
hechal
l
engeoft
hewor
k.
 Hi
gher
-l
evelofmai
ntenancef
act
orscanbepr
ovi
dedbyl
argeor
gani
zat
ions
wher
easbet
termot
ivat
ioncanbepr
ovi
dedt
owor
ker
swhowor
kinsmal
l
er
or
gani
zat
ions.

5.
4.4Expect
ancyTheor
yofMot
ivat
ion
 Vr
oom i
dent
if
iedt
hreei
nfl
uenci
ngf
act
orsonmot
ivat
ion.Theyar
e:
 Expect
ancy
 I
nst
rument
ali
ty
 Per
cei
vedv
alue
 Expect
ancyi
sabel
i
eft
hatwor
kinghar
derwi
l
lleadt
obet
terper
for
mance.

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 I
nst
rument
ali
tyi
sthebel
i
eft
hatbet
terper
for
mancewi
l
lber
ewar
ded.
 Per
cei
vedv
aluedenot
est
her
esul
ti
ngr
ewar
d.
 Whenal
lthesef
act
orsar
ehi
gh,
thent
hemot
ivat
ionl
evelwi
l
lal
sobehi
gh.At
t
hesamet
ime,azer
olev
elf
oranyoneoft
hef
act
orcanr
emov
emot
ivat
ion
compl
etel
y.
 Forexampl
e,whent
hedev
eloperi
ssupposet
ogetasof
twar
epackage
suppl
i
edbyat
hir
dpar
tyt
owor
kandi
tcont
ainsabug,t
hewor
kergi
vesup
si
ncehow muchhar
dwor
kthewor
kerput
sini
twi
l
lnotl
eadt
osuccess
denot
eszer
oexpect
ancy
.
 Ont
heot
hersi
de,i
ftheuseri
snotusi
ngt
hepackagesuppl
i
edbyt
he
dev
eloper
,inst
ead t
he userwor
ks on an al
ter
nat
ivet
ool
,itmakes t
he
dev
eloperf
eel
thati
tiswast
eoft
imeandl
eadst
ozer
oinst
rument
ali
ty.
 Supposei
ftheuseri
susi
ngt
hepackagebutkeepsoncompl
aini
ngaboutt
he
packageandmakest
hedev
eloperr
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
oral
lshor
t-
comi
ngs,
thenat
somepoi
ntoft
imet
hedev
eloperwi
l
lnotl
i
ket
ogeti
nvol
vedf
ori
mpl
ement
ing
anewerpackagewhi
chl
eadst
olowper
cei
vev
alueofr
ewar
d.

5.
5TheOl
dham-
Hackmanj
obchar
act
eri
sti
cmodel

 Ol
dmanandHackmancoi
nedar
ulet
hatmanager
sshoul
dgr
oupt
oget
hert
he
el
ement
soft
askst
hati
scar
ri
edoutmustbemeani
ngf
ulandsat
isf
ying
assi
gnment
s.
 Thesat
isf
act
ionofanyj
obwi
l
ldependont
hef
oll
owi
ngf
act
ors:
 Ski
l
lvar
iet
y
 Taski
dent
it
y
 Tasksi
gni
fi
cance
 Aut
onomy
 Feedback

5.
5.1El
ement
sofTasks

 Fact
orst
hatmaket
hej
obmeani
ngf
ult
otheper
sonwhoi
sdoi
ngi
tar
eski
l
l

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v
ari
ety
,taski
dent
it
yandt
asksi
gni
fi
cance.
 Ski
l
lvar
iet
yist
henumberofdi
ff
erentski
l
lst
hatt
hej
obhol
derhast
he
oppor
tuni
tyt
oexer
cise.
 Taski
dent
it
yist
hedegr
eet
owhi
cht
heper
son’
swor
kandi
tsr
esul
tsar
e
i
dent
if
iabl
easbel
ongi
ngt
otheper
son.
 Tasksi
gni
fi
cancei
sthedegr
eet
owhi
cht
hej
obhasani
nfl
uenceonot
her
s.
 Theaut
onomyf
act
ori
sthedi
scr
eti
onaboutt
hewayt
heper
sonwor
ks.
 Feedbacki
sthei
nfor
mat
iont
heper
sonr
ecei
vesbackaboutt
her
esul
tsof
hi
s/herwor
k.
 Per
sonalgr
owt
hneedsandt
hei
rwor
kingenv
ironmental
soi
nfl
uencet
he
per
cept
ionoft
hej
ob.
 I
ngener
al,act
ivi
ti
esoft
hedev
elopi
ngpr
oductshoul
dbedesi
gnedi
nsucha
mannert
hatt
heper
sonmustf
eel
per
sonal
l
yassoci
atedwi
thi
t.
5.
5.2Met
hodst
oImpr
oveMot
ivat
ion

 Manager
smustadoptt
hef
act
orsl
i
stedbel
owt
oimpr
ovemot
ivat
ion.
 Setspeci
fi
cgoal
s
 Pr
ovi
def
eedback
 Consi
derj
obdesi
gn
 Speci
fi
cgoal
smustbedemandi
nggoal
sbuty
etaccept
abl
ebyst
affand
shoul
dgai
nappr
oval
from t
hem.
 Pr
ovi
dingf
eedbackr
efl
ect
stheper
for
manceoft
hest
affabouthowt
heyar
e
pr
ogr
essi
ng.
 Consi
der
ingj
obdesi
gnmakest
hej
obmor
eint
erest
ingandpr
ovi
dest
hest
aff
wi
thgr
eat
err
esponsi
bil
i
ty.

5.
5.3Measur
esf
orenhanci
ngJob

 Manager
smusti
nvol
vet
hef
oll
owi
ngmeasur
est
oenhancet
hej
obdesi
gn:
.
 Jobenl
argement
 Jobenr
ichment
 Jobenl
argementi
sexact
lyr
ever
seofspeci
ali
zat
ionwher
etheper
sondoi
ng

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t
hej
obcar
ri
esoutawi
derv
ari
etyofact
ivi
ti
es.
 Sayf
orexampl
e,asof
twar
edev
eloperassoci
atedwi
thmai
ntenancegr
oup
mi
ghtbegi
venaddi
ti
onalr
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
orspeci
fyi
ngmi
norchangesi
not
her
phases.
 Jobenr
ichmenti
swher
ethej
obhol
dercar
ri
edoutt
asksatmanager
ialand
super
visor
ylev
el.
 Sayf
orexampl
e,pr
ogr
ammer
sinmai
ntenancegr
oupmi
ghtbegi
venaut
hor
it
y
t
oacceptr
equest
sforchangesf
orav
erysmal
lper
iod(
fi
veday
s)wi
thout
get
ti
ngmanger
’sappr
oval
.

5.
6Et
hical
andPr
ogr
ammedConcer
ns

Et
hicsr
elat
est
othemor
alobl
i
gat
iont
orespectt
her
ight
sandi
nter
est
sofot
her
s–
goesbey
ondst
ri
ctl
ylegal
responsi
bil
i
ties.

Thr
eegr
oupsofr
esponsi
bil
i
ties:

 Responsi
bil
i
tiest
hatev
ery
onehas

 Responsi
bil
i
tiest
hatpeopl
einor
gani
zat
ionshav
e

 Responsi
bil
i
tiesr
elat
ingt
oyourpr
ofessi
onorcal
l
ing
Or
gani
zat
ional
ethi
cs
Ther
ear
esomewhoar
guet
hatet
hical
organi
zat
ional
ethi
csar
eli
mit
ed:
St
ockhol
dert
heor
y(e.
g.Mi
l
ton Fr
iedman)
.An empl
oyee’
sdut
yist
othe
owner
soft
hebusi
ness(
whi
ch of
ten meanst
hest
akehol
der
s)abov
eal
l
ot
her
s–al
thoughl
egal
r
equi
rement
smustbemet
.
Compet
it
iver
elat
ionshi
psbet
weenbusi
nesses.
Compet
it
ionmaycausey
out
odot
hingst
hatcoul
dhav
eanegat
ivei
mpacton
t
he
owner
sorempl
oyeesofcompet
it
ivebusi
nessesUni
for
m Tr
eat
ment

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Oneexampl
eofor
gani
zat
ionalet
hicsi
stheuni
for
mtr
eat
mentofal
l
empl
oyees.Smal
lbusi
nessowner
sshoul
dtr
eatal
lempl
oyeeswi
tht
hesame
r
espect
,regar
dlessoft
hei
rrace,r
eli
gion,cul
tur
esorl
i
fest
yles.Ev
ery
oneshoul
d
al
so hav
e equalchances f
orpr
omot
ions.One way t
o pr
omot
e uni
for
m
t
reat
menti
nor
gani
zat
ionsi
sthr
oughsensi
ti
vi
tyt
rai
ning.Somecompani
eshol
d
one-
daysemi
nar
sonv
ari
ousdi
scr
imi
nat
ioni
ssues.Theyt
heni
nvi
teout
side
exper
tsi
ntodi
scusst
heset
opi
cs.Si
mil
arl
y,smal
lcompanymanager
smust
al
soav
oidf
avor
ingoneempl
oyeeov
erot
her
s.Thi
spr
act
icemayal
sol
eadt
o
l
awsui
tsf
rom di
sgr
unt
ledempl
oyees.I
tisal
socount
erpr
oduct
ive.

Soci
alResponsi
bil
i
ty
Smal
lcompani
esal
sohav
eanobl
i
gat
iont
opr
otectt
hecommuni
ty.For
exampl
e,t
heownerofasmal
lchemi
calcompanyneedst
o communi
cat
e
cer
tai
ndanger
stot
hecommuni
tywhenexpl
osi
onsorot
herdi
sast
ersoccur
.
Theownermustal
somai
ntai
ncer
tai
nsaf
etyst
andar
dsf
orpr
otect
ingnear
by
r
esi
dent
sfr
om l
eakst
hataf
fectt
hewat
erorai
rqual
i
ty.Ther
ear
est
ateand
f
eder
all
aws t
hatpr
otectpeopl
efr
om unet
hicalenv
ironment
alpr
act
ices.
Busi
nessowner
swhov
iol
atet
hesel
awsmayf
acest
if
fpenal
ti
es.Theymay
al
sobeshutdown.

Fi
nanci
alEt
hics
Busi
nessowner
smustr
uncl
eanoper
ati
onswi
thr
espectt
ofi
nances,
i
nvest
ingandexpandi
ngt
hei
rcompani
es.Forexampl
e,or
gani
zat
ionsmustnot
br
ibest
atel
egi
sl
ator
sfort
axcr
edi
tsorspeci
alpr
ivi
l
eges.I
nsi
dert
radi
ngi
sal
so
pr
ohi
bit
ed.I
nsi
dert
radi
ngi
swhenmanager
sorexecut
ivesi
l
legal
l
yappr
ise
i
nvest
orsorout
sidepar
ti
esofpr
ivi
l
egedi
nfor
mat
ionaf
fect
ingpubl
i
clyt
raded
st
ocks,
accor
dingt
otheSecur
it
iesandEx
changeCommi
ssi
on.Thei
nfor
mat
ion
hel
ps some i
nvest
ors achi
eve gr
eat
err
etur
ns on t
hei
rinv
est
ment
s att
he
expense ofot
her
s.Execut
ivesi
n smal
lcompani
esmustst
ri
vet
o hel
p al
l
shar
ehol
der
sear
nbet
terr
etur
nsont
hei
rmoney
.Theymustal
soav
oidcol
l
usi
ve
ar
rangement
swi
thot
hercompani
est
odel
i
ber
atel
yhar
m ot
hercompet
it
ors.

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Consi
der
ati
ons
Asmal
lcompany
'sor
gani
zat
ionalet
hicscanal
soi
ncl
udet
aki
ngcar
eof
empl
oyeeswi
thment
ali
l
lnessesorsubst
anceabusepr
obl
ems,suchasdr
ug
and al
coholdependency
.Et
hicalbusi
ness owner
s hel
pthei
rempl
oyees
ov
ercomet
heset
ypesofpr
obl
emswhenpossi
ble.Theyof
tenputt
hem t
hrough
empl
oyeeadv
isorpr
ogr
ams,whi
chi
nvol
vesget
ti
ngt
hem t
het
reat
mentt
hey
need.Empl
oyees mayhav
eissues t
hatl
ead t
othese t
ypes ofpr
obl
ems.
Ther
efor
e,t
heydeser
veachancet
oexpl
aint
hei
rsi
tuat
ionsandgett
hehel
p
t
heyneed.

Pr
ofessi
onal
ethi
cs
Pr
ofessi
onal
s hav
e knowl
edge aboutt
he t
echni
caldomai
nthatt
he
gener
alpubl
i
cdoesnot
.Et
hicaldut
yoft
heexper
ttowar
nlaypeopl
eoft
her
isks
i
nvol
ved i
n a par
ti
cul
arcour
se ofact
ion.Many pr
ofessi
ons,orwoul
d be
pr
ofessi
ons,
hav
ecodesofconductf
ort
hei
rmember
s

5.
7Wor
kingi
nteams

 Notal
lpeopl
einv
olv
edi
nthedev
elopmentpr
ocessl
i
ket
owor
kingr
oups.
 Butmaj
orsof
twar
epr
oject
sal
way
shav
etowor
kingr
oupsandmanypeopl
e
donotl
i
ket
owor
kingr
oups.
 Anyor
gani
zat
ion i
nvol
ved i
nthe dev
elopmentpr
ocess wi
l
lhav
evar
ious
depar
tment
sref
lect
ingi
tsst
ruct
ure.
 For
malgr
oupscanbef
ormul
atedbasedont
hedi
ff
erentdepar
tment
sand
t
askgr
oupscanbef
ormedbasedonspeci
fi
ctaskscar
ri
ed.
 Taskgr
oupcancont
aindi
ff
erentpeopl
efr
om di
ff
erentdepar
tment
stowor
k
t
oget
hert
ocar
ryoutaspeci
fi
ctask.
 Ev
eryt
askgr
oupf
ormedf
orspeci
fi
cact
ivi
ti
est
obecar
ri
edoutar
edi
ssol
ved
oncet
het
aski
scompl
etel
yachi
eved.

5.
7.1Becomi
ngat
eam

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 Maki
ng peopl
e wor
ktoget
heri
sthe mostdi
ff
icul
ttaskt
hatt
he pr
oject
managerhast
ocar
eful
l
yhandl
e.
 At
eam cannotper
for
minst
ant
ly;
ithast
odev
elopov
ert
ime.

5.
7.2Team For
mat
ionModel

 Ev
eryt
eam has t
o go t
hrough f
ive di
ff
erentst
ages ofdev
elopmentas
depi
ctedi
ntheTeam For
mat
ionModel
namel
y,
 For
ming
 St
ormi
ng
 Nor
ming
 Per
for
ming
 Adj
our
ning
 For
ming:basi
cgr
oundr
ulesandgener
albehav
iorar
esetupt
otr
yandgett
o
knoweachot
heri
nthet
eam.
 St
ormi
ng:gr
oupi
ngmet
hodsofoper
ati
onhav
etoest
abl
i
shast
her
eisa
chanceofconf
li
ctsar
isi
ngduet
oleader
shi
p.
 Nor
ming:
agr
oupi
dent
it
yemer
gesast
heconf
li
ctsar
elar
gel
yset
tl
ed.
 Per
for
ming:
howt
het
asksar
ehandl
edbyt
het
eam.
 Adj
our
ning:di
sbandi
ngoft
hegr
oup.

5.
7.3I
ndi
vi
dual
Char
act
eri
sti
cs

 Anypr
ojectt
eam mustbef
ormedwi
tht
hebestmi
xofdi
ff
erentper
sonal
i
ties.
 Bel
binf
ormul
ated t
he need of bal
anced t
eams based on i
ndi
vi
dual
char
act
eri
sti
csofpeopl
e.
 Chai
r:t
hesepeopl
emustbegoodatconduct
ingmeet
ings,mustbe
cal
m,st
rongandt
oler
ant
.Neednotbeexcel
l
entl
eader
s.
 Pl
ant
:thesepeopl
emustbegood atgener
ati
ng i
deasand gi
vi
ng
pot
ent
ial
sol
uti
ont
opr
obl
ems.
 Moni
tor
-Ev
aluat
or:t
heymustbegoodev
aluat
orsandbesti
nsel
ect
ing

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t
hemostf
easi
blesol
uti
on.
 Shaper
:hel
psi
ndi
rect
ingt
het
eam’
sat
tent
iont
oimpor
tanti
ssues.
 Team wor
ker
: must be ef
fi
cient i
n cr
eat
ing a good wor
king
env
ironment
.
 Resour
cei
nvest
igat
or:hel
psi
nfi
ndi
ng r
esour
cesi
nter
msofbot
h
phy
sical
resour
cesandi
nfor
mat
ion.
 Compl
ete-
fi
nisher
:peopl
e who ar
e concer
ned wi
th compl
eti
ng t
he
t
asks.
 Company
-wor
ker
:mustbegoodt
eam pl
ayerwi
l
li
ngt
ounder
takel
ess
at
tract
ivewor
kfort
eam’
ssuccess.
 Tobeagoodt
eam member
,theper
sonmustbef
lexi
ble,r
est
rai
ned,t
imel
y
andkeepi
ngt
hecommongoal
soft
het
eam i
nmi
ndal
lthet
ime.

5.
7.4Gr
oupPer
for
mance

 Ther
eisast
rongquest
ionr
aisedof
ten:“
Aregr
oupsmor
eef
fect
ivet
han
i
ndi
vi
dual
swor
kingal
one?
”.
 I
tist
her
esponsi
bil
i
tyoft
hepr
ojectmanagert
odi
sti
ngui
sht
het
askswhi
ch
ar
esupposedt
obecar
ri
edoutt
oget
herandt
hoset
askst
obecar
ri
edoutby
i
ndi
vi
dual
s.
 Somewor
ksy
iel
dbet
terr
esul
tswhenwor
kedt
oget
herasat
eam,
whi
l
esome
ot
her
sar
esl
oweddownbecauseoft
hewor
kbecompar
tment
ali
zedbasedon
i
ndi
vi
dual
s.
 Ther
ear
efourdi
ff
erentway
sofcat
egor
izi
nggr
oupt
asks.Theyar
e:
 Addi
ti
veTasks:
int
hist
heef
for
tofev
eryper
sonar
eaddedt
oreacht
he
f
inal
resul
t.Peopl
einv
olv
edi
naddi
ti
vet
asksar
eint
erchangeabl
e.
 Compensat
ory Tasks:her
e,t
he j
udgement
s of i
ndi
vi
dualgr
oup
member
sar
etakenandt
her
esul
tsar
ethenav
eraged.Theser
esul
tin
ef
fect
ivegr
oupwor
krat
hert
hant
heef
for
tsofi
ndi
vi
dual
s.
 Di
sjunct
iveTasks:t
heset
askshav
eonl
yonecor
rectsol
uti
ont
othe
t
ask.Her
e,i
fsomeonecomeswi
thasol
uti
onandev
ery
bodyi
nthe

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t
eam accept
sit
.
 Conj
unct
iveTasks:her
e,t
hepr
ogr
essi
sgov
ernedbyt
her
ateoft
he
sl
owestper
for
merwher
eunt
ileachandev
eryper
soncompl
etest
hei
r
ownt
asks,
theov
eral
ltasksdonotat
tai
nit
scompl
eti
on.I
nthi
scase,
a
cooper
ati
veat
ti
tudeoft
het
eam becomespr
oduct
ive.
 Amaj
orpr
obl
em canar
isewi
thaddi
ti
vet
askst
hatl
eadt
osoci
all
oaf
ing.
 Soci
all
oaf
ingi
sapr
obl
em wher
esomei
ndi
vi
dual
sdonotmaket
hei
rpr
oper
cont
ri
but
ionwhencar
ryi
ngoutgr
oupassi
gnment
s.

5.
8Deci
sionmaki
ng

5.
8.1Cat
egor
iesofDeci
sions

 Deci
si
onmaki
ngpr
ocesscanbecat
egor
izedi
ntost
ruct
uredandunst
ruct
ured.
 St
ruct
ureddeci
sionsar
egener
all
ysi
mpl
ewher
ether
ulesar
eappl
i
edi
n
ast
rai
ght
-f
orwar
dsway
.
 Unst
ruct
ureddeci
sionsar
eof
tenmor
ecompl
exandr
equi
reagr
eat
degr
eeofcr
eat
ivi
ty.
 Theamountofr
iskandt
heuncer
tai
ntyi
nvol
vedi
nthedev
elopmentpr
ocess
canaf
fectt
hedeci
sionmaki
ngpr
ocess.

5.
8.2Obst
acl
est
oGoodDeci
sionMaki
ng

 Fewf
act
orst
hataf
fectgooddeci
sionmaki
ngpr
ocessar
e:
 Faul
tyheur
ist
ics:t
her
ulesoft
humborheur
ist
icsar
eusef
ulbutcanbe
mi
sl
eadi
ng.Thesear
ebasedonmer
est
ereot
ypes.
 Escal
ati
onofcommi
tment
:thi
shappenswhenawr
ongdeci
sioni
smade
whi
chcannotbeal
ter
edeasi
l
ylat
er.
 I
nfor
mat
ion ov
erl
oad:t
oo much ofi
nfor
mat
ion al
so mi
ghtl
ead t
he
deci
si
onpr
ocesst
ochooseawr
ongone.

5.
8.3Gr
oupDeci
sionMaki
ng

 I
ngr
oupdi
scussi
ons,di
ff
erentspeci
ali
stsandpoi
ntofv
iew ofst
akehol
der
s

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canbebr
oughtt
oget
hert
omakeabet
terdeci
sion.
 Deci
si
ons made bya t
eam can be appr
oved and accept
ed easi
l
ythan
deci
si
onsi
mposedbyi
ndi
vi
dual
s.
 Ev
erygr
oupmeet
ingt
akest
hecol
l
ect
iver
esponsi
bil
i
tyofhav
ingpr
oper
ly
br
ief
edofsol
vi
ngcompl
expr
obl
ems.
 A gr
oupcanar
ri
veatbet
tersol
uti
onsf
orcompl
expr
obl
emsbecauset
he
member
soft
hegr
ouphav
ecompl
ement
aryski
l
lsandexper
ti
se.
 Gr
oupmeet
ingspr
ovi
deanoppor
tuni
tyf
orpeopl
etocommuni
cat
efr
eel
yand
easi
l
yamongt
hemember
soft
hegr
oup.
 Of
ten,gr
oups ar
eless ef
fect
ivef
orpoor
ly st
ruct
ures pr
obl
ems wher
e
br
ainst
ormi
ng t
echni
ques can be used t
o hel
ps t
he gr
oups t
o make i
t
st
ruct
ured
 Ev
ent
hough,gr
oupdeci
sionmaki
ngi
sef
fect
ivei
nachi
evi
ngsol
uti
ons,i
thas
beenpr
ovedbyr
esear
cht
hatpeopl
ecomeupwi
thmor
eideasi
ndi
vi
dual
l
y
t
hani
ngr
oups.

5.
8.4Obst
acl
est
oGoodGr
oupDeci
sionMaki
ng

 Gr
oupdeci
si
onmaki
ngpr
ocesshasi
tsowndi
sadv
ant
ages:
 I
tist
imeconsumi
ngpr
ocess.
 Conf
li
ctscanar
iseamongt
hemember
soft
hegr
oup.
 Deci
si
onscanbei
nfl
uencedbydomi
nantper
sonal
i
ties.
 Onceest
abl
i
shedt
hegr
oupnor
mscansur
viv
emanychangesofmember
shi
p
i
nthegr
oup.
 Exper
iment
alr
esul
ts hav
e shown t
hatpeopl
e can modi
fyt
hei
rper
sonal
j
udgement
stoconf
ormt
ogr
oupnor
ms.
 Somet
imespeopl
eingr
oupst
akehast
ydeci
sionst
hatcancausemor
eri
sk
t
henwhent
heymaket
hei
rdeci
sionsont
hei
rownknownasr
iskyshi
ft
.

5.
8.5Measur
est
oreduceobst
acl
esofGr
oupDeci
sionMaki
ng

 Tomakegr
oupdeci
sionmaki
ngpr
ocesst
obemor
eef
fect
iveandef
fi
cient
t
heDel
phi
Techni
quecanbeadopt
ed.

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 Del
phit
echni
queendeav
our
erst
ocol
l
atet
hej
udgement
sofanumberof
exper
tswi
thoutact
ual
l
ybr
ingi
ngt
hem f
acet
oface.
 Thesetofpr
ocedur
esi
scar
ri
edoutasf
oll
ows:
 Cooper
ati
onofanumberofexper
tsi
senl
i
sted.
 Pr
obl
em i
spr
esent
edt
otheexper
ts.
 Exper
tsr
ecor
dthei
rrecommendat
ions.
 Recommendat
ionsar
ecol
l
atedandar
erepr
oduced.
 Col
l
ect
edr
esponsesar
ereci
rcul
ated.
 Exper
ts comment on t
he i
deas of ot
her
s and modi
fyt
hei
r
r
ecommendat
ions.
 I
fthe l
eaderf
inds any di
scr
epancy
,the pr
ocess i
s st
opped,
ot
her
wisei
tisr
eci
rcul
atedt
otheexper
ts.
 Thi
smet
hodcanbeadopt
edt
ogeogr
aphi
cal
l
ydi
sper
sedexper
tsbutt
he
pr
ocessbecomest
imeconsumi
ng.

5.
9Team St
ruct
ures

5.
9.1Depar
tmentSt
ruct
ure

 Depar
tment
ali
zat
ionofor
gani
zat
ionsdependsonst
affspeci
alt
ies,
productl
i
nes,
cat
egor
iesofcust
omerort
hegeogr
aphi
cal
locat
ion.
 I
ngener
al,t
hesof
twar
edev
elopmentpr
ocessappr
oachi
sref
err
edasei
ther
f
unct
ion-
ori
ent
edort
ask-
ori
ent
ed.
 Funct
ionor
ient
edappr
oachdeal
swi
thdi
ff
erentgr
oupst
hatar
efor
medbasedon
t
hei
rfunct
ional
speci
ali
zat
ion.
 Thi
sappr
oachl
eadst
oamor
eef
fect
iveusageofst
affbot
htechni
cal
l
yandi
n
empl
oyi
ngt
hest
andar
dst
hatar
eneededt
obeconcer
ned.
 Wi
tht
het
askor
ient
edappr
oach,member
sar
egr
oupedt
oget
herwi
thr
espectt
o
aspeci
fi
ctask.
 Thespeci
fi
ctaskhast
obeachi
evedbyt
hegr
oupandt
hegr
oupi
sdi
ssol
ved
af
tert
hesuccessf
ulcompl
eti
onoft
hepar
ti
cul
art
ask.
 Depar
tment
ali
zat
ioni
sal
sobasedonl
i
fe-
cycl
ephase.

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 I
n pr
ojectl
i
fecy
clephasest
her
ear
esepar
atet
eamsf
ordev
elopmentand
mai
ntenance.
 Mat
ri
xfor
m ofdepar
tment
ali
zat
ioncanal
sobef
ormedwher
ether
ear
etwo
manager
s namel
ypr
ojectmanagerand pr
ogr
ammi
ng manager
.The pr
oject
managerdeal
swi
tht
heday
-to-
dayact
ivi
ti
eswhi
l
ethepr
ogr
ammi
ngmanager
f
ocusesonf
utur
ecar
eerdev
elopment
.
 Egol
esspr
ogr
ammi
ngsuggest
sthatt
hepr
ogr
ammer
sandt
hepr
ogr
ammi
ng
t
eam l
eader
sshoul
dreadot
herpeopl
e’
spr
ogr
amssot
hatt
hepr
ogr
amsbecome
acommonpr
oper
tyt
obot
h.

5.
9.2Team St
ruct
ure
Team st
ruct
ureaddr
essest
hei
ssueofor
gani
zat
ionoft
hei
ndi
vi
dualpr
oject
t
eams.Ther
ear
emai
nlyt
hreef
ormal
team st
ruct
ures:

Chi
efpr
ogr
ammer
,
Democr
ati
c,and
Themi
xedcont
rol
team or
gani
zat
ions

Chi
efPr
ogr
ammerTeams

 I
fthenumberofgr
oupsi
slar
ger
,thent
hewor
kwi
l
lbesl
owerbecauseof
i
ncr
easedcommuni
cat
ion.Sol
argepr
oject
smustbef
ormal
i
zedandmustbe
r
epr
esent
edi
nancent
ral
i
zedst
ruct
ure.
 Onewayt
oav
oidt
his,t
oreducet
henumberofpeopl
eandgi
vi
ngt
hem mor
e
suppor
ttomaket
hewor
kdonewhi
chl
edt
othef
ormul
ati
onofchi
efpr
ogr
ammer
t
eam.
 The chi
efpr
ogr
ammerdef
ines t
he speci
fi
cat
ion,desi
gn,code,t
est
s and
document
stheent
ir
esof
twar
e.
 Thechi
efpr
ogr
ammercanhav
eaco-
pil
otwhocanassi
sti
nwr
it
ingsomecode
anddi
scussi
ons.
 An edi
torcan beused t
o wr
it
eup t
hedocument
ati
on dr
aft
ed byt
hechi
ef
pr
ogr
ammer
,al
ongwi
thapr
ogr
am cl
erkwhomai
ntai
nst
heact
ualcodeanda

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t
est
erwhov
ali
dat
est
hecode.
 Thedi
sadv
ant
ageofchi
efpr
ogr
ammert
eamsi
sthatt
hechi
efpr
ogr
ammeri
s
ov
erl
oadedwi
thl
otsofi
nfor
mat
ionandcannotmanageatsomepoi
ntoft
ime.
 Ext
reme pr
ogr
ammi
ng conceptcan ov
ercome t
his di
sadv
ant
age wher
ethe
sof
twar
eisdev
elopedbypai
rsofdev
eloper
swi
thachi
efpr
ogr
ammer/co-
pil
ot
r
elat
ionshi
p.

Chi
efpr
ogr
ammer

Team Member
s

I
nthi
steam or
gani
zat
ion,a seni
orengi
neerpr
ovi
des t
he t
echni
cal
l
eader
shi
pandi
sdesi
gnat
edast
hechi
efpr
ogr
ammer
.
Thechi
efpr
ogr
ammerpar
ti
ti
onst
het
aski
ntosmal
lact
ivi
ti
esandassi
gns
t
hem t
othet
eam member
s.
Heal
sov
eri
fi
esandi
ntegr
atest
hepr
oduct
sdev
elopedbydi
ff
erentt
eam
member
s.

Adv
ant
ages

Thechi
efpr
ogr
ammerpr
ovi
desanaut
hor
it
y,andt
hisst
ruct
urei
sar
guabl
y
mor
eef
fi
cientt
hant
hedemocr
ati
cteam f
orwel
l
-under
stoodpr
obl
ems.
Howev
er,t
hechi
efpr
ogr
ammert
eam l
eadst
olowert
eam mor
ale,si
nce
t
eam-
member
s wor
k under t
he const
ant super
visi
on of t
he chi
ef
pr
ogr
ammer
.
Thi
sal
soi
nhi
bit
scol
l
ect
iveandt
hei
ror
igi
nal
thi
nki
ng.

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Thechi
efpr
ogr
ammert
eam i
ssubj
ectt
osi
ngl
epoi
ntf
ail
uresi
ncet
oo
muchr
esponsi
bil
i
tyandaut
hor
it
yisassi
gnedt
othechi
efpr
ogr
ammer
.
Si
ncet
hechi
efpr
ogr
ammercar
ri
esoutmanyt
asksi
ndi
vi
dual
l
y,t
her
eisa
dangerofi
nfor
mat
ionov
erl
oadont
hechi
efpr
ogr
ammer

Democr
ati
cTeam St
ruct
ure

Thedemocr
ati
cteam st
ruct
ure,ast
henamei
mpl
i
es,doesnotenf
orce
anyf
ormalt
eam hi
erar
chy
.Deci
sionsar
etakenbasedondi
scussi
ons,wher
eany
memberi
sfr
eet
odi
scusswi
thanyot
hermat
ter
s.Ty
pical
l
y,amanagerpr
ovi
dest
he
admi
nist
rat
ivel
eader
shi
p.Atdi
ff
erentt
imes,
dif
fer
entmember
soft
hegr
ouppr
ovi
de
t
echni
cal
leader
shi
p.

Adv
ant
ages:

Thedemocr
ati
cor
gani
zat
ionl
eadst
ohi
ghermor
aleandj
obsat
isf
act
ion.
Democr
ati
cteam st
ruct
urei
sappr
opr
iat
eforl
essunder
stoodpr
obl
ems,
si
nceagr
oupofengi
neer
scani
nventbet
tersol
uti
onst
hanasi
ngl
e
i
ndi
vi
dual
asi
nachi
efpr
ogr
ammert
eam.
Ademocr
ati
cteam st
ruct
urei
ssui
tabl
eforpr
oject
srequi
ri
ngl
esst
han
f
iveorsi
xengi
neer
sandf
orr
esear
ch-
ori
ent
edpr
oject
s.Forl
argesi
zed
pr
oject
s,apur
edemocr
ati
cor
gani
zat
iont
endst
obecomechaot
ic.
The democr
ati
cteam or
gani
zat
ion encour
ages egol
ess pr
ogr
ammi
ng
as
pr
ogr
ammer
scanshar
eandr
evi
ewoneanot
her
’swor
k.

Di
sadv
ant
ages:

Consequent
ly,
itsuf
fer
sfr
om l
essman-
powert
urnov
er

Mi
xedCont
rol
Team St
ruct
ure

Themi
xedt
eam or
gani
zat
ion,ast
henamei
mpl
i
es,dr
awsupont
hei
deas

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f
rom bot
hthe democr
ati
c or
gani
zat
ion and t
he chi
ef-
progr
ammer
or
gani
zat
ion.Thi
steam or
gani
zat
ion i
ncor
por
ates bot
h hi
erar
chi
cal
r
epor
ti
nganddemocr
ati
csetup.

Thedemocr
ati
cconnect
ionsar
eshownasdashedl
i
nesandt
her
epor
ti
ng
st
ruct
urei
sshownusi
ngsol
i
dar
rows.
Themi
xedcont
rol
team or
gani
zat
ioni
ssui
tabl
eforl
arget
eam si
zes.
Thedemocr
ati
car
rangementatt
heseni
orengi
neer
’sl
eveli
susedt
o
decomposet
hepr
obl
em i
ntosmal
lpar
ts.Eachdemocr
ati
cset
upatt
he
pr
ogr
ammerl
evelat
tempt
ssol
uti
on t
o asi
ngl
epar
t.Thus,t
hist
eam
or
gani
zat
ioni
semi
nent
ly
sui
tedt
ohandl
elar
geandcompl
expr
ogr
ams.

Thi
steam st
ruct
urei
sext
remel
ypopul
arandi
sbei
ngusedi
nmanysof
twar
e
dev
elopmentcompani
es.

5.
10Vi
rt
ual
Teams

AVi
rt
ualTeam –al
soknownasaGeogr
aphi
cal
l
yDi
sper
sedTeam (
GDT)–i
sa
gr
oupofi
ndi
vi
dual
swhowor
kacr
osst
ime,space,andor
gani
zat
ionalboundar
ieswi
th
l
i
nksst
rengt
henedbywebsofcommuni
cat
iont
echnol
ogy
.Theyhav
ecompl
ement
ary
ski
l
lsandar
ecommi
tt
edt
oacommonpur
pose,hav
eint
erdependentper
for
mance
goal
s,and shar
ean appr
oach t
o wor
kforwhi
ch t
heyhol
dthemsel
vesmut
ual
l
y
account
abl
e.Geogr
aphi
cal
l
ydi
sper
sedt
eamsal
l
owor
gani
zat
ionst
ohi
reandr
etai
nthe
bestpeopl
eregar
dlessofl
ocat
ion.Av
irt
ualt
eam doesnotal
way
smeant
elewor
ker
s.
Tel
ewor
ker
sar
edef
inedasi
ndi
vi
dual
swhowor
kfr
om home.Manyv
irt
ualt
eamsi
n
t
oday
’sor
gani
zat
ionsconsi
stofempl
oyeesbot
hwor
kingathomeandsmal
lgr
oupsi
n
t
heof
fi
cebuti
ndi
ff
erentgeogr
aphi
clocat
ions.

WhyVi
rt
ual
Teams?

Bestempl
oyeesmaybel
ocat
edany
wher
eint
hewor
ld.

Wor
ker
sdemandper
sonal
flexi
bil
i
ty.

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Wor
ker
sdemandi
ncr
easi
ngt
echnol
ogi
cal
sophi
sti
cat
ion.

Afl
exibleor
gani
zat
ioni
smor
ecompet
it
iveandr
esponsi
vet
othe
marketpl
ace.

Wor
ker
stendt
obemor
epr
oduct
ive–l
esscommut
ingandt
rav
elt
ime.

Thei
ncr
easi
nggl
obal
i
zat
ionoft
radeandcor
por
ateact
ivi
ty.

Thegl
obal
wor
kdayi
s24v
s.8hour
s.

Theemergenceofenvi
ronment
swhichr
equi
rei
nter
-or
gani
zat
ional
cooper
ati
onaswellascompeti
ti
on.

Changesi
nwor
ker
s’expect
ati
onsofor
gani
zat
ional
par
ti
cipat
ion.

Acont
inuedshi
ftf
rom pr
oduct
iont
oser
vice/
knowl
edgewor
kenv
ironment
s.

Incr
easi
nghori
zontal
organi
zat
ionst
ruct
urescharact
eri
zedbyst
ruct
ural
l
y
andgeographi
cal
l
ydistr
ibut
edhumanresources.

5.
11Communi
cat
iongenr
es

Amaj
ori
nfl
uenceont
henat
ureofcommuni
cat
iongenr
esi
stheconst
rai
ntsof
t
imeandpl
ace.Modesofcommuni
cat
ioncanbecat
egor
izedascombi
nat
ionsoft
wo
opposi
te:
Samet
ime/
Dif
fer
entt
imeandSamePl
ace/
Dif
fer
entPl
ace.

SamePl
ace Di
ff
erentPl
ace

SameTi
me Meet
ings,
Int
erv
iews Tel
ephone,
Inst
antMessagi
ng

Di
ff
erentTi
me Not
iceBoar
ds E-
mai
l
,Voi
cemai
l
,Document
s

Thenat
ureoft
hei
nfor
mat
iont
obeconv
eyed:

o Whati
stheext
entandcompl
exi
tyoft
hei
nfor
mat
iont
obeconv
eyed?

Aphoneconv
ersat
ioni
fmessagei
ssi
mpl
e

o Isi
teasytounderst
and?I
sthecont
extwel
lknownt
obot
hthesender
andthereci
pient
?

Twowaycommuni
cat
ion

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o Wher
ethecommuni
cat
ioni
sper
sonal
l
ysensi
ti
ve

Face-
to-
facecont
act
s

Atdi
ff
erentst
agesofapr
oject–di
ff
erentcommuni
cat
iongenr
eswi
l
lbepr
efer
red

Ear
lyst
ages–meet
ing(
s)

Team membersneedt
obui
l
dupt
hei
rtr
ustandconf
idencei
nthei
r
co-
wor ker
s
Deci
sionmaki
ng

I
nter
medi
atest
ages(
desi
gn)–t
eleconf
erenci
ng

Act
ivi
ti
esexecut
edi
npar
all
el
Somepoint
sneedst
obeclari
fi
ed

I
mpl
ement
ati
onst
ages-emai
l
s

Ev
ery
oneknowshi
srol
e,wor
kcanpr
ogr
ess

5.
12Communi
cat
ionpl
ans

Acommuni
cat
ionspl
an,i
npr
ojectmanagement
,isapol
i
cy-
dri
venappr
oacht
o
pr
ovi
dingst
akehol
der
swi
thi
nfor
mat
ionaboutapr
oject
.Thepl
anf
ormal
l
ydef
ineswho
shoul
dbegi
venspeci
fi
cinf
ormat
ion,whent
hati
nfor
mat
ionshoul
dbedel
i
ver
edand
whatcommuni
cat
ionchannel
swi
l
lbeusedt
odel
i
vert
hei
nfor
mat
ion.

Anef
fect
ivecommuni
cat
ionsmanagementpl
anant
ici
pat
eswhati
nfor
mat
ion
wi
l
lneedt
obecommuni
cat
edt
ospeci
fi
caudi
encesegment
s.Thepl
anshoul
dal
so
addr
esswhohast
heaut
hor
it
ytocommuni
cat
econf
ident
ialorsensi
ti
vei
nfor
mat
ion
andhowi
nfor
mat
ionshoul
dbedi
ssemi
nat
ed(
emai
l
,websi
tes,
pri
ntedr
epor
ts,
and/
or
pr
esent
ati
ons)
.Fi
nal
l
y,t
he pl
an shoul
d def
ine what communi
cat
ion channel
s
st
akehol
der
sshoul
duset
opr
ovi
def
eedbackandhowcommuni
cat
iondocument
ati
on
wi
l
lbear
chi
vedaspar
toft
hepr
ojectr
ecor
ds.

I
nsomeor
gani
zat
ionst
hecommuni
cat
ionsmanagementpl
anmayal
soi
ncl
ude
agl
ossar
yofcommonpr
ojectt
ermi
nol
ogyt
hatwi
l
lbeusedwi
thi
nthepr
oject
.Thi
s

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 www.edubuzz360.com
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gl
ossar
ymaydef
ineandi
ncl
udesampl
esoft
empl
ates,r
epor
tsandf
ormst
hatt
he
pr
ojectmanagerwi
l
luset
ocommuni
cat
einf
ormat
ion.

Ther
esul
toft
hecommuni
cat
ionpr
ocesscoul
dbedocument
edi
nat
abl
ewi
tht
he
f
oll
owi
ngcol
umnheadi
ngs.

 What–Thi
scont
ainst
henameofapar
ti
cul
arcommuni
cat
ionev
ent

 Who/
tar
get–Thet
argetaudi
encef
ort
hecommuni
cat
ion

 Pur
pose–Whatt
hecommuni
cat
ioni
stoachi
eve

 When/fr
equency–I fthecommuni cat
ionbymeansofasi ngl
eevent
,thena
speci
fi
cdatecanbesupplied.Ift
heeventisarecur
ri
ngone,
suchasaprogress
meeti
ng,thenthef
requencyshoul
dbeindicat
ed

 Type/met
hod–Thenatur
eoft
hecommuni
cat
ion,f
orexampl
eameet
ingora
di
stri
but
eddocument

 Responsi
bil
i
ty–Theper
sonwhoi
nit
iat
est
hecommuni
cat
ion

5.
13Leader
shi
p

 Leader
shi
p meanst
heabi
l
ityt
oinf
luenceot
her
sin agr
oup t
o acti
na
par
ti
cul
arwayt
oachi
evegr
oupgoal
s.
 Al
eaderneednotbeav
erygoodmanagerorv
ice-
ver
sasi
ncemanager
shav
e
di
ff
erentr
olessuchsor
gani
zi
ng,
planni
ngandcont
rol
l
ing.
 I
tisv
erydi
ff
icul
ttol
i
stt
hecommonchar
act
eri
sti
csofgoodl
eader
s.
 Butev
eryl
eaderhav
eagr
eat
erneedf
orpowerandachi
evementandmust
hav
emor
esel
f-
cont
rol
andsel
f-
conf
idencet
hanot
her
s.
 Leader
shi
pisgener
all
ybasedont
hei
deaofaut
hor
it
yorpower
.
5.
13.
1Posi
ti
onal
Leader
shi
pPower
 Powercant
aket
hef
orm basedont
heposi
ti
onoft
heper
son.Posi
ti
onal
powercanbeanal
yzedas:
 Coer
civ
e power
:abi
l
ityt
ofor
ce someone t
o do somet
hing by
t
hreat
eni
ngpuni
shment
.
 Connect
ionpower
:basedonhav
ingaccesst
othosewhohav
epower
.

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 Legi
ti
mat
epower
:basedonper
son’
sti
tl
egi
vi
ngaspeci
alst
atus.
 Rewar
dpower
:her
ethehol
dergi
vesr
ewar
dst
othosewhocar
ryout
t
askst
othesat
isf
act
ionoft
hei
rleader
.
5.
13.
2Per
sonal
Leader
shi
pPower
 Per
sonalpowerdepi
ctst
heper
son’
sindi
vi
dualqual
i
ties.Per
sonalpowercan
beanal
yzedas:
 Exper
tpower
:per
sonwhoi
scapabl
eofdoi
ngspeci
ali
zedt
asks.
 I
nfor
mat
ion power
: her
e,t
he hol
der has excl
usi
ve access t
o
i
nfor
mat
ion.
 Ref
erentpower
:basedont
heper
sonal
att
ract
ivenessoft
hel
eader
.
5.
13.
3Leader
shi
pSt
yles
 I
nor
dert
omakebestuseoft
heexper
ti
seandcommi
tmentoft
hepeopl
e
i
nvol
vedt
hel
eader
smustbeanaut
hor
it
ati
vebutatt
hesamet
imemor
e
f
lexi
bleandt
oler
ant
.
 Somet
imes,
thel
eader
smustbedemocr
ati
caswel
l
,tohav
eav
erydi
sci
pli
ned
execut
ionoft
hepl
an.
 Leader
shi
pst
ylescanbecl
assi
fi
edas:
 Di
rect
ivev
s.per
missi
ve
 Aut
ocr
ati
cvs.democr
ati
c.
 Di
rect
iveaut
ocr
atmakesdeci
sionsal
oneandwi
l
lbeper
sonv
erycl
osel
y
associ
atedwi
tht
hei
mpl
ement
ati
on.
 Per
missi
ve aut
ocr
atal
so makes deci
sions al
one,butsubor
dinat
es hav
e
l
ati
tudei
nimpl
ement
ati
on.
 Di
rect
ivedemocr
atmakesdeci
sionspar
ti
cipat
iveandwi
l
lbeaper
sonv
ery
cl
osel
yassoci
atedwi
tht
hei
mpl
ement
ati
on.
 Per
missi
vedemocr
atal
somakesdeci
sionspar
ti
cipat
ive,butsubor
dinat
es
hav
elat
it
udei
nimpl
ement
ati
on.
 Theemphasi
sist
hatt
her
ear
enoonebestst
yleofl
eader
shi
pwhi
chhast
o
bechosenbyt
hemanagementbuti
ttr
ulydependsont
hesi
tuat
ion.

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