1

.Int
roduct
iont
oAqui
nas

ThomasAqui
nas(
1225–1274)wasani
ntel
l
ect
ual
andr
eli
giousr
evol
uti
onar
y,l
i
vingatat
imeofgr
eat
phi
l
osophi
cal
,theol
ogi
cal
andsci
ent
if
icdev
elopment
.Hewasamemberoft
heDomi
nicanFr
iar
s,
whi
chatt
hatt
imewasconsi
der
edt
obeacul
t,andwast
aughtbyoneoft
hegr
eat
esti
ntel
l
ect
soft
he
age,
Alber
ttheGr
eat(
1208–1280)
.Inanut
shel
lAqui
naswant
edt
omov
eawayf
rom Pl
ato’
sthi
nki
ng,
whi
chwashugel
yinf
luent
ial
att
het
ime,
andi
nst
eadi
ntr
oduceAr
ist
otel
i
ani
deast
osci
ence,
nat
ure
andt
heol
ogy
.

Aqui
naswr
oteani
ncr
edi
bleamount—i
nfactoneoft
hemi
racl
esaccr
edi
tedt
ohi
m wast
heamount
hewr
ote!Hi
smostf
amouswor
kisSummaTheol
ogi
caandt
hisr
unst
osomet
hreeandhal
f
t
housandpagesandcont
ainsmanyf
asci
nat
ingandpr
ofoundi
nsi
ght
s,suchaspr
oof
sforGod’
s
ex
ist
ence.Thebookr
emai
nedaf
undament
albasi
sforCat
hol
i
cthi
nki
ngr
ightupt
othe1960s!Butdo
notwor
rywewi
l
lonl
ybef
ocusi
ngonaf
ewkeyi
deas!Speci
fi
cal
l
ybooksI
–II
,quest
ions93–95.

2.Mot
ivat
ingNat
uralLawTheor
y:TheEut
hyphr
oDi
lemmaandDi
vineCommand
Theor
y

Thel
i
kel
yanswerf
rom ar
eli
giousper
sonast
owhyweshoul
dnotst
eal
,orcommi
tadul
ter
yis:
“
becauseGodf
orbi
dsus”
;ori
fweaskwhyweshoul
dlov
eournei
ghbourorgi
vemoneyt
ochar
it
y
t
hent
heansweri
sli
kel
ytobe“
becauseGodcommandsi
t”
.Dr
awi
ngt
hisl
i
nkbet
weenwhati
sri
ght
andwr
ongandwhatGodcommandsandf
orbi
dsi
swhati
scal
l
edt
heDi
vi
neCommandTheor
y(DCT)
.

Ther
eisapower
ful
andi
nfl
uent
ial
chal
l
enget
osuchanaccountcal
l
edt
heEut
hyphr
odi
l
emmaaf
ter
t
hechal
l
engewasf
ir
str
aisedi
nPl
ato’
sEut
hyphr
o.Thedi
l
emmar
unsasf
oll
ows:
Eit
herGod
commandssomet
hingi
sri
ghtbecausei
tis,
ori
tisr
ightbecauseGodcommandsi
t.I
fGod
commandssomet
hingbecausei
tisr
ight
,thenGod’
scommandsdonotmakei
tri
ght
,Hi
scommands
onl
ytel
luswhati
sri
ght
.Thi
smeansGodsi
mpl
ydr
opsoutoft
hepi
ctur
eint
ermsofexpl
aini
ngwhy
somet
hingi
sri
ght
.

I
font
heot
herhandsomet
hingi
sri
ghtbecauseGodcommandsi
tthenany
thi
ngatal
lcoul
dber
ight
;
ki
l
li
ngchi
l
drenorset
ti
ngf
ir
etochur
chescoul
dbemor
all
yaccept
abl
e.Buti
famor
alt
heor
ysay
sthi
s
t
hent
hatl
ooksasi
fthet
heor
yiswr
ong.

Mostt
hei
stsr
ejectt
hef
ir
stopt
ionandoptf
ort
hissecondopt
ion—t
hatGod’
scommandsmake
somet
hingr
ight
.Butt
heyt
henhav
etof
acet
hepr
obl
em t
hati
tmakemor
ali
tyhaphaz
ard.Thi
s
“
arbi
tr
ari
nesspr
obl
em”asi
tissomet
imescal
l
ed,
ist
her
easont
hatmany
,incl
udi
ngAqui
nas,
giv
eup
ont
heDi
vi
neCommandTheor
y.

Sof
orAqui
naswhatr
ole,
ifanyatal
l
,doesGodhav
ewheni
tcomest
omor
ali
ty?Forhi
m,God’
s
commandsar
ether
etohel
pust
ocomet
oseewhat
,asamat
teroff
act
,isr
ightandwr
ongr
ather
t
handet
ermi
newhati
sri
ghtandwr
ong.Thati
s,Aqui
nasopt
sfort
hef
ir
stopt
ioni
ntheEut
hyphr
o
di
l
emmaasst
atedabov
e.Butt
hent
hisr
aisest
heobv
iousquest
ion:
ifi
tisnotGod’
scommandst
hat
makesomet
hingr
ightandwr
ong,
thenwhatdoes?DoesnotGodj
ustf
all
outoft
hepi
ctur
e?Thi
sis
wher
ehi
sNat
ural
LawTheor
ycomesi
n.

3.Nat
uralLawTheor
y

Aqui
nas’
sNat
ural
LawTheor
ycont
ainsf
ourdi
ff
erentt
ypesofl
aw:
Eter
nal
Law,
Nat
ural
Law,
Human
LawandDi
vi
neLaw.Thewayt
ounder
standt
hesef
ourl
awsandhowt
heyr
elat
etooneanot
heri
svi
a
t
heEt
ernal
Law,
sowe’
dbet
terst
artt
her
e…
By“
Eter
nal
Law’
”Aqui
nasmeansGod’
srat
ional
pur
poseandpl
anf
oral
lthi
ngs.Andbecauset
he
Et
ernal
Lawi
spar
tofGod’
smi
ndt
heni
thasal
way
s,andwi
l
lal
way
s,ex
ist
.TheEt
ernal
Lawi
snot
si
mpl
ysomet
hingt
hatGoddeci
dedatsomepoi
ntt
owr
it
e.

Aqui
nast
hinkst
hatev
ery
thi
nghasapur
poseandf
oll
owsapl
an.He,
li
keAr
ist
otl
e,i
sat
eleol
ogi
st
(
theGr
eekt
erm“
tel
os”r
efer
stowhatwemi
ghtcal
lapur
pose,
goal
,end/
ort
het
ruef
inal
funct
ionof
anobj
ect
)(seeChapt
er3;
nott
obeconf
usedwi
that
elel
ogi
cal
ethi
cal
theor
ysuchasUt
il
it
ari
ani
sm)
andbel
i
evest
hatev
eryobj
ecthasat
elos;
theacor
nhast
het
elosofgr
owi
ngi
ntoanoak;
theey
ea
t
elosofseei
ng;
aratofeat
ingandr
epr
oduci
nget
c.(
not
icet
hisl
i
nkst
ohi
svi
ewonsex
,seeChapt
er
10)
.Ifsomet
hingf
ulf
il
sit
spur
pose/
plant
heni
tisf
oll
owi
ngt
heEt
ernal
Law.

Aqui
nast
hinkst
hatsomet
hingi
sgoodi
nasf
arasi
tful
fi
lsi
tspur
pose/
plan.Thi
sfi
tswi
thcommon
sense.A“
good”ey
eisonewhi
chseeswel
l
,anacor
nisagoodi
fitgr
owsi
ntoast
rongoakt
ree.

Butwhatabouthumans?Justasagoodey
eist
osee,
andagoodacor
nist
ogr
owt
henagood
humani
sto…?I
stowhat
?Howar
ewegoi
ngt
ofi
nisht
hissent
ence?Whatdoy
out
hink?

Aqui
nast
hinkst
hatt
heansweri
sreasonandt
hati
tist
hist
hatmakesusdi
sti
nctf
rom r
atsandr
ocks.
Whati
sri
ghtf
ormeandy
ouashumansi
stoactaccor
dingt
oreason.I
fweactaccor
dingt
oreason
t
henwear
epar
taki
ngi
ntheNat
ural
Law.

I
fweal
lactaccor
dingt
oreason,
thenwewi
l
lal
lagr
eet
osomeov
erar
chi
nggener
alr
ules(
what
Aqui
nascal
l
spr
imar
ypr
ecept
s).Thesear
eabsol
uteandbi
ndi
ngonal
lrat
ional
agent
sandbecause
oft
hisAqui
nasr
eject
srel
ati
vi
sm.

Thef
ir
stpr
imar
ypr
ecepti
sthatgoodi
stobepur
suedanddoneandev
ilav
oided.Het
hinkst
hatt
his
i
sthegui
dingpr
inci
plef
oral
lourdeci
sionmaki
ng.

Bef
oreunpacki
ngt
his,
iti
swor
thcl
ari
fyi
ngsomet
hingaboutwhat“
law”means.I
magi
net
hatwear
e
pl
ayi
ngCl
uedoandwear
etr
yingt
owor
koutt
hei
dent
it
yoft
hemur
der
er.Ther
ear
ecer
tai
nrul
es
abouthowt
omov
ear
oundt
heboar
d,howt
odeal
outcar
ds,
howt
orev
eal
themur
der
eret
c.These
r
ulesar
eal
lwr
it
tendownandcanbeconsul
ted.

Howev
er,
inpl
ayi
ngt
hegamet
her
ear
eot
herr
ulest
hatoper
atewhi
char
esoobv
ioust
hatt
heyar
e
nei
therwr
it
tendownnorspoken.Onesuchr
ulei
sthatacl
aim madei
nthegamecannotbot
hbet
rue
andf
alse;
ifi
tisPr
ofessorPl
um whoi
sthemur
der
ert
heni
tcannotbet
ruet
hati
tisnotPr
ofessor
Pl
um whoi
sthemur
der
er.Thesear
eint
ernal
rul
eswhi
chanyr
ati
onal
per
soncancomet
orecogni
ze
bysi
mpl
ythi
nki
ngandar
enotex
ter
nal
li
ket
heot
herr
ules—suchasy
oucanonl
yhav
eoneguessas
t
othei
dent
it
yoft
hemur
der
er.WhenAqui
nast
alksofNat
ural
Laws,
hemeansi
nter
nal
rul
esandnot
ex
ter
nal
ones.

Nat
ural
Lawdoesnotgener
ateanex
ter
nal
setofr
ulest
hatar
ewr
it
tendownf
orust
oconsul
tbut
r
atheri
tgener
atesgener
alr
ulest
hatanyr
ati
onal
agentcancomet
orecogni
zesi
mpl
yinv
irt
ueof
bei
ngr
ati
onal
.Forexampl
e,f
orAqui
nasi
tisnotasi
fweneedt
ocheckwhet
herweshoul
dpur
sue
goodandav
oidev
il
,asi
tisj
ustpar
tofhowweal
readyt
hinkaboutt
hings.Aqui
nasgi
vessomemor
e
ex
ampl
esofpr
imar
ypr
ecept
s:

Pr
otectandpr
eser
vehumanl
if
e.

Repr
oduceandeducat
eone’
sof
fspr
ing.

Knowandwor
shi
pGod.

Li
vei
nasoci
ety
.

Thesepr
ecept
sar
epr
imar
ybecauset
heyar
etr
uef
oral
lpeopl
einal
li
nst
ancesandar
econsi
stent
wi
thNat
ural
Law.

Aqui
nasal
soi
ntr
oduceswhathecal
l
stheHumanLawwhi
chgi
vesr
iset
owhathecal
l
s“Secondar
y
Pr
ecept
s”.Thesemi
ghti
ncl
udesucht
hingsasdonotdr
iveabov
e70mphonamot
orway
,donot
ki
dnappeopl
e,al
way
swearahel
metwhenr
idi
ngabi
ke,
donothacki
ntosomeone’
sbankaccount
.
Secondar
ypr
ecept
sar
enotgener
atedbyourr
easonbutr
athert
heyar
eimposedbygov
ernment
s,
gr
oups,
clubs,
soci
eti
eset
c.

I
tisnotal
way
smor
all
yaccept
abl
etof
oll
owsecondar
ypr
ecept
s.I
tisonl
ymor
all
yaccept
abl
eift
hey
ar
econsi
stentwi
tht
heNat
ural
Law.I
ftheyar
e,t
henweoughtt
ofol
l
owt
hem,
ift
heyar
enot
,thenwe
oughtnot
.Toseewhyt
hinkt
hroughanex
ampl
e.

Consi
dert
hesecondar
ypr
eceptt
hat“
ify
ouar
eawomanandy
oul
i
vei
nSaudi
Arabi
atheny
ouar
e
notal
l
owedt
odr
ive”
.Aqui
naswoul
dar
guet
hatt
hissecondar
ypr
ecepti
spr
act
ical
l
yir
rat
ional
becausei
ttr
eat
speopl
edi
ff
erent
lybasedonanar
bit
rar
ydi
ff
erence(
gender
).Hewoul
dreasont
hati
f
t
hemeni
npoweri
nSaudi
act
ual
l
yreal
l
ythoughthar
dthent
heyt
oowoul
drecogni
zet
hatt
hisl
awi
s
mor
all
ywr
ong.Thi
sint
urnmeanst
hatAqui
naswoul
dthi
nkt
hatt
hishumanl
awdoesnotf
itwi
tht
he
Nat
ural
Law.Hence,
iti
smor
all
ywr
ongt
ofol
l
owal
awt
hatsay
sthatmencan,
andwomencannot
,
dr
ive.Soal
thoughi
tispr
esent
edasasecondar
ypr
ecept
,becausei
tisnoti
naccor
dancewi
th
Nat
ural
Law,
iti
swhatAqui
nascal
l
sanappar
entgood.Thi
sisi
ncont
rastwi
tht
hosesecondar
y
pr
ecept
swhi
char
einaccor
dancewi
tht
heNat
ural
Lawandwhi
chhecal
l
sther
eal
goods.

Unl
i
kepr
imar
ypr
ecept
s,Aqui
nasi
snotcommi
tt
edt
other
ebei
ngonl
yonesetofsecondar
ypr
ecept
s
f
oral
lpeopl
einal
lsi
tuat
ions.I
tisconsi
stentwi
thAqui
nas’
sthi
nki
ngt
ohav
eal
awt
odr
iveont
he
r
ighti
ntheUSandont
hel
efti
ntheUKast
her
eisnopr
act
ical
reasont
othi
nkt
hatt
her
eisone
cor
rectsi
deoft
her
oadonwhi
cht
odr
ive.

I
tiscl
eart
hatonourownwear
enotv
erygoodatdi
scov
eri
ngpr
imar
ypr
ecept
sandconsequent
ly
Aqui
nast
hinkst
hatwhatweoughtt
odoi
stal
kandi
nter
actwi
thpeopl
e.Todi
scov
erourr
eal
goods
—oursecondar
ypr
ecept
swhi
chaccor
dwi
thNat
ural
Law—weneedt
obepar
tofasoci
ety
.For
ex
ampl
e,wemi
ghtt
hinkt
hat“
treatChr
ist
iansassecondar
yci
ti
zens”i
sagoodsecondar
ypr
ecept
unt
ilwet
alkandl
i
vewi
thChr
ist
ians.Themor
ewecant
hinkandt
alkwi
thot
her
sinsoci
etyt
hebet
ter
andi
tisf
ort
hisr
easont
hat“
li
vei
nsoci
ety
”isi
tsel
fapr
imar
ypr
ecept
.

Butl
ooki
ngatwhatwehav
esai
dal
readyaboutNat
ural
Lawsandpr
imar
yandsecondar
ypr
ecept
s,
wemi
ghtt
hinkt
hatt
her
eisnoneedf
orGod.I
fwecanl
ear
nthesepr
imar
ypr
ecept
sbyr
ati
onal
r
efl
ect
iont
henGodsi
mpl
ydr
opsoutoft
hest
ory(
recal
ltheEut
hyphr
odi
l
emmaabov
e).

Justt
orecapast
her
eal
otsofmov
ingpar
tst
othest
ory
.Wenowhav
eEt
ernal
Law(
God’
s
pl
ans/
pur
posef
oral
lthi
ngs)
,Nat
ural
Laws(
ourpar
taki
ngi
ntheEt
ernal
Lawwhi
chl
eadst
opr
imar
y
pr
ecept
s),
HumanLaws(
humansmaki
ngspeci
fi
clawst
ocapt
uret
het
rut
hsoft
heNat
ural
Laws
whi
chl
eadt
osecondar
ypr
ecept
s)andnowf
inal
l
yAqui
nasi
ntr
oducest
heDi
vi
neLaw.

TheDi
vi
neLaw,
whi
chi
sdi
scov
eredt
hroughr
evel
ati
on,
shoul
dbet
houghtofast
heDi
vi
neequi
val
ent
oft
heHumanLaw(
thosedi
scov
eredt
hroughr
ati
onal
ref
lect
ionandcr
eat
edbypeopl
e).Di
vi
nel
aws
ar
ethoset
hatGodhas,
inHi
sgr
ace,
seenf
itt
ogi
veusandar
ethose“
myst
eri
es”
,thoser
ulesgi
ven
byGodwhi
chwef
indi
nscr
ipt
ure;
forex
ampl
e,t
het
encommandment
s.Butwhyi
ntr
oducet
heDi
vi
ne
Lawatal
l
?Itcer
tai
nlyf
eel
swehav
eenoughLaws.Her
eisast
oryt
oil
l
ust
rat
eAqui
nas’
sanswer
.

Anumberofy
ear
sagoIwast
alki
ngt
oami
nist
erofachur
ch.Het
oldmeaboutani
nst
ancewher
ea
mar
ri
edmancamet
oaskhi
sadv
iceaboutwhet
hert
ofi
nishanaf
fai
rhewashav
ing.Theman’
s
r
easoni
ngwentasf
oll
ows—“
Iam hav
inganaf
fai
rwhi
chj
ustf
eel
ssor
ight
,wear
ebot
hver
ymuchi
n
l
oveandsur
elyGodwoul
dwantwhati
sbestf
orme!Howcoul
ditbewr
ongi
fwear
esohappy
?”
I
nresponse,
themi
nist
eropenedt
heBi
blet
otheTenCommandment
sandpoi
ntedoutt
he
commandmentt
hati
tsay
sthati
tiswr
ongt
ocommi
tadul
ter
y.Casecl
osed.Thepoi
ntoft
hisst
oryi
s
si
mpl
e.Wecanbeconf
usedandmi
stakenaboutwhatwet
hinkwehav
emostr
easont
odoand
becauseoft
hisweneedsomeonewhoact
ual
l
yknowst
hemi
ndofGodt
ogui
deus,
andwhobet
ter
t
oknowt
hist
hanGodHi
msel
f.Thi
stheni
spr
eci
sel
ywhati
srev
eal
edi
ntheDi
vi
neLaw.

Orconsi
deranot
herex
ampl
e.Wer
ecogni
zet
hatwef
indi
thar
dtof
orgi
veourf
ri
endsandnear
ly
al
way
simpossi
blet
ofor
giv
eourenemi
es.Wet
ell
our
sel
veswehav
ether
ightt
obeangr
y,t
obear
gr
udges,
etc.I
sn’
tthi
sjusthuman?Howev
er,
thesehumanr
easonsar
edi
stor
ti
onsoft
heEt
ernal
Law.
Weneedsomegui
dancewheni
tcomest
ofor
giv
enessandi
tiswher
etheDi
vi
neLawwhi
cht
ell
sus
t
hatweshoul
dfor
giv
eot
her
s—i
ncl
udi
ngourenemi
es.Fol
l
owi
ngt
heHumanLawsandt
heDi
vi
ne
Lawswi
l
lhel
pust
oful
fi
lourpur
posesandpl
ansandbet
rul
yhappy
.

4.Summar
yofAqui
nas’
sNat
uralLawTheor
y

ForAqui
nasev
ery
thi
nghasaf
unct
ion(
atel
os)andt
hegoodt
hing(
s)t
odoar
ethoseact
sthatf
ulf
il
t
hatf
unct
ion.Somet
hingssuchasacor
ns,
andey
es,
justdot
hatnat
ural
l
y.Howev
er,
humansar
efr
ee
andhenceneedgui
dancet
ofi
ndt
her
ightpat
h.Thatr
ightpat
hisf
oundt
hroughr
easoni
ngand
gener
atest
he“
int
ernal
”Nat
ural
Law.Byf
oll
owi
ngt
heNat
ural
Lawwepar
ti
cipat
einGod’
spur
pose
f
orusi
ntheEt
ernal
Law.

Howev
er,
thepr
imar
ypr
ecept
sthatder
ivef
rom t
heNat
ural
Lawar
equi
tegener
al,
suchas,
pur
sue
goodandshunev
il
.Soweneedt
ocr
eat
esecondar
ypr
ecept
swhi
chcanact
ual
l
ygui
deourday
-to-
daybehav
iour
.Butwear
efal
l
ibl
esosomet
imeswegett
hesesecondar
ypr
ecept
swr
ong,
somet
imes
wegett
hem r
ight
.Whent
heyar
ewr
ongt
heyonl
yref
lectourappar
entgoods.Whent
heyar
eri
ght
t
heyr
efl
ectourr
eal
goods.

Fi
nal
l
y,howev
ergoodwear
ebecausewear
efi
nit
eandsi
nful
,wecanonl
ygetsof
arwi
thr
ati
onal
r
efl
ect
ion.Weneedsomer
eveal
edgui
danceandt
hiscomesi
nthef
orm ofDi
vi
neLaw.Sot
oret
urn
t
otheEut
hyphr
odi
l
emma.God’
scommandst
hrought
heDi
vi
neLawar
eway
sofi
l
lumi
nat
ingwhati
s
i
nfactmor
all
yaccept
abl
eandnotwhatdet
ermi
neswhati
smor
all
yaccept
abl
e.Aqui
nasr
eject
sthe
Di
vi
neCommandTheor
y.

5.Put
ti
ngt
hisi
ntoPr
act
ice:TheDoct
ri
neofDoubl
eEf
fect(
DDE)

Let
’sconsi
dersomeex
ampl
est
oshowt
hatwhatwehav
esai
dsof
armi
ghtact
ual
l
ywor
k.I
magi
ne
someoneconsi
der
ingsui
cide.I
sthi
smor
all
yaccept
abl
eornot
?Recal
l
,iti
spar
toft
heNat
ural
Lawt
o
pr
eser
veandpr
otecthumanl
i
fe.Cl
ear
lysui
cidei
snotpr
eser
vingandpr
otect
inghumanl
i
fe.I
tis
t
her
efor
eir
rat
ional
toki
l
lonesel
fandcannotbepar
tofGod’
spl
anf
orourl
i
fe;
hencei
tismor
all
y
unaccept
abl
e.

I
magi
net
hatsomeonei
sconsi
der
inghav
inganabor
ti
onaf
terbecomi
ngpr
egnantduet
orape.The
samer
easoni
ngi
sgoi
ngt
oappl
y.Weoughtt
opr
eser
veandpr
otecthumanl
i
feandhencean
abor
ti
oni
nthi
scasei
smor
all
ywr
ong.

Howev
er,
aswewi
l
lsee,
Aqui
nast
hinkst
hatt
her
ear
esomei
nst
anceswher
eiti
smor
all
yaccept
abl
e
t
oki
l
lani
nnocentper
sonandt
her
efor
ether
emaybeoccasi
onswheni
tismor
all
yaccept
abl
etoki
l
la
f
œtus.Buthowcant
hisbecor
rect
?Wi
l
lthi
snotv
iol
atet
hepr
imar
ypr
eceptaboutpr
eser
vingl
i
fe?
Theansweri
stounder
standt
hatf
orAqui
nas,
anact
ioni
snotj
ustaboutwhatwedoex
ter
nal
l
ybuti
s
al
soaboutwhatwedoi
nter
nal
l
y(i
.e.ourmot
ivat
ions)
.Wi
tht
hisdi
sti
nct
ionhecanshowt
hat
,for
ex
ampl
e,ki
l
li
ngani
nnocentcanbemor
all
yaccept
abl
e.
Tomaket
hiscl
ear
,Aqui
nasi
ntr
oducesoneofhi
smostf
amousi
deas:
the“
Doct
ri
neofDoubl
eEf
fect
”.
Let
’sseehowt
hiswor
ks.

I
magi
neachi
l
dbr
oughtupi
naphy
sical
l
y,sexual
l
yandemot
ional
l
yabusi
vef
ami
l
y.Hei
sfr
equent
ly
scar
edf
orhi
sli
feandi
slockedi
nthehousef
orday
satat
ime.Onedaywhenhi
sfat
heri
sdr
unkand
r
eadyt
oabusehi
m agai
nhequi
ckl
ygr
absaki
tchenkni
feandsl
asheshi
sfat
her
’sar
ter
y.Hi
sfat
her
bl
eedsoutanddi
esi
namat
terofmi
nut
es.Doy
out
hinkt
hesondi
dany
thi
ngwr
ong?

Manypeopl
ewoul
dsayt
hathedi
dnot
hingmor
all
ywr
ongandi
nfact
,somemi
ghtev
engoasf
aras
t
osayt
hatheshoul
dgetapatont
hebackf
orhi
sact
ions.WhataboutAqui
nas?Whatwoul
dhesay
?

Wemi
ghtt
hinkt
hatgi
vent
heNat
ural
Lawt
o“pr
eser
veandpr
otectl
i
fe”hewoul
dsayt
hatt
hisact
ion
i
smor
all
ywr
ong.But
,inf
act
,hewoul
dsayt
heson’
sact
ionwasnotmor
all
ywr
ong(
Aqui
nas
di
scussessel
f-
def
encei
ntheSummaTheol
ogi
ca(
II
–II
,Qu.64)
).

Sowhyi
sthesonki
l
li
ngt
hef
athernoti
ndi
rectcont
radi
cti
onwi
tht
hepr
imar
ypr
ecept
?Aqui
nasasks
ust
oconsi
dert
hedi
ff
erencebet
weent
heex
ter
nal
act—t
hef
actt
hatt
hef
atherwaski
l
led,
andt
he
i
nter
nal
act—t
hemot
ive.

I
nourex
ampl
e,t
heact
ioni
soneofsel
f-
def
encebecauseoft
heson’
sint
ernal
act
ionandbecauseof
t
his,
Aqui
naswoul
dthi
nkt
heki
l
li
ngi
smor
all
yaccept
abl
e.Thi
sdi
sti
nct
ionandconcl
usi
oni
spossi
ble
becauseofAqui
nas’
sDoct
ri
neofDoubl
eEf
fectwhi
chst
atest
hati
fanactf
ulf
il
sfourcondi
ti
onst
hen
i
tismor
all
yaccept
abl
e.I
fnot
,theni
tisnot
.

Thef
ir
stpr
inci
plei
sthatt
heactmustbeagoodone.

Thesecondpr
inci
plei
sthatt
heactmustcomeaboutbef
oret
hecons
equences.

Thet
hir
dist
hatt
hei
ntent
ionmustbegood.

Thef
our
th,
itmus
tbef
ors
eri
ousr
eas
ons.

Thi
sisabst
ractsol
et’
sgobackt
oourex
ampl
e.Theactoft
hesonwasper
for
medt
osav
ehi
sown
l
i
fesot
hati
sgood—wecant
ick(
1).Mor
eov
er,
theactt
osav
ehi
sli
fecameaboutf
ir
st—wecant
ick
(
2).Thesondi
dnotf
ir
stactt
oki
l
lhi
sfat
heri
nor
dert
osav
ehi
sownl
i
fe.Thatwoul
dbedoi
ngev
ilt
o
br
ingaboutgoodandt
hati
snev
ermor
all
yaccept
abl
e.Thei
ntent
ionoft
hesonwast
opr
eser
veand
pr
otecthi
sli
fe,
sot
hei
ntent
ionwasgood—t
ick(
3).Fi
nal
l
y,t
her
easonswer
eser
iousasi
twashi
s
l
i
feorhi
sfat
her
’sl
i
fe—t
ick(
4).

Sogi
vent
hatt
heactmeet
sal
lfourpr
inci
ples,
iti
sinl
i
newi
tht
heDDEandhencet
heact
ioni
s
mor
all
yaccept
abl
e,ev
ent
houghi
tcausedsomeonet
odi
eandhenceseemscont
rar
ytot
hepr
imar
y
pr
eceptofpr
eser
vingl
i
fe.

Wecandr
awacont
rast
ingcase.I
magi
net
hati
nst
eadofsl
ashi
nghi
sfat
heri
nsel
f-
def
ence,
theson
pl
anst
heki
l
li
ng.Hewor
ksoutt
hebestt
ime,
thebestdayandt
henset
supat
ri
pwi
recausi
nghi
s
f
athert
ofal
lfr
om hi
sfl
atwi
ndowt
ohi
sdeat
h.Doest
hisact
ionmeett
hef
ourcr
it
eri
aoft
heDDE?
Wel
l
,no,
becauset
heson’
sint
ent
ioni
stoki
l
lthef
atherr
athert
hansav
ehi
sownl
i
fe—wemustputa
cr
ossat(
3).

Wehav
eal
readyseent
hatsui
cidei
smor
all
yimper
missi
blef
orAqui
nas,
sodoest
hatmeant
hatany
act
iony
out
aket
hatl
eadsknowi
ngl
ytoy
ourowndeat
hismor
all
ywr
ong?No.Becauseev
ent
hough
t
heex
ter
nal
actofy
ourowndeat
hist
hesame,
thei
nter
nal
act—t
hei
ntent
ion—mi
ghtbedi
ff
erent
.
Anact
ioni
sjudgedv
iat
heNat
ural
Lawbot
hex
ter
nal
l
yandi
nter
nal
l
y.

I
magi
neacasewher
easol
dierseesagr
enadet
hrowni
ntoherbar
racks.Knowi
ngt
hatshedoesnot
hav
eti
met
odef
usei
tort
hrowi
taway
,shet
hrowsher
sel
font
hegr
enade.I
tbl
owsup,
kil
l
ingherbut
sav
ingot
hersol
dier
sinherbar
racks.I
sthi
swr
ongorr
ight
?Aqui
nassay
sthi
sismor
all
yaccept
abl
e
gi
venDDE.I
fwej
udget
hisactbot
hint
ernal
l
yandex
ter
nal
l
ywe’
l
lseewhy
.

Thei
ntent
ion—t
hei
nter
nal
act—wasnott
oki
l
lher
sel
fev
ent
houghshecoul
dfor
eseet
hatt
hiswas
cer
tai
nlywhatwasgoi
ngt
ohappen.Theacti
tsel
fisgood,
tosav
eherf
ell
owsol
dier
s(1)
.Theor
der
i
sri
ght
,shei
snotdoi
ngev
ilsogoodwi
l
lhappen(
2).Thei
ntent
ioni
sgood,
iti
stosav
eherf
ell
ow
sol
dier
s(3)
.Ther
easoni
sser
ious,
itconcer
nspeopl
e’
sli
ves(
4).

Cont
rastt
hiswi
thasol
dierwhodeci
dest
oki
l
lher
sel
fbybl
owi
ngher
sel
fup.Thei
ntent
ioni
snot
goodandhencet
heDDEdoesnotper
mitt
hissui
cidal
act
ion.

Fi
nal
l
y,i
magi
net
hatawomani
spr
egnantandal
sohasi
noper
abl
eut
eri
necancer
.Thedoct
orshav
e
t
wochoi
ces;
tot
akeoutt
heut
erusandsav
ethemot
her
,butt
hef
œtuswi
l
ldi
e;orl
eav
ethef
œtust
o
dev
elopandbebor
nheal
thy
,butt
hewomanwi
l
ldi
e.Whatwoul
dAqui
nassayi
nthi
sinst
ance?Wel
l
usi
ngt
heDDEhewoul
dsayt
hati
tismor
all
yaccept
abl
etor
emov
ethecancer
.

Theact
ioni
stor
emov
ethecancer
;ithast
hef
oreseeabl
econsequencesoft
hef
œtusdy
ingbutt
hat
i
snotwhati
sint
ended.Theact
ion—t
oremov
ethecancer—i
sgood(
1).Theactofr
emov
ingt
he
cancercomesbef
oret
hedeat
hoft
hef
œtus(
2).Thei
ntent
iont
osav
ethewoman’
sli
fei
sal
sogood
(
3).Fi
nal
l
y,t
her
easonsar
eser
iousast
heyar
eaboutt
hel
i
feanddeat
hoft
hewomanandt
hef
œtus
(
4).

Soev
ent
hought
hisi
sacasewher
ethedoct
or’
sact
ionsbr
ingaboutt
hedeat
hoft
hef
œtusi
twoul
d
beaccept
abl
eforAqui
nast
hroughhi
sNat
ural
LawTheor
y,asi
sshownv
iat
heDDE.

6.SomeThought
saboutNat
uralLawTheor
y

Ther
ear
emanyt
hingswemi
ghtconsi
derwhent
hinki
ngt
hroughAqui
nas’
sNat
ural
LawTheor
y.
Ther
ear
esomeobv
iouspr
obl
emswecoul
drai
se,
suchast
hepr
obl
em aboutwhet
herornotGod
ex
ist
s.I
fGoddoesnotex
istt
hent
heEt
ernal
Lawdoesnotex
istandt
her
efor
ethewhol
etheor
y
comest
umbl
i
ngdown.Howev
er,
asgoodphi
l
osopher
sweoughtal
way
stooper
atewi
thapr
inci
ple
ofchar
it
yandgr
antouropponenti
srat
ional
andgi
vet
hest
rongestpossi
blei
nter
pret
ati
onoft
hei
r
ar
gument
.So,
let
’sassumef
ort
hesakeofar
gumentt
hatGodexi
sts.Howpl
ausi
blei
sAqui
nas’
s
t
heor
y?Ther
ear
eanumberoft
hingst
hatwecanpi
ckupon.

Aqui
nas’
stheor
ywor
ksont
hei
deat
hati
fsomet
hingi
s“nat
ural
”,t
hati
s,i
fitf
ulf
il
sit
sfunct
ion,
theni
t
i
smor
all
yaccept
abl
e,butt
her
ear
eanumberofunanswer
edquest
ionsr
elat
ingt
onat
ural
.

Wemi
ghtask,
whydoes“
nat
ural
”mat
ter
?Wecant
hinkoft
hingst
hatar
enot“
nat
ural
”butwhi
char
e
per
fect
lyaccept
abl
e,andt
hingswhi
char
enat
ural
whi
char
enot
.Forex
ampl
e,wear
ingcl
othes,
t
aki
ngmedi
cat
ionandbodypi
erci
ngcer
tai
nlyar
enotnat
ural
,butwewoul
dnotwantt
osaysuch
t
hingsar
emor
all
ywr
ong.

Ont
heot
herhandwemi
ghtconsi
dert
hatv
iol
encei
sanat
ural
responset
oanunf
ait
hful
par
tner
,but
al
sot
hinkt
hatsuchv
iol
encei
smor
all
yunaccept
abl
e.Soi
tisnott
ruet
hatwecandi
scov
erwhati
s
mor
all
yaccept
abl
eornotsi
mpl
ybydi
scov
eri
ngwhati
snat
ural
andwhati
snot
.

Putt
hiswor
ryasi
de.Recal
l
,Aqui
nast
hinkst
hatr
epr
oduct
ioni
snat
ural
andhencer
epr
oduct
ioni
s
mor
all
yaccept
abl
e.Thi
smeanst
hatsext
hatdoesnotl
eadt
orepr
oduct
ioni
smor
all
yunaccept
abl
e.
Not
icet
hatAqui
nasi
snotsay
ingt
hati
fsexdoesnotl
eadt
opr
egnancyi
tiswr
ong.Af
teral
l
,
somet
imest
het
imi
ngi
snotr
ight
.Hi
scl
aimi
srat
hert
hati
fther
eisnopot
ent
ial
forsext
oleadt
o
pr
egnancyt
heni
tiswr
ong.Howev
er,
evenwi
tht
hisqual
i
ficat
iont
hiswoul
dmeanawhol
ehostof
t
hingssuchashomosex
ual
i
tyandcont
racept
ionar
emor
all
ywr
ong.Wemi
ghtt
aket
hisasar
eason
t
oret
hinkAqui
nas’
smor
alf
ramewor
k(wedi
scusst
heseappar
entpr
obl
emsi
nmor
edet
ail
inChapt
er
10)

Ther
eis,
though,
amor
efundament
alwor
ryatt
hehear
toft
hisappr
oach(
andAr
ist
otl
e’
s)t
oet
hics.
Namel
y,t
heyt
hinkt
hatev
ery
thi
nghasagoal
(tel
os)
.Now,
wit
hsomet
hingst
hismi
ghtbepl
ausi
ble.
Thi
ngssuchast
heey
eoranacor
nhav
eacl
earf
unct
ion—t
ogr
ow,
tosee—butwhatabouthumans?
Thi
sseemsabi
tlessobv
ious!Dohumans(
rat
hert
hanouri
ndi
vi
dual
par
ts)r
eal
l
yhav
eat
elos?Ther
e
ar
ecer
tai
nlysomephi
l
osopher
s—suchast
heexi
stent
ial
i
sts,
forex
ampl
eSi
monedeBeauv
oir
(
1908–1986)—whot
hinkt
hatt
her
eisnosucht
hingashumannat
ureandnosucht
hingasahuman
f
unct
ionorgoal
.Buti
fwear
eunconv
incedt
hathumanshav
eagoal
,thent
hiswhol
eappr
oacht
o
et
hicsseemsf
lawed.

Nextwemi
ghtr
aisequest
ionsaboutDDE.Gobackt
oourex
ampl
eaboutabor
ti
on.ForAqui
nasi
tis
mor
all
yaccept
abl
etor
emov
etheut
erusev
eni
fweknowt
hati
ndoi
ngsot
hef
œtuswi
l
ldi
e.Whati
s
notmor
all
yaccept
abl
eist
oint
endt
oki
l
lthef
œtusbyr
emov
ingt
heut
erus.Onf
ir
str
eadi
ngt
his
seemst
omakessense;
wehav
eani
ntui
ti
vef
eel
forwhatDDEi
sget
ti
ngat
.Howev
er,
whenwe
consi
deri
tinmor
edet
ail
iti
sfarf
rom cl
ear
.

I
magi
net
wodoct
orswho(
appar
ent
ly)doex
act
lyt
hesamet
hing,
theybot
hremov
etheut
erusand
t
hef
œtusdi
es.Theonei
ntendst
otakeoutt
heut
erus—i
nful
lknowl
edget
hatt
hef
œtuswi
l
ldi
e—
t
heot
heri
ntendst
oki
l
lthef
œtus.Fort
heDDEt
owor
kint
hewayt
hatAqui
nasunder
standsi
t,t
his
di
ff
erencei
nint
ent
ionmakest
hemor
aldi
ff
erencebet
weent
het
wodoct
ors.Howev
er,
ist
her
ereal
l
y
amor
aldi
ff
erence?Toputpr
essur
eont
heanswert
hatt
her
eis,
asky
our
sel
fwhaty
out
hinki
tmeans
t
oint
endt
odosomet
hing.I
fthef
ir
stdoct
orsay
s“Idi
dnoti
ntendt
oki
l
lthef
œtus”canwemake
senseoft
his?Af
teral
l
,ify
ouaskedher“
didy
ouknowt
hati
ntaki
ngoutt
heut
erust
hef
œtuswoul
d
di
e?”shewoul
dsay“
yes,
ofcour
se”
.Buti
fshedi
dthi
sandt
hef
œtusdi
ed,
didnotshei
ntend(
in
somesense)t
oki
l
lthef
œtus?Sot
hisi
ssuer
aisessomecompl
exquest
ionaboutt
henat
ureoft
he
mi
nd,
andhowwemi
ghtunder
standi
ntent
ions.

Fi
nal
l
y,wemi
ghtwonderhoweasyi
tist
owor
koutwhatact
ual
l
ytodousi
ngt
heNat
ural
Law.We
woul
dhopeourmor
alt
heor
ygi
vesusdi
rect
ioni
nli
vi
ngourl
i
ves.That
,wemi
ghtt
hink,
ispr
eci
sel
y
t
her
oleofamor
alt
heor
y.Buthowmi
ghti
twor
kint
hiscase?

ForAqui
nas,
ifwer
ati
onal
l
yref
lectt
henwear
ri
veatt
her
ightwayofpr
oceedi
ng.I
fthi
sisi
nli
newi
th
t
heNat
ural
Lawandt
heDi
vi
neLawt
heni
tismor
all
yaccept
abl
e.I
fiti
soutofl
i
ne,
theni
tisnot
.The
assumpt
ioni
sthatt
hemor
ewet
hink,
themor
erat
ional
webecome,
themor
econv
ergencet
her
ewi
l
l
be.We’
l
lal
lst
artt
ohav
esi
mil
arv
iewsonwhati
sri
ghtandwr
ong.Buti
sthi
stooopt
imi
sti
c?Ver
y
of
ten,
evenaf
terex
tensi
ver
efl
ect
ionandcool
del
i
ber
ati
onwi
thf
ri
endsandcol
l
eagues,
iti
snot
obv
ioust
ouswhatweasr
ati
onal
agent
sshoul
ddo.Weal
lknowpeopl
ewet
aket
ober
ati
onal
,but
wedi
sagr
eewi
tht
hem onmor
ali
ssues.Andev
eni
nobv
iousl
yrat
ional
areassuchasmat
hemat
ics,
t
hebestmat
hemat
ici
ansar
enotabl
etoagr
ee.Wemi
ghtt
henbescept
ical
thatasr
ati
onal
agent
swe
wi
l
lcomet
obei
nli
newi
tht
heNat
ural
andDi
vi
neLaws.

SUMMARY

Aqui
nasi
sani
ntel
l
ect
ual
giant
.Hewr
oteani
ncr
edi
bleamountcov
eri
ngav
astar
rayoft
opi
cs.Hi
s
i
nfl
uencehasbeeni
mmense.Hi
scent
ral
ideai
sthathumansar
ecr
eat
edbyGodt
oreason—t
hati
s
ourf
unct
ion.Humansdot
hemor
all
yri
ghtt
hingi
fweacti
naccor
dancewi
thr
eason,
andt
hemor
all
y
wr
ongt
hingi
fwedon’
t.

Aqui
nasi
sani
ncr
edi
blysubt
leandcompl
ext
hinker
.Forex
ampl
e,hi
sDoct
ri
neofDoubl
eEf
fect
makesust
oref
lectonwhatweact
ual
l
ymeanby“
act
ions”
,“i
ntent
ions”and“
consequences”
.Hi
s
wor
kremai
nsmuchdi
scussedandr
esear
chedandt
ypi
cal
l
yst
il
lpl
aysacent
ral
rol
einaChr
ist
ian
Et
hicst
hatr
eject
sDi
vi
neCommandTheor
y.