Chapt

erTwo:
Appr
oachest
oEt
hics.
1.
1.Nor
mat
iveEt
hics
Wemaynow begi
nourr
evi
ew ofpr
obl
emsandv
iewsi
nthear
eaofnor
mat
iveet
hics,
st
art
ingwi
tht
het
heor
yofobl
i
gat
ionandt
hengoi
ngont
othet
heor
yofmor
alv
alueand,
f
inal
l
y,t
othet
heor
yofnonmor
alv
alue.Theul
ti
mat
econcer
noft
henor
mat
ivet
heor
yof
obl
i
gat
ioni
stogui
deusi
nthemaki
ngofdeci
sionsandj
udgment
saboutact
ionsi
n
par
ti
cul
arsi
tuat
ions.
Nor
mat
iveet
hics;
o Of
fer
stheor
iesoraccount
soft
hebestwayt
oli
ve.Theset
heor
iesev
aluat
e
act
ionsi
nasy
stemat
icway
,i.
e.,t
heymayf
ocusonout
comesordut
iesor
mot
ivat
ionasameansofj
ust
if
yinghumanconduct
.
o I
ncl
udeset
hicalt
heor
iesorappr
oachessuchasut
il
it
ari
ani
sm,deont
ology
,vi
rt
ue
et
hics,
pri
nci
pli
sm,
nar
rat
iveet
hicsandf
emi
nistet
hics.
Nor
mat
iveet
hicsposesquest
ionsoft
hef
oll
owi
ngki
nd:
 Ar
ether
egener
alpr
inci
plesorr
ulest
hatwecoul
dfol
l
ow whi
chdi
sti
ngui
sh
bet
weenr
ightandwr
ong?Or
:
 Ar
ether
evi
rt
uesand/
orr
elat
ionshi
pst
hatwecannur
tur
e,i
nor
dert
obehav
ewel
l
?

1.
1.1.Tel
eol
ogi
cal
Ethi
cs(
Consequent
ial
i
ty)
I
tisr
efer
redas“
theendj
ust
if
iest
hemeans”
.

I
tbel
i
evesi
npur
pose,
endsorgoal
sofanact
ion,
itst
resst
hatt
heconsequencesofan
act
iondet
ermi
nest
hemor
ali
tyori
mmor
ali
tyofagi
venact
ion.Whi
chmeansanact
ion
i
sjudgedasr
ightorwr
ong,
mor
alori
mmor
aldependi
ngonwhathappensbecauseofi
t.

I
ngener
alt
hei
rvi
ewshav
ebeenoft
wosor
ts:

(
1)Deont
ologi
cal
theor
iesand

(
2)Tel
eol
ogi
calones.At
eleol
ogi
calt
heor
ysay
sthatt
hebasi
corul
ti
mat
ecr
it
eri
onor
st
andar
dofwhati
smor
all
yri
ght
,wr
ong,obl
i
gat
ory
,et
c.,i
sthenon-
mor
alv
aluet
hati
s
br
oughti
ntobei
ng.Thef
inalappeal
,di
rect
lyori
ndi
rect
ly,mustbet
othecompar
ati
ve
amountofgoodpr
oduced,orr
athert
othecompar
ati
vebal
anceofgoodov
erev
il
pr
oduced.Thus,anacti
sri
ghti
fandonl
yifi
tort
her
uleunderwhi
chi
tfal
l
spr
oduces,
wi
l
lpr
obabl
ypr
oduce,
ori
sint
endedt
opr
oduceatl
eastasgr
eatabal
anceofgoodov
er
ev
ilasanyav
ail
abl
eal
ter
nat
ive;
anacti
swr
ongi
fandonl
yifi
tdoesnotdoso.

I
tisi
mpor
tantt
onot
iceher
ethat
,forat
eleol
ogi
st,
themor
alqual
i
tyorv
alueofact
ions,
per
sons,
ort
rai
tsofchar
act
er,
isdependentont
hecompar
ati
venonmor
alv
alueofwhat
t
heybr
ingaboutort
ryt
obr
ingabout
.

Fort
hemor
alqual
i
tyorv
alueofsomet
hingt
odependont
hemor
alv
alueofwhat
everi
t
pr
omot
eswoul
dbeci
rcul
ar.Tel
eol
ogi
calt
heor
ies,t
hen,maket
her
ight
,theobl
i
gat
ory
,
andt
hemor
all
ygooddependentont
henonmor
all
ygood.Accor
dingl
y,t
heyal
somake
t
het
heor
yofmor
alobl
i
gat
ionandmor
alv
aluedependent
,inasense,ont
het
heor
yof
nonmor
alv
alue.

I
tshoul
dal
sobenot
iced,
howev
er,
thatt
eleol
ogi
stsmayhol
dvar
iousv
iewsaboutwhat
i
sgoodi
nthenonmor
alsense.Tel
eol
ogi
stshav
eof
tenbeenhedoni
sts,i
dent
if
yingt
he
goodwi
thpl
easur
eandev
ilwi
thpai
n,andconcl
udi
ngt
hatt
her
ightcour
seorr
uleof
act
ioni
sthatwhi
chpr
oducesatl
eastasgr
eatabal
anceofpl
easur
eov
erpai
nasany
al
ter
nat
ivewoul
d.Butt
heymaybeandhav
esomet
imesbeennon-
hedoni
sts,
ident
if
ying
t
hegoodwi
thpower
,knowl
edge,sel
f-
real
i
zat
ion,per
fect
ionet
c.Thi
sfactmustnotbe
f
orgot
tenwhenwear
eev
aluat
ingt
het
eleol
ogi
cal
theor
yofobl
i
gat
ion.
.

Tel
eol
ogi
stsdi
ff
eront
hequest
ionofwhosegoodi
tist
hatoneoughtt
otr
ytopr
omot
e.

Et
hicalegoi
sm hol
dst
hatonei
sal
way
stodowhatwi
l
lpr
omot
ehi
sowngr
eat
estgood
-
-thatanactorr
uleofact
ioni
sri
ghti
fandonl
yifi
tpr
omot
esatl
eastasgr
eata
bal
anceofgoodov
erev
ilf
orhi
mint
hel
ongr
unasanyal
ter
nat
ivewoul
d,andwr
ongi
fit
doesnot
.Thi
svi
ewwashel
dbyEpi
cur
us,
Hobbes,
andNi
etzsche,
amongot
her
s.

Et
hicaluni
ver
sal
i
sm,orwhati
susual
l
ycal
l
edut
il
it
ari
ani
sm,t
akest
heposi
ti
ont
hatt
he
ul
ti
mat
eendi
sthegr
eat
estgener
algood-
-thatanactorr
uleofact
ioni
sri
ghti
fand
onl
yifi
tis,orpr
obabl
yis,conduci
vet
oatl
eastasgr
eatabal
anceofgoodov
erev
ili
n
t
heuni
ver
seasawhol
easanyal
ter
nat
ivewoul
dbe,
wrongi
fiti
snot
,andobl
i
gat
oryi
fit
i
sorpr
obabl
yisconduci
vet
othegr
eat
estpossi
blebal
anceofgoodov
erev
ili
nthe
uni
ver
se.

1.
1.2.Egoi
sm:
Ethi
cal
andpsy
chol
ogi
cal
Egoi
sm
1.
1.2.
1. Et
hical
Egoi
sm
Weusual
l
yassumet
hatmor
albehav
ior
,orbei
nget
hical
,hast
odowi
thnotbei
ngov
erl
y
concer
nedwi
thonesel
f.I
not
herwor
ds,sel
fi
shnessi
sassumedt
obeunaccept
abl
e
at
ti
tude.Ev
enamongschol
ars,t
her
eisdi
sagr
eementaboutwhatconst
it
uteset
hical
behav
ior
.Si
ncev
eryear
lyi
nwest
erni
ntel
l
ect
ualhi
stor
y,t
hev
iewpoi
ntt
hathumansar
e
notbui
l
ttol
ookoutf
orot
herpeopl
e’
sint
erest
shassur
facedr
egul
arl
y. 

Thi
stheor
yiscal
l
edet
hicalegoi
sm si
mpl
ybecausei
tisanet
hicalt
heor
y,anor
mat
ive
t
heor
yabouthowweoughtt
obehav
e.Thet
heor
yimpl
i
est
hatweoughtt
obesel
fi
sh.Or
,
t
oputi
tmor
egent
ly,
weoughtt
obesel
f-
int
erest
ed.Cal
l
ingt
het
heor
y“et
hical
”doesnot
suggestt
hatt
her
emi
ghtbeadecentwayt
obesel
fi
sh;
itj
ustmeanst
hatet
hical
egoi
sm
i
sat
heor
ythatadv
ocat
esgoi
sm asamor
alr
ule.
 

Onear
gumentf
oret
hicalegoi
sm f
oll
owsi
mmedi
atel
yfr
om t
het
heor
yofpsy
chol
ogi
cal
egoi
sm,whi
ch we exami
ned i
nthe pr
evi
ous sect
ion.I
f Iam psy
chol
ogi
cal
l
y
pr
ogr
ammedt
oactonl
yinmyownbesti
nter
est
,thenIcannev
erbeobl
i
gat
edt
o
per
for
m al
tr
uist
ic(
thati
s,sel
fl
ess)act
stowar
dot
her
s.Mor
efor
mal
l
ythear
gumenti
s
t
his:
(
1)Weal
lal
way
sseekt
omaxi
mizeourownsel
f-
int
erest(
def
ini
ti
onofpsy
chol
ogi
cal
egoi
sm)
.
(
2)I
fonecannotdoanact
,onehasnoobl
i
gat
iont
odot
hatact(
oughtt
oimpl
i
es
can)
.
(
3)Al
tr
uist
ic act
sinv
olv
e put
ti
ng ot
herpeopl
e’
sint
erest
s ahead ofourown
(
def
ini
ti
onofal
tr
uism)
.
(
4)But
,al
tr
uism cont
radi
cts psy
chol
ogi
calegoi
sm and so i
simpossi
ble(
by
pr
emi
ses1and3)
.
(
5)Ther
efor
e,al
tr
uist
icact
sar
enev
ermor
all
yobl
i
gat
ory(
bypr
emi
ses2and4)
.
Somei
mpor
tantt
hingst
onot
iceaboutet
hical
egoi
sm:
  I
tdoesnotj
ustsayt
hat
,fr
om t
hemor
alpoi
ntofv
iew,
one’
sownwel
far
ecount
s
aswel
last
hatofot
her
s.Rat
her
,itsay
sthat
,fr
om t
hemor
alpoi
ntofv
iew,onl
y
one’
sownwel
far
ecount
s,andot
her
s’doesnot
,whenonei
smaki
ngamor
al
deci
sionabouthowt
oact
.
 Et
hicalegoi
sm doesnotf
orbi
donet
ohel
pot
her
s,orr
equi
reonet
ohar
m ot
her
s.
I
tjustsay
sthatwhat
evermor
alr
easony
ouhav
etohel
pot
her
s,ornothar
m
t
hem,mustul
ti
mat
elyst
em f
ort
hewayi
nwhi
chhel
pingt
hem ornothar
ming
t
hem hel
psy
ou.
 Et
hicalegoi
sm does notsayt
hatone oughtal
way
sto do whati
s most
pl
easur
abl
e,orenj
oyabl
e.I
tacknowl
edgest
hatone’
sownsel
f–i
nter
estmay
occasi
onal
l
yrequi
repai
norsacr
if
ice.
1.
1.2.
2. Psy
chol
ogi
cal
Egoi
sm
Themai
nar
gumentt
hathasbeenusedasabasi
sforet
hicalegoi
sm i
sapsy
chol
ogi
cal
one,
anar
gumentf
rom humannat
ure.

 Wear
eal
lsoconst
it
uted,i
tissai
d,t
hatoneal
way
sseeksone'
sownadv
ant
age
orwel
far
e,oral
way
sdoeswhathet
hinkswi
l
lgi
vehi
mthegr
eat
estbal
anceof
goodov
erev
il
.

 Sel
f-
lov
eist
heonl
ybasi
c"pr
inci
ple"i
nhumannat
ure;
inonesetofcont
empor
ary
t
erms,
itmeanst
hat"
ego-
sat
isf
act
ion"i
sthef
inal
aim ofal
lact
ivi
ty.

 Thepl
easur
epr
inci
ple"i
sthebasi
c"dr
ive"i
nev
eryi
ndi
vi
dual
.

 Et
hicalegoi
sm hasgener
all
ypr
esupposedwhati edpsy
scal
l chol
ogi
calegoi
sm -
-
t
hateach ofus i
s al
way
s seeki
ng hi
s own gr
eat
estgood,whet
hert
hisi
s
concei
vedofaspl
easur
e,happi
ness,
knowl
edge,
power
,sel
f-
real
i
zat
ion.

 Thequest
ioni
snotwhet
heregoi
sm i
sst
rongi
nhumannat
urebutwhet
herwe
ev
erhav
eanyconcer
nordesi
ref
ort
hewel
far
eofot
her
sexceptasameanst
o
ourown,
anyconcer
nforori
nter
esti
nthei
rwel
far
efori
tsownsake,
whi
chi
snot
der
ivedf
rom ourconcer
nforourownwel
far
e.I
ndeal
i
ngwi
tht
hiset
hical
theor
y;
(
1)Thatt
hedesi
ref
orone'
sowngoodpr
esupposesorbui
l
dsupont
heexi
stenceof
mor
ebasi
cdesi
resf
orf
ood,
fame,
sex,
etc.I
fwedi
dnothav
eanyoft
hese"
pri
mar
y
appet
it
es,
"wewoul
dnothav
eanygoodt
obeconcer
nedabout
;ourwel
far
econsi
sts
oft
hesat
isf
act
ionofsuchdesi
res.

(
2)I
tfol
l
ows,t
hatt
heobj
ectoft
hesebasi
cdesi
resi
snotone'
sownwel
far
e;i
tisf
ood,
f
ame,sex,et
c.,ast
hecasemaybe.One'
sowngoodi
snott
heobj
ectofal
lofone'
s
desi
resbutonl
yofoneoft
hem,
sel
f-l
ove.

(
3)Thati
nsomecasest
heobj
ectofabasi
cdesi
rei
ssomet
hingf
oronesel
f,f
or
exampl
e,f
oodort
heeat
ingoff
ood.Butt
her
eisnonecessi
tyaboutt
his;t
heobj
ect
maybesomet
hingf
orsomeoneel
se,
forexampl
e,enj
oyi
ngt
hesi
ghtoft
heocean.I
n
ot
herwor
ds,t
her
emaybeal
tr
uist
ici
mpul
ses.Ther
emayal
sobeadesi
ret
odot
he
r
ightassuch.Whet
hert
her
ear
esuchdesi
resornoti
saquest
ionofempi
ri
cal
fact
.

(
4)Asamat
teroff
act
,ther
ear
esuchal
tr
uist
ici
nter
est
sint
hewel
far
eofot
her
s(sheer
mal
evol
ence,
ifi
texi
sts,
isadesi
ret
hatanot
herexper
iencepai
nfori
tsownsake)
,as
wel
lasadesi
ret
odot
her
ightassuch.

1.
1.3.Ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm:
Produci
ngt
hebestconsequences
Thatact
ioni
sbest
,whi
chpr
ocur
est
hegr
eat
esthappi
nessf
ort
hegr
eat
estnumber
s.
Consi
dersomet
radi
ti
onalmor
alpr
inci
plesandseei
ftheyhel
puscomet
oadeci
sion.
Onepr
inci
pleof
tengi
vent
o gui
deact
ioni
s“Lety
ourconsci
encebey
ourgui
de.
”
Supposey
ourconsci
encet
ell
syout
ogi
vet
hemoneyt
otheEt
hiopi
anCof
feeCl
uband
myconsci
encet
ell
smet
ogi
vet
hemoneyt
otheEt
hiopi
anRedCr
ossSoci
ety(
ERCS)
.
Howcanweev
endi
scusst
hemat
ter
?Ifconsci
encei
stheendofi
t,we’
rel
eftmut
e.

Anot
herpr
inci
pleur
gedonusi
s“Dowhat
everi
smostl
ovi
ng”
;Lov
eissur
elyawonder
ful
v
alue.I
tisamor
ewhol
esomeat
ti
tudet
hanhat
e,andweshoul
dov
ercomef
eel
i
ngsof
hat
eifonl
yforourownpsy
chol
ogi
calheal
th.Buti
slov
eenought
ogui
deouract
ions
whent
her
eisaconf
li
ctofi
nter
est
?“Lov
eisbl
i
nd,
”ithasbeensai
d,“
butr
eason,l
i
ke
mar
ri
age,
isaney
e-opener
.”Whom shoul
dIl
ovei
nthecaseoft
hedi
sbur
sementoft
he
mi
l
li
onai
re’
smoney
—themi
l
li
onai
reort
hest
arv
ingpeopl
e?I
t’
snotcl
earhowl
oveal
one
wi
l
lset
tl
eany
thi
ng.I
nfact
,iti
snotobv
ioust
hatwemustal
way
sdowhati
smostl
ovi
ng.
Shoul
dweal
way
str
eatourenemi
esi
nlov
ingway
s?Ori
sitmor
all
yper
missi
blet
ofeel
hat
efort
hosewhohav
epur
posel
yandunj
ust
lyhar
medus,ourl
ovedones,orot
her
i
nnocentpeopl
e?Shoul
dthesur
viv
orsofAuschwi
tzl
oveAdol
phHi
tl
er?Lov
eal
onedoes
notsol
vedi
ff
icul
tmor
ali
ssues.

At
hir
dpr
inci
pleof
tengi
vent
ogui
deourmor
alact
ionsi
stheGol
denRul
e:“
Dot
oot
her
s
asy
ouwoul
dhav
ethem dot
oyou.
”Thi
s,t
oo,
isanobl
erul
eoft
humb,
onet
hatwor
ksi
n
si
mpl
e,commonsensesi
tuat
ions.Buti
thaspr
obl
ems.Fi
rst
,itcannotbet
akenl
i
ter
all
y.
Thus,
ther
ulemustbemodi
fi
ed:“
Dot
oot
her
sasy
ouwoul
dhav
ethem dot
oyoui
fyou
wer
eint
hei
rshoes.
”Howev
er,
thi
sst
il
lhaspr
obl
ems.Li
kewi
se,
theGol
denRul
edoesn’
t
t
ell
met
owhom t
ogi
vet
hemi
l
li
onai
re’
smoney
.

Consci
ence,l
ove,andt
heGol
denRul
ear
eal
lwor
thyr
ulesoft
humbt
ohel
pust
hrough
l
i
fe.Theywor
kformostofus,mostoft
het
ime,i
nor
dinar
ymor
alsi
tuat
ions.But
,in
mor
ecompl
i
cat
edcases,
especi
all
ywhent
her
ear
elegi
ti
mat
econf
li
ctsofi
nter
est
s,t
hey
ar
eli
mit
ed.

Amor
epr
omi
si
ngst
rat
egyf
orsol
vi
ngdi
l
emmasi
sthatoff
oll
owi
ngdef
ini
temor
alr
ules.
Supposey
oudeci
dedt
ogi
vet
hemi
l
li
onai
re’
smoneyt
otheEt
hiopi
anCof
feeCl
ubt
o
keepy
ourpr
omi
seorbecauset
odoot
her
wisewoul
dbest
eal
i
ng.Thepr
inci
pley
ou
f
oll
owedwoul
dbe“
Alway
skeepy
ourpr
omi
se.
”Pr
inci
plesar
eimpor
tanti
nli
fe.I
fyou
deci
dedt
oactont
hepr
inci
pleofkeepi
ngpr
omi
ses,
theny
ouadher
edt
oat
ypeofmor
al
t
heor
ycal
l
eddeont
ology
.Asy
ouwi
l
lseesof
art
hatdeont
ologi
calsy
stemsmai
ntai
n
t
hatt
hecent
erofv
aluei
stheactorki
ndofact
;cer
tai
nfeat
uresi
ntheacti
tsel
fhav
e
i
ntr
insi
cval
ue.Forexampl
e,adeont
ologi
stwoul
dseesomet
hingi
ntr
insi
cal
l
ywr
ongi
n
t
hev
eryactofl
yi
ng.I
f,ont
heot
herhand,y
oudeci
dedt
ogi
vet
hemoneyt
othe
Et
hiopi
anRedCr
ossSoci
ety(
ERCS)t
osav
eanenor
mousnumberofl
i
vesandr
est
ore
economi
csol
vencyt
othesoci
ety
,yousi
dedwi
that
ypeoft
heor
ycal
l
edt
eleol
ogi
cal
et
hics.Somet
imes,i
tisr
efer
redt
oasconsequent
ial
i
tyet
hics.Thecent
erofv
alueher
e
i
stheout
comeorconsequencesoft
heact
.Forexampl
e,at
eleol
ogy
’swoul
djudge
whet
herl
yi
ngwasmor
all
yri
ghtorwr
ongbyt
heconsequencesi
tpr
oduced.
.
1.
1.3.
1. Cl
assi
cUt
il
it
ari
ani
sm
I
nournor
mall
i
vesweuseut
il
it
ari
anr
easoni
ngal
lthet
ime.Asaf
ormalet
hicalt
heor
y,
t
he seedsofut
il
it
ari
ani
sm wer
e sewn byt
he anci
entGr
eekphi
l
osopherEpi
cur
us
(
342–270BCE)
,whost
atedt
hat“

Pl
easur
eist
hegoalt
hatnat
urehasor
dai
nedf
orus;i
tisal
sot
hest
andar
dbywhi
chwe
j
udge ev
ery
thi
ng good.
” Accor
ding t
othi
svi
ew,r
ight
ness and wr
ongness ar
e
det
ermi
nedbypl
easur
eorpai
nthatsomet
hingpr
oduces.

Epi
cur
us’
stheor
yfocusedl
argel
yont
hei
ndi
vi
dual
’
sper
sonalexper
ienceofpl
easur
e
andpai
n,andt
othatext
entheadv
ocat
edav
ersi
onofet
hical
egoi
sm.

Thecl
assi
calexpr
essi
onsofut
il
it
ari
ani
sm,
though,
appeari
nthewr
it
ingsoft
woEngl
i
sh
phi
l
osopher
sandsoci
alr
efor
mer
sJer
emyBent
ham (
1748–1832)andJohnSt
uar
tMi
l
l
(
1806–1873)
.Theywer
ethenonr
eli
giousancest
orsoft
het
went
iet
h-cent
urysecul
ar
humani
sts,
opt
imi
sti
cabouthumannat
ureandourabi
l
ityt
osol
veourpr
obl
emswi
thout
r
ecour
set
oGod.Engagedi
nast
ruggl
eforl
egalaswel
lasmor
alr
efor
m,t
heywer
e
i
mpat
ientwi
tht
he r
ule-
bound char
act
erofl
aw and mor
ali
tyi
n ei
ght
eent
h-and
ni
net
eent
h-cent
uryGr
eatBr
it
ainandt
ri
edt
omaket
hel
aw ser
vehumanneedsand
i
nter
est
s.

1.
1.3.
2. Jer
emyBent
ham:
Quant
it
yov
erQual
i
ty
Ther
ear
etwomai
nfeat
uresofut
il
it
ari
ani
sm,
bot
hofwhi
chBent
ham ar
ti
cul
ated:

 The consequent
ial
i
stpr
inci
ple(
ori
tst
eleol
ogi
calaspect
):st
ates t
hatt
he
r
ight
nessorwr
ongnessofanacti
sdet
ermi
nedbyt
hegoodnessorbadnessof
t
her
esul
tst
hatf
low f
rom i
t.I
tist
heend,nott
hemeanst
hatcount
s;t
heend
j
ust
if
iest
hemeans.and

 Theut
il
it
ypr
inci
ple(
ori
tshedoni
caspect
):st
atest
hatt
heonl
ythi
ngt
hati
sgood
i
nit
sel
fissomespeci
fi
cty
peofst
ate(
forexampl
e,pl
easur
e,happi
ness,
wel
far
e).

1.
1.3.
3. JohnSt
uar
tMi
l
l:Qual
i
tyov
erQuant
it
y
I
twast
omeett
hesesor
tsofobj
ect
ionsandsav
eut
il
it
ari
ani
sm f
rom t
hechar
geof
bei
ngapi
gphi
l
osophyt
hatBent
ham’
ssuccessor
,JohnSt
uar
tMi
l
l,soughtt
odi
sti
ngui
sh
happi
nessf
rom mer
esensual
pleasur
e.

Hi
sver
sionoft
het
heor
yisof
tencal
l
edeudai
moni
sti
cut
il
it
ari
ani
sm (
from t
heGr
eek
eudai
moni
a,meani
ng“
happi
ness”
).Hedef
ineshappi
nessi
nter
msofcer
tai
nty
pesof
hi
gher
-or
derpl
easur
es orsat
isf
act
ions such as i
ntel
l
ect
ual
,aest
het
ic,and soci
al
enj
oyment
s,aswel
lasi
nter
msofmi
nimalsuf
fer
ing.Thati
s,t
her
ear
etwot
ypesof
pl
easur
es.

Thel
ower
,orel
ement
ary
,incl
udeeat
ing,dr
inki
ng,sexual
i
ty,r
est
ing,andsensuous
t
it
il
lat
ion.The hi
gheri
ncl
ude hi
gh cul
tur
e,sci
ent
if
ic knowl
edge,i
ntel
l
ect
ual
i
ty,and
cr
eat
ivi
ty.Al
thought
hel
owerpl
easur
esar
emor
eint
ensel
ygr
ati
fyi
ng,t
heyal
sol
eadt
o
pai
nwhenov
eri
ndul
gedi
n.Thehi
gherpl
easur
est
endt
obemor
elongt
erm,
cont
inuous,
andgr
adual
.

Mi
l
lar
guedt
hatt
hehi
gher
,ormor
eref
ined,
pleasur
esar
esuper
iort
othel
owerones:“
It
i
sbet
tert
obeahumanbei
ngdi
ssat
isf
iedt
hanapi
gsat
isf
ied;bet
tert
obeSocr
ates
di
ssat
isf
iedt
hanaf
oolsat
isf
ied.
”Humansar
etheki
ndofcr
eat
ureswhor
equi
remor
e
t
obet
rul
yhappy
.Theywantt
hel
owerpl
easur
es,butt
heyal
sowantdeepf
ri
endshi
p,
i
ntel
l
ect
ualabi
l
ity
,cul
tur
e,t
heabi
l
ityt
o cr
eat
eand appr
eci
atear
t,knowl
edge,and
wi
sdom.
.

Mi
l
liscl
ear
lypushi
ngt
heboundar
iesoft
heconceptof“
pleasur
e”byemphasi
zi
ng
hi
gherqual
i
tiessuchasknowl
edge,
int
ell
i
gence,
freedom,
fri
endshi
p,l
ove,
andheal
th.I
n
f
act
,onemi
ghtev
ensayt
hathi
sli
tmust
estf
orhappi
nessr
eal
l
yhasl
i
ttl
etodowi
th
act
ual
pleasur
eandmor
etodowi
thanon-
hedoni
ccul
ti
vat
edst
ateofmi
nd.

1.
1.3.
4. Act
-AndRul
e-Ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm
Ther
ear
etwocl
assi
cal
typesofut
il
it
ari
ani
sm:
act
-andr
ule-
uti
l
itar
iani
sm.

Act
-ut
il
it
ari
ans,suchasBent
ham,sayt
hati
deal
l
yweoughtt
oappl
ythepr
inci
plet
oal
l
oft
heal
ter
nat
ivesopent
ousatanygi
venmoment
.Wemaydef
ineact
-ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm i
n
t
hisway
:
Act
-ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm ar
guest
hatanacti
sri
ghti
fandonl
yifi
tresul
tsi
nasmuchgoodas
anyav
ail
abl
eal
ter
nat
ive.

Rul
e-ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm:Anacti
sri
ghti
fandonl
yifi
tisr
equi
redbyar
ulet
hati
sit
sel
fa
memberofasetofr
uleswhoseaccept
ancewoul
dleadt
ogr
eat
erut
il
it
yforsoci
etyt
han
anyav
ail
abl
eal
ter
nat
ive.

Humanbei
ngsar
erul
e-f
oll
owi
ngcr
eat
ures.Wel
ear
nbyadher
ingt
other
ulesofagi
ven
subj
ect
,whet
heri
tisspeaki
ngal
anguage,
dri
vi
ngacar
,danci
ng,
wri
ti
nganessay
,rock
cl
i
mbi
ng,
orcooki
ng.

Wewantt
ohav
easetofact
iongui
dingr
ulesbywhi
cht
oli
ve.

TheSt
rengt
hsofUt
il
it
ari
ani
sm

Ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm hast
hreev
eryposi
ti
vef
eat
ures.

Thef
ir
stat
tract
ionorst
rengt
hist
hati
tisasi
ngl
epr
inci
ple,anabsol
utesy
stem wi
tha
pot
ent
ialanswerf
orev
erysi
tuat
ion:Dowhatwi
l
lpr
omot
ethemostut
il
it
y!I
t’
sgoodt
o
hav
easi
mpl
e,act
ion-
gui
dingpr
inci
plet
hati
sappl
i
cabl
etoev
eryoccasi
on—ev
eni
fit
maybedi
ff
icul
ttoappl
y(l
i
fe’
snotsi
mpl
e).

Thesecondv
irt
ueappeal
stooursenset
hatmor
ali
tyi
smadef
orpeopl
eandt
hat
mor
ali
tyi
snotso much aboutr
ulesasabouthel
ping peopl
e and al
l
evi
ati
ng t
he
suf
fer
ingi
nthewor
ld.Assuch,
uti
l
itar
iani
sm seemscommonsensi
cal
.

At
hir
dst
rengt
hofut
il
it
ari
ani
sm i
sthati
tispar
ti
cul
arl
ywel
lsui
tedt
oaddr
esst
he
pr
obl
em ofpost
eri
ty—namel
y,whyweshoul
dpr
eser
vescar
cenat
uralr
esour
cesf
ort
he
bet
ter
mentoff
utur
egener
ati
onsofhumanst
hatdonoty
etexi
st.Expr
essedr
het
ori
cal
l
y,
t
hequest
ioni
s“Whyshoul
dIcar
eaboutpost
eri
ty;
whathaspost
eri
tyev
erdonef
orme

Cr
it
ici
sm ofUt
il
it
ari
ani
sm

Ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm hasbeenar
oundf
orsev
eral
cent
uri
es,
butsot
oohav
ebeeni
tscr
it
ics,
and
weneedt
oaddr
essaser
iesofst
andar
dobj
ect
ionst
out
il
it
ari
ani
sm bef
orewecangi
ve
i
ta“
phi
l
osophi
cal
l
ycl
eanbi
l
lofheal
th.
”

Pr
obl
emswi
thFor
mul
ati
ngUt
il
it
ari
ani
sm

Thef
ir
stsetofpr
obl
emsoccur
sint
hev
eryf
ormul
ati
onofut
il
it
ari
ani
sm:“
Thegr
eat
est
happi
nessf
ort
hegr
eat
estnumber
.”Not
icet
hatwehav
etwo“
great
est
”thi
ngsi
nthi
s
f
ormul
a:“
happi
ness”and “
number
.”Whenev
erwe hav
etwo v
ari
abl
es,we i
nvi
te
pr
obl
emsofdet
ermi
ningwhi
choft
hev
ari
abl
est
orankf
ir
stwhent
heyseem t
oconf
li
ct.

TheCompar
ati
veConsequencesObj
ect
ion

Anot
hercr
uci
alpr
obl
em wi
thut
il
it
ari
ani
sm i
sthati
tseemst
orequi
reasuper
human
abi
l
ityt
olooki
ntot
hef
utur
eandsur
veyami
nd-
boggl
i
ngar
rayofconsequencesof
act
ions.Ofcour
se,
wenor
mal
l
ydonotknowt
hel
ong-
ter
m consequencesofouract
ions
becausel
i
fei
stoocompl
exandt
heconsequencesgooni
ntot
hei
ndef
ini
tef
utur
e.

TheConsi
stencyObj
ect
iont
oRul
e-Ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm

Anof
ten-
debat
edquest
ionaboutr
ule-
uti
l
itar
iani
sm i
swhet
her
,whenpushedt
oit
s
l
ogi
call
i
mit
s,i
tmustei
therbecomeadeont
ologi
calsy
stem ort
ransf
ormi
tsel
fint
oact
-
ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm.Assuch,i
tisani
nconsi
stentt
heor
ythatof
fer
snot
rul
yindependent
st
andar
dformaki
ngmor
alj
udgment
s.Br
ief
ly,
thear
gumentgoesl
i
ket
his:I
magi
net
hat
f
oll
owi
ngt
hesetofgener
alr
ulesofar
ule-
uti
l
itar
iansy
stem y
iel
ds100hedons(
posi
ti
ve
ut
il
it
yuni
ts)
.Wecoul
dal
way
sfi
ndacasewher
ebr
eaki
ngt
hegener
alr
ulewoul
dresul
t
i
naddi
ti
onalhedonswi
thoutdecr
easi
ngt
hesum oft
hewhol
e.So,f
orexampl
e,we
coul
dimagi
nea si
tuat
ion i
n whi
ch br
eaki
ng t
hegener
alr
ule“
Nev
erl
i
e”t
o spar
e
someone’
sfeel
i
ngswoul
dcr
eat
emor
eut
il
it
y(f
orexampl
e,102hedons)t
hankeepi
ng
t
her
ulewoul
d.I
twoul
dseem t
hatwecoul
dal
way
simpr
oveonanyv
ersi
onofr
ule-
ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm bybr
eaki
ngt
hesetofr
uleswhenev
erwej
udget
hatbydoi
ngsowecoul
d
pr
oduceev
enmor
eut
il
it
ythanbyf
oll
owi
ngt
heset
.

TheNo-
RestObj
ect
ion
Accor
dingt
out
il
it
ari
ani
sm,
oneshoul
dal
way
sdot
hatactt
hatpr
omi
sest
opr
omot
ethe
mostut
il
it
y.Butt
her
eisusual
l
yani
nfi
nit
esetofpossi
bleact
stochoosef
rom,
andev
en
i
fIcanbeexcusedf
rom consi
der
ingal
loft
hem,
Icanbef
air
lysur
ethatt
her
eisof
tena
pr
efer
abl
eactt
hatIcoul
dbedoi
ng.Forexampl
e,whenIam aboutt
ogot
otheci
nema
wi
thaf
ri
end,Ishoul
daskmy
sel
fifhel
pingt
hehomel
essi
nmycommuni
tywoul
dn’
t
pr
omot
emor
eut
il
it
y.WhenIam aboutt
ogot
osl
eep,Ishoul
daskmy
sel
fwhet
herI
coul
datt
hatmomentbedoi
ngsomet
hingt
ohel
psav
etheozonel
ayer
.And,whynot
si
mpl
ygi
veal
lmyasset
s(bey
ondwhati
sabsol
utel
ynecessar
ytokeepmeal
i
ve)t
othe
poort
opr
omot
eut
il
it
y?Fol
l
owi
ngut
il
it
ari
ani
sm,Ishoul
dgetl
i
ttl
eornor
est
,and,
cer
tai
nly
,Ihav
enor
ightt
oenj
oyl
i
fewhenbysacr
if
ici
ngIcanmakeot
her
shappi
er.
Pet
er

ThePubl
i
cit
yObj
ect
ion

I
tisusual
l
ythoughtt
hatmor
alpr
inci
plesmustbeknownt
oal
lsot
hatal
lmayf
reel
y
obeyt
hepr
inci
ples.Butut
il
it
ari
ansusual
l
yhesi
tat
etor
ecommendt
hatev
ery
oneactas
aut
il
it
ari
an,especi
all
yanact
-ut
il
it
ari
an,becausei
ttakesagr
eatdealofdel
i
ber
ati
ont
o
wor
koutt
hel
i
kel
yconsequencesofal
ter
nat
ivecour
sesofact
ion.I
twoul
dbebet
teri
f
mostpeopl
eact
edsi
mpl
yasdeont
ologi
sts.Thus,
uti
l
itar
iani
sm seemst
ocont
radi
ctour
r
equi
rementofpubl
i
cit
y.

TheRel
ati
vi
sm Obj
ect
ion

Somet
imespeopl
eaccuser
ule-
uti
l
itar
iani
sm ofbei
ngr
elat
ivi
sti
cbecausei
tseemst
o
endor
sedi
ff
erentr
ulesi
ndi
ff
erentsoci
eti
es.I
nonesoci
ety
,itmayuphol
dpol
ygamy
,
wher
easi
noursoci
etyi
tdef
endsmonogamy
.Inadeser
tsoci
ety
,ituphol
dsar
ule“
Don’
t
wast
ewat
er,
”wher
easi
nacommuni
tywher
ewat
eri
spl
ent
if
ulnosuchr
uleexi
sts.But
t
hisi
snotr
eal
l
yconv
ent
ionalr
elat
ivi
sm becauset
her
ulei
snotmadev
ali
dbyt
he
communi
ty’
schoosi
ngi
tbutbyt
heact
ual
sit
uat
ion.

Cr
it
ici
sm oft
heEndsJust
if
yingI
mmor
alMeans

Chi
efamongt
hecr
it
ici
smsofut
il
it
ari
ani
sm i
sthatut
il
it
ari
anendsmi
ghtj
ust
if
yimmor
al
means.Ther
ear
emanydast
ardl
ythi
ngst
hatwecandoi
nthenameofmaxi
mizi
ng
gener
alhappi
ness:decei
t,t
ort
ure,sl
aver
y,ev
enki
l
li
ngof
fet
hni
cmi
nor
it
ies.Asl
ongas
t
hel
argerpopul
acebenef
it
s,t
heseact
ionsmi
ghtbej
ust
if
ied.Thegener
alpr
obl
em can
bel
aidouti
nthi
sar
gument
:

(
1)I
famor
alt
heor
yjust
if
iesact
ionst
hatweuni
ver
sal
l
ydeem i
mper
missi
ble,t
hen
t
hatmor
alt
heor
ymustber
eject
ed.
(
2)Ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm j
ust
if
iesact
ionst
hatweuni
ver
sal
l
ydeem i
mper
missi
ble.
(
3)Ther
efor
e,ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm mustber
eject
ed.

TheLy
ingObj
ect
ion

Wi
l
li
am D.Rosshasar
guedt
hatut
il
it
ari
ani
sm i
stober
eject
edbecausei
tleadst
othe
count
eri
ntui
ti
veendor
sementofl
yi
ngwheni
tser
vest
hegr
eat
ergood.Consi
dert
wo
act
s,AandB,t
hatwi
l
lbot
hresul
tin100hedons(
uni
tsofpl
easur
eofut
il
it
y).Theonl
y
di
ff
erencei
sthatAi
nvol
vest
ell
i
ngal
i
eandBi
nvol
vest
ell
i
ngt
het
rut
h.Theut
il
it
ari
an
mustmai
ntai
nthatt
het
woact
sar
eofequalv
alue.Butt
hisseemsi
mpl
ausi
ble;t
rut
h
seemst
obeani
ntr
insi
cal
l
ygoodt
hing.

Whati
ssoi
mpor
tantaboutt
rut
htel
l
ingorsobadaboutl
yi
ng?I
fitt
urnedoutt
hatl
yi
ng
r
eal
l
ypr
omot
ed human wel
far
e,we’
d hav
eto accepti
t.Butt
hat
’snotl
i
kel
y.Our
happi
nessi
sti
edupwi
thaneedf
orr
eli
abl
einf
ormat
ion(
thati
s,t
rut
h)onhow t
o
achi
eveourends,sot
rut
hful
nesswi
l
lbeamemberoft
her
ule-
uti
l
ity
’sset
.Butwher
e
l
yi
ngwi
l
lcl
ear
lypr
omot
eut
il
it
ywi
thoutunder
mini
ngt
hegener
aladher
encet
other
ule,
wesi
mpl
youghtt
oli
e.Don’
tweal
readyacceptl
yi
ngt
oagangst
erort
ell
i
ngwhi
tel
i
est
o
spar
epeopl
e’
sfeel
i
ngs?

TheJust
iceObj
ect
ion

The ut
il
it
ari
an r
esponse was t
hatwe shoul
dreconsi
derwhet
hert
rut
htel
l
ing and
per
sonali
ntegr
it
yar
eval
uest
hatshoul
d nev
erbe compr
omi
sed.The si
tuat
ion i
s
i
ntensi
fi
ed,
though,
whenweconsi
derst
andar
dsofj
ust
icet
hatmostofust
hinkshoul
d
nev
erbedi
spensed wi
th.Let
’sl
ookatt
wo exampl
es,each ofwhi
ch hi
ghl
i
ght
sa
di
ff
erentaspectofj
ust
ice.
Fi
rst
,imagi
net
hatar
apeandmur
deri
scommi
tt
edi
nar
aci
all
yvol
ati
l
ecommuni
ty.As
t
hesher
if
foft
het
own,y
ouhav
espental
i
fet
imewor
kingf
orr
aci
alhar
mony
.Now,j
ust
wheny
ourgoali
sbei
ngr
eal
i
zed,
thi
sinci
dentoccur
s.Thecr
imei
sthoughtt
ober
aci
all
y
mot
ivat
ed,andar
ioti
saboutt
obr
eakoutt
hatwi
l
lver
yli
kel
yresul
tint
hedeat
hof
sev
eral
peopl
eandcr
eat
elong-
last
ingr
aci
alant
agoni
sm.

Asasecondi
l
lust
rat
ion,i
magi
net
haty
ouar
eaut
il
it
ari
anphy
sici
anwho hasf
ive
pat
ient
sundery
ourcar
e.Oneneedsahear
ttr
anspl
ant
,oneneedt
wol
ungs,
oneneedsa
l
i
ver
,andt
hel
astt
woeachneedaki
dney
.Now i
ntoy
ourof
fi
cecomesaheal
thy
bachel
orneedi
ngani
mmuni
zat
ion.Youj
udget
hathewoul
dmakeaper
fectsacr
if
icef
or
y
ourf
ivepat
ient
s.Thr
oughaut
il
it
y-cal
cul
us,y
oudet
ermi
net
hat
,wi
thoutadoubt
,you
coul
ddot
hemostgoodbyi
nject
ingt
heheal
thymanwi
thaf
atal
drugandt
henusi
nghi
s
or
ganst
osav
eyourf
iveot
herpat
ient
s.

Thesecar
elessv
iewsofj
ust
iceof
fendus.Thev
eryf
actt
hatut
il
it
ari
ansev
enconsi
der
suchact
ions—t
hatt
heywoul
dmi
suset
hel
egalsy
stem ort
hemedi
calsy
stem t
ocar
ry
outt
hei
rschemes—seemsf
ri
ght
eni
ng.

Thr
ee-
StepAct
ionFor
mul
a:
Ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm mi
ghtbeconst
ruedasof
fer
ingat
hree-
stepact
ionf
ormul
aforact
ion:
1.Ont
hebasi
sofwhatIknow,Imustpr
ojectt
heconsequencesofeachal
ter
nat
ive
opt
ionopent
ome(
e.g.
,taki
ngdi
ff
erentki
ndsofact
ionsort
aki
ngnoact
ion)
.
2.Cal
cul
atehowmuchhappi
ness,
orbal
anceofhappi
nessov
erunhappi
ness,
isl
i
kel
y
t
obepr
oducedbyant
ici
pat
edconsequencesofeachact
ionornone.
3.Sel
ectt
hatact
ion whi
ch,on bal
ance,wi
l
lpr
oduce t
he gr
eat
estamountof
happi
nessf
ort
hegr
eat
estnumberofpeopl
eaf
fect
ed

Gener
all
y,ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm i
s a mor
alt
heor
y whi
ch t
akes i
nto account how t
he
consequencesofanactwi
l
laf
fectal
lthepar
ti
esi
nvol
ved.Mor
alr
ight
nessdependson
t
heconsequencesf
oral
laf
fect
edpeopl
eorsent
ientbei
ngs.Thef
undament
alpr
inci
ple
ofut
il
it
ari
ani
sm i
sthepr
inci
pleofut
il
it
y:

Thepr
inci
pleofut
il
it
y
  Themor
all
yri
ghtact
ioni
stheonet
hatpr
oducest
hebestov
eral
lconsequences
wi
thr
egar
dtot
heut
il
it
yorwel
far
eofal
ltheaf
fect
edpar
ti
es.
 Jer
emyBent
ham’
ssl
ogan:Ther
ightactorpol
i
cyi
stheonet
hatcauses‘
the
gr
eat
esthappi
nessoft
hegr
eat
estnumber
’–t
hati
s,maxi
mizet
het
otalut
il
it
yor
wel
far
eoft
hemaj
ori
tyofal
ltheaf
fect
edpar
ti
es.

1.
1.3.
5. Al
tr
uism
I
nal
tr
uism anact
ioni
sri
ghti
ftheconsequencesoft
hatact
ionar
efav
orabl
etoal
l
exceptt
heact
or.But
lerar
guedt
hatwehav
eani
nher
entpsy
chol
ogi
calcapaci
tyt
oshow
benev
olencet
oot
her
s.Thi
svi
ewi
scal
l
edpsy
chol
ogi
calal
tr
uism andmai
ntai
nst
hatat
l
eastsomeofouract
ionsar
emot
ivat
edbyi
nst
inct
ivebenev
olence.

Psy
chol
ogi
calal
tr
uism hol
dst
hatal
lhumanact
ioni
snecessar
il
yot
hercent
eredand
ot
hermot
ivat
ed.A par
all
elanal
ysi
s ofpsy
chol
ogi
calal
tr
uism r
esul
tsi
n opposi
ng
concl
usi
onst
opsy
chol
ogi
calegoi
sm,
andagai
nar
guabl
ythet
heor
yisj
ustascl
osedas
psy
chol
ogi
cal
egoi
sm

Deont
ologi
cal
Ethi
cs(
Non-Consequent
ial
i
ty)

Deont
ology
:Whatdut
yasksofus?

Whatmakes a ‘
ri
ght
’actr
ight
?The ut
il
it
ari
an orconsequent
ial
i
stanswert
othi
s
quest
ioni
sthati
tist
hegoodout
comeofanactwhi
chmakesi
tri
ght
.Mor
alr
ight
ness
orwr
ongnessi
scal
cul
atedbydet
ermi
ningt
heext
entt
owhi
cht
heact
ionpr
omot
es
v
aluessuchaspl
easur
e,wel
l
-bei
ng,happi
ness,et
c.Tot
hisext
ent
,theendj
ust
if
iest
he
means.I
nmanyr
espect
s,deont
ologi
calmor
alt
heor
yisdi
amet
ri
cal
l
ytheopposi
teof
ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm.

I
tisr
efer
redas“
themeansj
ust
if
iest
heend”
.Iti
scoi
nedas“
deont
ics”
.Thi
sisat
heor
y
t
hatt
her
ight
nessorwr
ongnessofmor
alact
ioni
sdet
ermi
ned,atl
eastpar
tl
ywi
th
r
efer
encet
ofor
malr
ulesofconductr
athert
hanconsequencesorr
esul
tofanact
ion.I
t
i
sanemphasi
sont
hei
ntent
ions,mot
ives,mor
alpr
inci
plesorper
for
manceofdut
y
r
athert
hanr
esul
ts,
ast
hesi
gnofr
ightact
ion/
mor
ali
tyandi
mmor
ali
ty.I
tisadut
ybased
andaccor
dingt
othi
stheor
y,t
heconsequencesorr
esul
tsofouract
ionhav
enot
hingt
o
dowi
tht
hei
rri
ght
nessorwr
ongness.

Per
for
manceofOne’
sownDut
y

The17t
hcent
uryGer
manphi
l
osopherSamuelPuf
endor
f,whocl
assi
fi
eddozensof
dut
iesundert
hreeheadi
ngs:
dut
iest
oGod,
dut
iest
oonesel
fanddut
iest
oot
her
s!

Concer
ningourdut
iest
owar
dsGod,
hear
guedt
hatt
her
ear
etwoki
nds:(
1)at
heor
eti
cal
dut
ytoknowt
heexi
stenceandnat
ureofGod,and(
2)apr
act
icaldut
ytobot
hinwar
dly
andout
war
dlywor
shi
pGod.
Concer
ningourdut
iest
owar
dsonesel
f;t
hesear
eal
sooft
wosor
ts:(
1)dut
iesoft
he
soul
,whi
chi
nvol
vedev
elopi
ngone'
sski
l
lsandt
alent
s,and(
2)dut
iesoft
hebody
,whi
ch
i
nvol
venothar
mingourbodi
es,aswemi
ghtt
hroughgl
utt
onyordr
unkenness,andnot
ki
l
li
ngonesel
f.
Concer
ningourdut
iest
owar
dsot
her
s;Puf
endor
fdi
vi
dest
hesebet
weenabsol
utedut
ies,
whi
char
euni
ver
sal
l
ybi
ndi
ngonpeopl
e,andcondi
ti
onaldut
ies,whi
char
ether
esul
tof
cont
ract
sbet
weenpeopl
e.
Absol
utedut
iesar
eoft
hreesor
ts:(
1)av
oidwr
ongi
ngot
her
s;(
2)t
reatpeopl
easequal
s,
and(
3)pr
omot
ethegoodofot
her
s.
Condi
ti
onaldut
iesi
nvol
vev
ari
oust
ypesofagr
eement
s,t
hepr
inci
paloneofwhi
chi
sthe
dut
yist
okeepone'
spr
omi
ses.

1.
1.3.
6. TheDi
vi
neCommandTheor
y
Accor
dingt
oonev
iew,cal
l
edt
hedi
vi
necommandt
heor
y(DCT)
,et
hicalpr
inci
plesar
e
si
mpl
ythecommandsofGod.Theyder
ivet
hei
rval
i
dit
yfr
om God’
scommandi
ngt
hem,
andt
heymean“
commandedbyGod.
”Wi
thoutGod,t
her
ewoul
dbenouni
ver
sal
l
yval
i
d
mor
ali
ty.Wecananal
yzet
heDCTi
ntot
hreesepar
atet
heses:

1.Mor
ali
ty(
thati
s,r
ight
nessandwr
ongness)or
igi
nat
eswi
thGod.
2.Mor
alr
ight
nesssi
mpl
ymeans“
wil
l
edbyGod,
”andmor
alwr
ongnessmeans“
bei
ng
agai
nstt
hewi
l
lofGod.
”
3. Becausemor
ali
tyessent
ial
l
yisbasedondi
vi
newi
l
l,notoni
ndependent
lyexi
sti
ng
r
easonsf
oract
ion,
nof
urt
herr
easonsf
oract
ionar
enecessar
y.
Ther
ear
emodi
fi
edv
ersi
onsoft
heDCTt
hatdr
oporqual
i
fyoneormor
eoft
heset
hree
t
heses,butt
hest
rongestf
ormi
ncl
udesal
lthr
eeasser
ti
ons.Wecanchar
act
eri
zet
hat
posi
ti
ont
husl
y:Necessar
il
y,f
oranyper
sonS andf
oral
lact
sA,i
fA i
sfor
bidden
(
requi
red)ofS,
thenGodcommandst
hatnot
-A(
A)f
orS.Li
kewi
se,
ifAi
sper
mit
tedf
orS,
t
henGodhascommandednei
therAnornot
-Af
orS.Br
ingi
ngoutt
hei
mpl
i
cat
ionsoft
his,
wemayl
i
stf
ourpr
oposi
ti
ons:

1.ActAi
swr
ongi
fandonl
yifi
tiscont
rar
ytot
hecommandofGod.
2.ActAi
sri
ght(
requi
red)i
fandonl
yifi
tiscommandedbyGod.
3.ActAi
smor
all
yper
missi
blei
fandonl
yifi
tisper
mit
tedbyt
hecommandofGod.
4.I
fther
eisnoGod,
thennot
hingi
set
hical
l
ywr
ong,
requi
red,
orper
mit
ted.

Wecansummar
izet
heDCTt
hisway
:Mor
ali
tynotonl
yor
igi
nat
eswi
thGod,butmor
al
r
ight
nesssi
mpl
ymeans“
wil
l
edbyGod”andmor
alwr
ongnessmeans“
bei
ngagai
nstt
he
wi
l
lofGod”
.Thati
s,anacti
sri
ghti
nvi
rt
ueofbei
ngper
mit
tedbyt
hewi
l
lofGod,
andan
acti
swr
ongi
nvi
rt
ueofbei
ngagai
nstt
hewi
l
lofGod.Becausemor
ali
tyessent
ial
l
yis
based on di
vi
newi
l
l,noton i
ndependent
lyexi
sti
ng r
easonsf
oract
ion,no f
urt
her
r
easonsf
oract
ionar
enecessar
y.Sowemayask,“
IfGoddoesn’
texi
st,ev
ery
thi
ngi
s
per
missi
ble?
”Ifso,not
hingi
sfor
biddenorr
equi
red.Wi
thoutGod,wehav
emor
al
ni
hil
i
sm.I
fther
eisnoGod,
thennot
hingi
set
hical
l
ywr
ong,
requi
red,
orper
mit
ted.

Pr
obl
emswi
tht
heDi
vi
neCommandTheor
y

Ther
ear
etwopr
obl
emswi
tht
heDCTt
hatneedt
obef
acedbyt
hosewhohol
dit
.

1.DCTwoul
dseem t
omaket
heat
tri
but
ionof“
goodness”t
oGodr
edundant
.Whenwe
say“
Godi
sgood,
”wet
hinkwear
eascr
ibi
ngapr
oper
tyt
oGod;buti
fgoodsi
mpl
y
means“
whatGodcommandsorwi
l
ls,
”thenwear
enotat
tr
ibut
inganypr
oper
tyt
o
God.Ourst
atement“
Godi
sgood”mer
elymeans“
Goddoeswhat
everhewi
l
lst
odo”
or“
Godpr
act
iceswhathepr
eaches,
”andt
hest
atement“
Godcommandsust
odo
whati
sgood”mer
elyi
sthel
ogi
cal
l
yempt
yst
atement“
Godcommandsust
odo
whatGodcommandsust
odo.
”
2.DCTi
sthati
tseemst
omakemor
ali
tyi
ntosome-
thi
ngar
bit
rar
y.I
fGod’
sdecr
eei
s
 t
hesol
ear
bit
erofr
ightandwr
ong,i
twoul
dseem t
obel
ogi
cal
l
ypossi
blef
orsuch
hei
nousact
sasr
ape,
kil
l
ingoft
hei
nnocentf
ort
hef
unofi
t,andgr
atui
touscr
uel
tyt
o
becomemor
all
ygoodact
ions—i
fGodsuddenl
ydeci
dedt
ocommandust
odot
hese
t
hings

1.
1.3.
7. Ri
ght
sTheor
y
Aseconddut
y-basedappr
oacht
oet
hi sr
csi i
ght
stheor
y.Mostgener
all
y,a"
ri
ght
"isa
j
ust
if
iedcl
aim agai
nstanot
herper
son'
sbehav
ior-suchasmyr
ightt
onotbehar
medby
y
ou.Ri
ght
sanddut
iesar
erel
atedi
nsuchawayt
hatt
her
ight
sofoneper
soni
mpl
ythe
dut
iesofanot
herper
son.
.Thi
siscal
l
edt
hecor
rel
ati
vi
tyofr
ight
sanddut
ies.

The mosti
nfl
uent
ialear
lyaccountofr
ight
stheor
yi hatof17th cent
st uryBr
it
ish
phi
l
osopherJohnLocke,whoar
guedt
hatt
hel
awsofnat
uremandat
ethatweshoul
d
nothar
m any
one'
sli
fe,heal
th,l
i
ber
tyorpossessi
ons.ForLocke,t
hesear
eournat
ural
r
ight
s,gi
vent
ousbyGod.Ther
ear
efourf
eat
urest
radi
ti
onal
l
yassoci
atedwi
thmor
al
r
ight
s.

 Fi
rst
,ri
ght e nat
s ar urali
nsof
aras t
hey ar
e noti
nvent
ed orcr
eat
ed by
gov
ernment
s.
 Second,
t euni
heyar ver
sali
nsof
arast
heydonotchangef
rom count
ryt
ocount
ry.
 Thi
rd,t e equali
heyar nthesenset
hatr
ight
sar
ethesamef
oral
lpeopl
e,
i
rr
espect
iveofgender
,race,
orhandi
cap.
 Four
th,t ei
heyar nal
i
enabl
ewhi
chmeanst
hatIcannothandov
ermyr
ight
sto
anot
herper
son,
suchasbysel
l
ingmy
sel
fint
osl
aver
y.

1.
1.3.
8. Kant
’sCat
egor
ical
Imper
ati
ve
Thenameoft
heGer
manphi
l
osopher
,ImmanuelKant(
1724-
1804)i
sident
if
iedwi
tht
he
mor
alt
heor
yknownasdeont
ology
.Kantwasadamant
lyopposedt
othei
deat
hatt
he
out
comeofanact
ioncoul
ddet
ermi
nei
tsmor
alwor
th.Fordeont
ologi
sts,i
tisnot
consequenceswhi
chdet
ermi
net
her
ight
nessorwr
ongnessofanact
,but
,rat
her
,the
i
ntent
ionoft
heper
sonwhocar
ri
esoutt
heact
.Theemphasi
sisont
hecor
rect
nessof
t
heact
ion,r
egar
dlessoft
hepossi
blebenef
it
sorhar
mitmi
ghtpr
oduce.Deont
ologi
sts
mai
ntai
nthatt
her
ear
esomemor
alobl
i
gat
ionswhi
char
eabsol
utel
ybi
ndi
ng,nomat
ter
whatconsequencesar
epr
oduced.

TheCat
egor
ical
Imper
ati
ve

AKant
’sdut
y-basedt
heor
yisemphasi
zesasi
ngl
epr
inci
pleofdut
y.Kantagr
eedt
hatwe
hav
emor
aldut
iest
oonesel
fandot
her
s,suchasdev
elopi
ngone’
stal
ent
s,andkeepi
ng
ourpr
omi
sest
o ot
her
s.Howev
er,Kantar
gued t
hatt
her
eisa mor
efoundat
ional
pr
inci
pleofdut
ythatencompassesourpar
ti
cul
ardut
ies.I
tisasi
ngl
e,sel
f-
evi
dent
pr
inci
pleofr
easont
hathecal
l
sthe“
cat
egor
ical
imper
ati
ve.
”

 A cat
egor
icali
mper
ati
ve,hear
gued,i
sfundament
all
ydi
ff
erentf
rom hy
pot
het
ical
i
mper
ati
vest
hathi
ngeonsomeper
sonaldesi
ret
hatwehav
e.Forexampl
e,“
Ify
ou
wantt
ogetagoodj
ob,
theny
ououghtt
ogot
ocol
l
ege.
”Bycont
rast
,acat
egor
ical
i
mper
ati
vesi
mpl
ymandat
esanact
ion,
irr
espect
iveofone’
sper
sonaldesi
res,
such
as“
Yououghtt
odoX.
”

To under
stand Kant
’st
hought
,not
etheemphasi
shepl
acesont deaofgood
hei
i
ntensi
on.Kantbel
i
ev hatnot
edt hingwasgoodi
nit
sel
fexcepta“
goodwi
l
l.
”Int
ell
i
gence,
j
udgmentandal
lot
herf
acet
soft
hehumanper
sonal
i
tyar
eper
hapsgoodanddesi
rabl
e,
butonl
yift
hewi
l
lthatmakesuseoft
hem i
sgood.Bywi
l
l,Kantmeanst
heuni
quel
y
human capaci
tyt
o actaccor
ding t
otheconcept
sbehi
nd l
aws,t
hati
s,pr
inci
ples
pr
esumabl
yoper
ati
ngi
nnat
ure.Agoodwi
l
l,t
her
efor
e,act
sinaccor
dancewi
thnat
ure’
s
l
aws.ForKantawi
l
lcoul
dbegoodwi
thoutqual
i
ficat
iononl
yifi
tal
way
shadi
nvi
ewone
pr
inci
pl whet
e: hert
hemaxi
m ofi
tsact
ioncoul
dbecomeauni
ver
sall
aw.

Thi
sst
andar
dissuchacr
uci
alpar
tofKant
’st
heor
yofet
hics.Kantbel
i
eved,t
hen,t
hat
t
her
ewasj
ustonecommandori
mper
ati
vet
hatwascat
egor
ical
,thati
s,onet
hat
pr
esent
edanact
ionasnecessar
yofi
tsel
f,wi
thoutr
egar
dtoanyot
herend.Hebel
i
eved
t
hatf
rom t
hisonecat
egor
icali
mper
ati
ve,t
hisuni
ver
salcommand,al
lcommandsof
dut
ycoul
dbeder
ived.Kant
’scat
egor
icali
mper
ati
vest
at hatweshoul
est dacti
nsucha
wayt
hatt
hemaxi
m orgener
alr
ulegov
erni
ngouract
ioncoul
dbeauni
ver
sall
aw.

Consi
derhi
sexampl
eofmaki
ngapr
omi
set
haty
ouar
ewi
l
li
ngt
obr
eaki
fitsui
tsy
our
pur
poses.Yourmaxi
m canbeexpr
essedt
hus:t
hismaxi
m coul
dnotbeuni
ver
sal
l
y
act
edupon,becausei
tinv
olv
esacont
radi
cti
onofwi
l
ls.Ont
hesamehand,y
ouar
e
wi
l
li
ngt
omakepr
omi
sesandhonort
hem;ont
heot
herhand,y
ouar
ewi
l
li
ngt
obeak
t
hose pr
omi
ses.Not
ice t
hatKanti
s nota ut
il
it
ari
an:he i
s notar
gui
ng t
hatt
he
consequencesofauni
ver
sal
lawcondoni
ngpr
omi
sebr
eaki
ngwoul
dbebadandt
her
ule
i
sbad.I
nst
ead hei
scl
aimi hatt
ng t her
ulei
ssel
f-
cont
radi
ctor
y;t
hei
nst
it
uti
onof
pr
omi
semaki
ngwoul
ddi
ssol
vei
fsuchamaxi
m wer
euni
ver
sal
i
zed.Hi
sappeali
sto
l
ogi
calconsi
stency
,nott
oconsequences.

Kantgi
v eastt
esatl hreev
ersi
onsorf
ormul
ati
onsoft
hecat
egor
icali
mper
ati
ve.Hi
s
cat
egor
icali
mper
ati
vei
sadeont
ologi
calet
hicalt
heor
y chmeansi
,whi tisbasedont
he
i
deat
hatt
her
ear
ecer
tai
nobj
ect
iveet
hicalr
ulesi
nthewor
ld.Kant
’sv
ersi
oni
spossi
bly
t
hemostwel
l
-known,andr
eli
esheav
il
yonhi
si hatal
deat lpeopl
ear
efundament
all
y
capabl
eofr
easoni
ngi
nthesamemannerandont
hesamel
evel
.Kant
iani
sm f
ocuses
mor
e on i
ntentand act
ion i
nit
sel
f,asopposed t
othe consequent
ial
i
stf
ocusof
ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm.

 Hy
pot
het
icali
mper
ati
vest
el chmeansbestachi
luswhi eveourends.Theydonot
,
howev
er,t
elluswhi
chendsweshoul
dchoose.Thet
ypi
caldi
chot
omyi
nchoosi
ng
endsi
sbet
weenendst
hatar
e"r
ight
"(e.
g.,hel
pingsomeone)andt
hoset
hatar
e
"
good"(
e.g.
,enr
ichi
ngonesel
f)
.Kantconsi
der
edt
he"
ri
ght
"super
iort
othe"
good"
;
t
ohi
m,t
he"
good"wasmor
all
yir
rel
evant
.InKant
'sv
iew,aper
soncannotdeci
de
whet
herconducti
s"r
ight
,"ormor
al,t
hroughempi
ri
calmeans.Suchj
udgment
s
eachedapr
mustber ior
i,usi
ngpur
epr
act
ical
reason.

Reason,separ
atef
rom al
lempi
ri
calexper
ience,candet
ermi
net
hepr
inci
pleaccor
ding
t
owhi
chal
lendscanbedet
ermi
nedasmor
al.I
tist
hisf
undament
alpr
inci
pleofmor
al
r
easont
hati
sknownast
hecat
egor
icali
mper
ati
ve.Pur
epr
act
icalr
easoni
nthepr
ocess
ofdet
ermi
ning i
tdi
ctat
es whatoughtt
o be done wi
thoutr
efer
ence t
o empi
ri
cal
cont
ingentf
act
ors.Mor
alquest
ionsar
edet
ermi
nedi
ndependentofr
efer
encet
othe
par
ti
cul
arsubj
ectposi
ngt
hem.I
tisbecausemor
ali
tyi
sdet
ermi
nedbypur
epr
act
ical
r
easonr
athert
hanpar
ti
cul
arempi
ri
calorsensuousf
act
orst
hatmor
ali
tyi
suni
ver
sal
l
y
v
ali smor
d.Thi aluni
ver
sal
i
sm hascomet
obeseenast
hedi
sti
nct
iveaspectofKant
's
mor
alphi
l
osophyandhashadwi
desoci
ali
mpacti
nthel
egalandpol
i
ticalconcept
sof
humanr
ight
sandequal
i
ty.

Kant
'st
heor
yishi
ngedbyhi
sbel
i
efsonaut
onomyandhi
sfor
mul
ati
onofcat
egor
ical
i
mper
ati
ves.Hebel
i
evedt
hat
,unl
essaper
sonf
reel
yandwi
l
li
ngl
ymakesachoi
ce,
thei
r
act
ionhasnomeani
ng(
andcer
tai
nlynomor
alv
al .Aut
ue) onomyal
l
owsust
obesel
f-
cr
eat
ingwheni
tcomest
oourv
aluesandmor
ali
ty.Aut
onomyi
sone’
sownbel
i
efs,
i
ndependence,andgov
ernment
:act
ingwi
thoutr
egar
dforany
oneel
se.Conv
ersel
y,
het
eronomyi
sact
ingundert
hei
nfl
uenceofsomeoneel
seandal
l
owsf
orani
ndi
vi
dual
t
oconsi
stent
lypl
acebl
ameout
sideofsel
f.

Kantbel
i
evedt
hateachi
ndi
vi
duali
srat
ionalandcapabl
eofmaki
ngf
reechoi
ces;
t
her
ebyr
eli
esonaut
onomoust
hinki
ng.Kantt
houghtt
hatev
eryman,i
fusi
ngr
eason
whenl
ooki
ngatmor
aldi
l
emmas,woul
dagr
eewi
thwhathecal
l
edt
heCat
egor
ical
I
mper
ati
ve(
theCI
).So,whi
l
ethel
aw i
sobj
ect
ive,Kantt
houghtt
hatal
lpeopl
ecoul
d
comet
ounder
standandagr
eewi
thi
taf
teraut
onomousr
efl
ect
ion.Sohow,exact
ly,
doest
heCIt
ellushowt
oact
?Howdoesi
twor
k?Thedeci
sion-
maki
ngpr
ocedur
eoft
he
t
heor
yisact
ual
l
yqui
test
rai
ghtf
orwar
d,andonet
hatmanypeopl
eshoul
dbeabl
eto
gr
aspi
ntui
ti
vel
y(whi
chi
sexact
lywhatKantwant
edt
oachi
eve)
.

Kantt
houghtt
hatwhenamor
alact
ioni
sbei
ngconsi
der
ed,
oneshoul
daskt
hef
oll
owi
ng
quest
ions;whatwoul
dhappeni
fev
ery
onei
nthewor
lddi
dthi
s,al
lthet
ime?Andwoul
d
t
hatbet
heki
ndofwor
ldI
’
dli
ket
oli
vei
n?Wecanl
ookatt
het
ext
-bookexampl
eto
i
l
lust
rat
ethi
s;mur
der
.Sowewantt
oknow whet
hermur
deri
sanet
hical
l
yjust
if
iabl
e
act
ion.Wel
l
,whatwoul
dhappeni
fev
ery
onei
ntheent
ir
ewor
ldst
art
edki
l
li
ngpeopl
e?
Absol
utechaoswoul
densue.I
t’
snott
hesor
tofwor
ldmanypeopl
ewoul
dli
ket
oli
vei
n.
Ther
efor
e,accor
dingt
othecat
egor
icali
mper
ati
ve,mur
deri
swr
ong.Acor
easpectof
t
hist
heor
yi heconceptofi
st ntent
.ToKant
,itwast
hei
ntentt
hatmat
ter
edt
ohi
m.

Let
’sl
ookatanexampl
e.I
magi
ney
ou’
reamur
der
erwal
ki
ngdownt
hest
reet
,andy
ou
seeadef
ensel
essy
oungmani
nfr
ontofy
ou.I
t’
sdar
k,andt
her
e’snooneel
sear
ound.
Youhav
eakni
fei
nyourpocket
.Itwoul
dbeeasyf
ory
out
oki
l
lhi
m.So,y
ouconsi
der
.
May
be,
int
heend,
youchooset
olett
hemanl
i
ve–notbecausey
ouwer
ewor
ri
edabout
act
ingi
mmor
all
y,butbecausey
oudi
dn’
twantt
otaket
her
iskofhi
m scr
eami
ngand
dr
awi
ngt
heat
tent
ionoft
hepol
i
ce(
orsomet
hingt
othatef
fect
).I
nt oudonot
heend,y
ki
l
l.

Accor
dingt
oKant
,youhav
en’
tact
edet
hical
l
y.Youract
iondoesnotmakey
ouabet
ter
per
son.Thi
sisbecausewheny
ouact
ed(
or,r
ather
,chosenott
oact
),y
ouwer
en’
t
consi
der
ingt
heact
ioni
nter
msofi
tsmor
ali
ty.Youdi tmakeamor
dn’ alchoi
ce–y
ou
mer
elyact
edoutofsel
f-
preser
vat
ion.Howev
er,
ify
ouwer
etochoosenott
oki
l
ltheman
becausey
ousuddenl
yreal
i
zedt
hati
twaswr
ongt
oki
l
landdi
dn’
twantt
oactunet
hical
l
y,
t
heny
ouwoul
dhav
eact
edmor
all
y,andwoul
dbeabet
terper
sonf
ori
t.

Kantconcl
udest
hatamor
alpr
oposi
ti
ont
hati
str
uemustbeonet
hati
snott
iedt
oany
par
ti
cul
arcondi
ti
ons,
incl
udi
ngt
hei
dent
it
yoft
heper
sonmaki
ngt
hemor
aldel
i
ber
ati
on.
A mor
almaxi
m musti y absol
mpl ute necessi
ty,whi
ch i
sto sayt
hati
tmustbe
di
sconnect
edf
rom t
hepar
ti
cul
arphy
sical
det
ail
ssur
roundi
ngt
hepr
oposi
ti
on,
andcoul
d
beappl
i
edt
oanyr
ati
onalbei
ng.Thi
sleadst
othef
ir
stf
ormul
ati
onoft
hecat
egor
ical
i
mper
ati
ve:

A.ThePr
inci
pleofUni
ver
sal
i
ty

Thef
ir
stmaxi
m st
atest
hatweshoul
dchooseour'
codesofconduct
'onl
yift
heyser
ve
per
fect/i
mper
fectdut
yandar
egoodf
oral
l
."Actonl
yaccor
dingt
othatmaxi
m wher
eby
y
ou can att
he same t
ime wi
l
lthati
tshoul
d become a uni
ver
sall
aw wi
thout
cont
radi
cti
on.
"Kantdi
vi
dest
hedut
iesi
mposedbyt
hisf
ormul
ati
oni
ntot
wosubset
s:
per
fectandi
mper
fectdut
y.Per
fectdut
iesar
ebl
amewor
thyi
fnotmetandar
ethebasi
c
r
equi
rement
sforahumanbei
ng.Accor
dingt
ohi
sreasoni
ng,wef
ir eaper
sthav fect
dut
ynott
oactbymax
imst
hatr
esul
tinl
ogi
calcont
radi
cti
onswhenweat
temptt
o
uni
ver
sal
i
zet
hem.

Themor
alpr
oposi
tonA:"
i Iti
sper
missi
blet
ost
eal
"woul
dresul
tinacont
radi
cti
onupon
uni
ver
sal
i
sat
ion.Thenot
ionofst
eal
i
ngpr
esupposest
heexi
stenceofpr
oper
ty,
butwer
e
A uni
ver
sal
i
zed,t
hent
her
ecoul
dbenopr
oper
ty,andsot
hepr
oposi
ti
onhasl
ogi
cal
l
y
negat
edi
tsel
f.Anexampl
eofper
fectdut
yist
heav
oidanceofsui
cide.Sui
cidei
stheend
ofl
i
feandKantbel
i
evedt
hat"
sel
f-
lov
eimpel
sthei
mpr
ovementofl
i
fe;
"ifaper
son
commi
tssui
cide,
impr
ovementofl
i
feceases.

I
mper
fectdut
iesar
ethoset
hatdonotachi
evebl
ame,r
athert
heyr
ecei
vepr
aisei
f
compl
eted;
theyar
eci
rcumst
ant
ialdut
iessuchascul
ti
vat
ingt
alent
.Theyar
est
il
lbased
onpur
ereason,butwhi
chal
l
ow f
ordesi
resi
nhow t
heyar
ecar
ri
edouti
npr
act
ice.
Becauset
hesedependsomewhatont
hesubj
ect
ivepr
efer
encesofhumanki
nd,
thi
sdut
y
i
snotasst
rongasaper
fectdut
y,buti
tisst
il
lmor
all
ybi
ndi
ng.Assuch,unl
i
keper
fect
dut
ies,y
oudonotat
tractbl
ameshoul
dyounotcompl
eteani
mper
fectdut
ybuty
ou
shal
lrecei
vepr
aisef
ori
tshoul
dyoucompl
etei
t,asy
ouhav
egonebey
ondt
hebasi
c
dut
iesandt
akendut
yupony
our
sel
f.I
mper
fectdut
iesar
eci
rcumst
ant
ial
,meani
ng
si
mpl
ythaty
oucoul
dnotr
easonabl
yexi
sti
naconst
antst
ateofper
for
mingt
hatdut
y.
Thi
sis whatt
rul
y di
ff
erent
iat
es bet
ween per
fectand i
mper
fectdut
ies,because
i
mper
fectdut
iesar
ethosedut
iest
hatar
enev
ert
rul
ycompl
eted.Exampl
esofi
mper
fect
dut
iesar
eper
fect
ingt
heabi
l
ityt
owr
it
eandpr
oducewor
ks.

B.ThePr
inci
pleofHumani
tyasanEnd,
Nev
erasMer
elyaMeans

Thesecondmaxi
m st
atest
hatweshoul
dnotusehumani
tyofour
sel
vesorot
her
sasa
meanst
oanend.“
Acti
nsuchawayt
haty
out
reathumani
ty,whet
heri
nyourown
per
sonori
ntheper
sonofanyot
her
,nev
ermer
elyasameanst
oanend,butal
way
sat
t
hesamet
imeasanend.
”Ev
eryr
ati
onalact
ionmustsetbef
orei
tsel
fnotonl
ya
pr
inci
ple,
butal
soanend.Mostendsar
eofasubj
ect
iveki
nd,
becauset
heyneedonl
ybe
pur
suedi
ftheyar
einl
i
newi
thsomepar
ti
cul
arhy
pot
het
icali
mper
ati
vet
hataper
son
maychooset
oadopt
.Foranendt
obeobj
ect
ive,i
twoul
dbenecessar
ythatwe
cat
egor
ical
l
ypur
suei
t.Thi
spr
inci
plehasr
ecei
vedmor
ewi
despr
eadappr
ovalt
hanany
ot
herpar
tofKant
’smor
alphi
l
osophy
.Peopl
e,asr
ati
onal
bei
ngs,
areendsi
nthemsel
ves
andshoul
dnev
erbeusedmer
elyasmeanst
oot
herends.Wemayusephy
sicalt
hings
asmeans,butwhenweusepeopl
esi
mpl
yasmeans,asi
nsl
aver
y,pr
ost
it
uti
on,or
commer
cial
expl
oit
ati
on,
wedegr
adet
hem andv
iol
atet
hei
rinner
mostbei
ngsaspeopl
e.

The cat
egor
icali
mper
ati
ve al
so r
egul
ates t
he mor
ali
ty ofact
ions t
hataf
fectus
i
ndi
vi
dual
l
y.Forexampl
e,Sui
cidewoul
dbewr
ongsi
nceIwoul
dbet
reat
ingmyl
i
feasa
meanst
otheal
l
evi
ati
onofmymi
ser
y.Thef
reewi
l
list
hesour
ceofal
lrat
ionalact
ion.
Butt
otr
eati
tasasubj
ect
iveendi
stodenyt
hepossi
bil
i
tyoff
reedom i
ngener
al.
Becauset
heaut
onomouswi
l
list
heoneandonl
ysour
ceofmor
alact
ion,i
twoul
d
cont
radi
ctt
hef
ir
stf
ormul
ati
ont
ocl
aimt
hataper
soni
smer
elyameanst
osomeot
her
end,r
athert
hanal
way
sanendi
nthemsel
ves.Ont
hisbasi
s,Kantder
ivessecond
f
ormul
ati
onoft
hecat
egor
icali
mper
ati
vef
rom t
hef
ir
st.Bycombi
ningt
hisf
ormul
ati
on
wi
tht
hef
ir
st,wel
ear
nt sonhasper
hataper fectdut
ynott
ouset
hehumani
tyof
t
hemsel
vesorot
her
smer
elyasameanst
osomeot
herend.Anexampl
eoft
hesecond
maxi
m woul
dbet
hatofsl
aver
y.Al
thoughi
tcanber
eal
i
zedt
hatasl
aveownerhast
he
r
ightt
oownpr
oper
ty,
theydonothav
ether
ightt
oownaper
son.Ther
ightt
onotowna
per
sonst
emsf
rom t
hei
deal
sofaut
onomyandf
reewi
l
l.Aper
sonwhoi
sowneddoes
nothav
efr
eewi
l
landt
her
efor
eisnotaut
onomousandcannotbehel
dtodut
y;t
he
conceptofsl
aver
ycont
radi
ctst
hef
ir m andKant
stmaxi 'st
heor
ydoesnotal
l
ow f
or
cont
radi
cti
onsoft
hemaxi
ms.

Weshoul
dal
way
str
eatpeopl
ewi
thdi
gni
ty,andnev
eruset
hem asmer
einst
rument
s.
ForKant
,wet
reatpeopl
easanendwhenev
erouract
ionst
owar
dsomeoner
efl
ectt
he
i
nher
entv
alueoft
hatper
son.Donat
ingt
ochar
it
y,f
orexampl
e,i
smor
all
ycor
rectsi
nce
t
hisacknowl
edgest
hei
nher
entv
alueoft
her
eci
pient
.Bycont
rast
,wet
reatsomeoneas
ameanst
oanendwhenev
erwet
reatt
hatper
sonasat
ool
toachi
evesomet
hingel
se.I
t
i
swr
ong,f
orexampl
e,t
ost
ealmynei
ghbor
’scarsi
nceIwoul
dbet
reat
ingherasa
meanst
omyownhappi
ness.

C.ThePr
inci
pleofAut
onomy

The t
hir
dmaxi
m st
atest
hatweshoul
dconsi
derour
sel
vest
o bemember
sint
he
uni
ver
salr
eal
m ofends.Ther
ef e,ev
or eryr
ati
onalbei
ngmustsoactasi
fhewer
e
t
hroughhi
smaxi
m al
way
sal
egi
slat
ingmemberi
ntheuni
ver
salki
ngdom ofends.

Becauseat
rul
yaut
onomouswi
l
lwoul
dnotbesubj
ugat
edt
oanyi
nter
est
,itwoul
donl
y
besubj
ectt
othosel
awsi
tmakesf
ori
tsel
f-buti
tmustal
sor
egar
dthosel
awsasi
fthey
woul
dbeboundt
oot
her
s,ort
heywoul
dnotbeuni
ver
sal
i
zabl
e,andhencet
heywoul
d
notbel
awsofconductatal
l
.ThusKantpr
esent
sthenot
ionoft
hehy
pot
het
ical
Ki
ngdom ofEndsofwhi
chhesuggest
sal
lpeopl
eshoul
dconsi
dert
hemsel
vesbot
h
meansandends.Weshoul
dconsi
derouract
ionst
obeofconsequencet
oev
ery
one
el
sei
nthatouract
ionsaf
fectnotonl
your
sel
vesbutt
hatofot
her
s.Ev
ery
thi
ngwedo
shoul
dnotonl
ybeofbenef
itt
oour
sel
ves,
butbenef
iteachot
heruni
ver
sal
l
y.

"
Acti
nsuchawayt
haty
out
reathumani
ty,whet
heri
nyourownper
sonori
nthatof
anot
her
,al
way
satt
hesamet
imeasanendandnev
ermer
elyasameans.
"Weoughtt
o
actonl
ybymaxi
mst
hatwoul
dhar
moni
zewi
thapossi
bleki
ngdom ofends.Wehav
e
per
fectdut
ynott
oactbymaxi
mst
hatcr
eat
eincoher
entori
mpossi
blest
atesofnat
ural
af
fai
rswhenweat
temptt
ouni
ver
sal
i
zet
hem,
andwehav
eimper
fectdut
ynott
oactby
maxi
mst
hatl
eadt
ounst
abl
eorgr
eat
lyundesi
rabl
est
atesofaf
fai
rs.

Themai
npr
obl
em wi
tht
hecat
egor
icali
mper
ati
vei
sit
sri
gidi
ty.Thef
amousexampl
e
t
hati
l
lust
rat
est
hisi
sthatofacr
azedaxe-
mur
der
ercomi
ngt
oyourf
rontdoorand
aski
ngy
ouwher
eyourchi
l
drenar
e.Youcoul
dli
e–manywoul
dsayy
oushoul
dli
e–but
i
magi
nei
fev
ery
onei
ntheent
ir
ewor
ldl
i
edal
lthet
ime.Thatwoul
dnotbeani
cepl
acet
o
l
i
vei
n,sot
hecat
egor
icali
mper
ati
vesay
syoucan’
tli
e.Youhav
etot
ellt
heaxe-
mur
der
er
t
het
rut
h,sohecangoandki
l
lyourchi
l
dren.Kantwasaskedaboutt
hisper
sonal
l
y,and
hesai
dthatt
hiswasi
ndeedt
hecase.I
twoul
dbei
mmor
alt
oli
etot
heman.Hedi
d,
howev
er,sayt
haty
oucoul
dal
sochooset
olocky
ourdoorandcal
lthepol
i
ce.Her
e’s
anot
herexampl
e–y
ou’
rei
nar
oom wi
thamanwho’
shol
dingagunt
oyourmot
her
’s
head.Youknow he’
l
lshootheranysecond.Ri
ghtnextt
oyou,t
her
e’sabut
ton.I
fyou
pr
esst
hebut
ton,t
hemanwi
l
lfal
lthr
oughat
rapdoorandl
andi
naspi
kepi
t,dy
ing
i
nst
ant
ly.Yourmot
herwi
l
lbesav
ed.

Accor
dingt
othecat
egor
icali
mper
ati
ve,t
hiswoul
dbet
hewr
ongt
hingt
odo.Youcan’
t
pr
esst
hebut
ton.Buti
fyoudon’
t,y
ourmot
herwi
l
ldi
e.I
t’
sinsi
tuat
ionsl
i
ket
hist
hat
st
ri
ctet
hicalsy
stemswi
thspeci
fi
cdeci
sionpr
ocedur
est
endt
ofal
lapar
t.Mor
ali
tyi
s
si
mpl
ytoocompl
ex,
toof
ull
ofexcept
ionsf
ort
heset
heor
iest
oev
erf
ull
ywor
k.

1.
1.3.
9. Ross’
sPr
imaFaci
eDut
iesorMor
alGui
del
i
nes
Af
our
thandmor
erecentdut
y-basedt
heor
yist
hatbyBr
it
ishphi
l
osopherW.
D.Ross,
whi zespr
chemphasi imaf
aci
edut
ies.Si
rWi
l
li
am Dav
idRoss(
15Apr
il1877–5May
1971)
,usual
l
yci
tedasW.D.Ross,
wasaScot
ti
shphi
l
osopher
,knownf
orwor
kinet
hics.
Thet
erm pr
imaf
aci
emeans“
ataf
ir
stsi
ght
”or“
ont
hesur
face.
”Bypr
imaf
aci
edut
ies,
Rossmeansdut
iest
hatdi
ctat
ewhatweshoul
ddowhenot
hermor
alf
act
orsar
enot
consi
der
ed.St
atedanot
herway
,pr
imaf
aci
edut
iesar
edut
iest
hatgener
all
yobl
i
gat
eus;
t
hati
s,t
heyor
dinar
il
yimposeamor
alobl
i
gat
ionbutmaynoti
napar
ti
cul
arcase
becauseofci
rcumst
ances.Anact
ualdut
yist
heact
iont
hatoneoughtt
oper
for
m af
ter
consi
der
ingandwei
ghi
ngal
lthepr
imaf
aci
edut
iesi
nvol
ved.

Accor
dingt
oW.D.Ross(
1877-
1971)
,ther
ear
esev
eralpr
imaf
aci
edut
iest
hatwecan
uset
odet
er newhat
mi ,concr
etel
y,weoughtt
odo.Apr
imaf
aci
edut
yisadut
ythati
s
bi
ndi
ng(
obl
i
gat
ory
)ot
hert
hingsequal
,thati
s,unl
essi
tisov
err
iddenort
rumpedby
anot
herdut
yordut
ies.Anot
herwayofput
ti
ngi
tist
hatwher
ether
eisapr
imaf
aci
edut
y
t
odosomet
hing,t
her
eisatl
eastaf
air
lyst
rongpr
esumpt
ioni
nfav
orofdoi
ngi
t.An
exampl
eofapr
imaf
aci
edut
yist
hedut
ytokeeppr ses.Unl
omi essst
rongermor
al
consi
der
ati
onsov
err
ide,oneoughtt
okeepapr
omi
semade.Bycont
rastwi
thpr
ima
f
aci
edut
ies,ouract
ualorconcr
etedut
yist
hedut
yweshoul
dper
for
mint
hepar
ti
cul
ar
si
tuat
ionofchoi
ce.What
everone'
sact
ualdut
yis,onei
smor
all
yboundt
oper
for
mit
.
Pr
imaf
aci
edut
iesr
elat
etoact
ual
dut
iesasr
easonsdot
oconcl
usi
onsofr
easoni
ng.

Thet
erm"
dut
y"i
n"pr
imaf
aci
edut
y"i
ssl
i
ght
lymi
sleadi
ng.Thepr
imaf
aci
edut
iesar
e
under
stoodasgui
del
i
nes,notr
uleswi
thoutexcept
ion.I
fanact
iondoesnotcor
respond
t
oaspeci
fi
cgui
del
i
ne,onei
snotnecessar
il
yvi
olat
ingar
ulet
hatoneoughtt
ofol
l
ow.
Howev
er,notf
oll
owi
ngt
her
uleoneoughtt
ofol
l
owi
napar
ti
cul
arcasei
sfai
l
ingt
odo
one'
s(act
ual
)dut
y.I
nsuchcasesi
tmakessenset
otal
kaboutv
iol
ati
ngar
ule.Ther
ule
mi
ghtbet
hesamei
nwor
dsasapr
imaf
aci
edut
y(mi
nust
hephr
ase"
unl
essot
hermor
al
consi
der
ati
onsov
err
ide"
),buti
twoul
dno l
ongerbemer
elyagui
del
i
nebecausei
t
descr
ibeswhatoneconcr
etel
yshoul
ddo.

Li
kehi
s17t
hand18t
hcent
urycount
erpar
ts,
Rossar
guest
hatourdut
iesar
e“par
toft
he
f
undament
alnat
ureoft
heuni
ver
se.
”Howev
er,Ross’
sli
stt
hef
oll
owi
ngcat
egor
iesof
pr
ima f
aci
e dut
ies i
s much shor
ter
,whi
ch he bel
i
eves r
efl
ect
s ouract
ualmor
al
conv
ict
ions:

 Dut
iesofFi
del
i
ty:t
hedut
ytokeeppr
omi
sesandt
heobl
i
gat
ionnott
oli
e.Dut
ies
off
idel
i
tyar
edut
iest
okeepone’
spr
omi
sesandcont
ract
sandnott
oengagei
n
decept
ion.
 Dut
iesofRepar
ati
on:Thi
sisadut
ytomakeupf
ort
hei
njur
iesonehasdonet
o
ot
her
s.Rossdescr
ibest
hisdut
yas"
rest
ingonapr
evi
ouswr
ongf
ulact
".I
tist
he
dut
ytocompensat
eot
her
swhenwehar
m t
hem.I
f,f
orexampl
e,Idamage
somet
hingt
hatbel
ongst
osomeoneel
se,
Ihav
eanobl
i
gat
iont
omaker
est
it
uti
on.
 Dut
iesofGr
ati
tude:t
hedut
ytot
hankt
hosewhohel
pus.Suppose,f
orexampl
e,
anespeci
all
ygoodf
ri
endi
ssuddenl
yinneedofassi
stance,Iam dut
yboundt
o
doal
lIcanhel
pthi
sindi
vi
dual
,whoi
nthepasthadact
edsosel
fl
essl
ytowar
dme.
 Dut
iesofJust
ice:Thedut
yofj
ust
icer
equi
rest
hatoneacti
nsuchawayt
hatone
di
str
ibut
esbenef
it
sandbur
densf
air
ly.Rosshi
msel
femphasi
zest
henegat
ive
aspectoft
hisdut
y:hesay
sthatt
hist
ypeofdut
y"r
est
sont
hef
actorpossi
bil
i
ty
ofadi
str
ibut
ionofpl
easur
eorhappi
ness(
ort
hemeanst
her
eto)t
hati
snoti
n
accor
dwi
tht
hemer
itoft
heper
sonsconcer
ned;
insuchcasest
her
ear
isesadut
y
t
oupsetorpr
eventsuchadi
str
ibut
ion"
.Thust
hedut
yofj
ust
icei
ncl
udest
hedut
y,
i
nsof
araspossi
ble,
topr
eventanunj
ustdi
str
ibut
ionofbenef
it
sorbur
dens.
 Dut
iesofBenef
icence:t
hedut
ytoi
mpr
ovet
hecondi
ti
onsofot
her
s.Thedut
yto
dogoodt
oot
her
s:t
ofost
ert
hei
rheal
th,secur
it
y,wi
sdom,mor
algoodness,or
happi
ness.Thi
sdut
y,say
sRoss,"
rest
supont
hef
actt
hatt
her
ear
eot
herbei
ngs
i
nthewor
ldwhosecondi
ti
onwecanmakebet
teri
nrespectofv
irt
ue,orof
i
ntel
l
igence,
orofpl
easur
e."
 Dut
iesofSel
f-
impr
ovement
:Thedut
yofsel
f-
impr
ovementi
stoactsoast
o
pr
omot
e one’
s own good,i
.e.
,one’
s own heal
th,secur
it
y,wi
sdom,mor
al
goodness,
vir
tue,
int
ell
i
genceandhappi
ness.
 Dut
ies ofNon-
mal
efi
cence:The dut
y ofnon-
inj
ury(
also known as non-
mal
efi
cence)i
sthedut
ynott
ohar
m ot
her
sphy
sical
l
yorpsy
chol
ogi
cal
l
y:t
oav
oid
har
ming t
hei
rheal
th,secur
it
y,i
ntel
l
igence,char
act
er,orhappi
ness.We ar
e
obl
i
gedt
oav
oidhur
ti
ngot
her
sphy
sical
l
y,emot
ional
l
yandpsy
chol
ogi
cal
l
y.
JacquesThi
roux(
2001)cl
aimst
hatRoss'dut
yofnon-
inj
uryi
ncl
udesadut
ytopr
event
i
njur
ytoot
her
s.Thi
sseemst
obewr
ongr
egar
dingRoss,buti
tmi
ghtber
easonabl
eto
addsuchapr
imaf
aci
edut
ytot
hel
i
st.Non-
inj
uryi
nRoss'st
ri
ctsensei
sdi
sti
nctf
rom
t
hepr
event
ionofhar
mtoot
her
s.Non-
inj
uryi
nst
ruct
susgener
all
ytoav
oidi
ntent
ional
l
y,
negl
i
gent
ly,ori
gnor
ant
ly(
when i
gnor
ance i
s av
oidabl
e)har
ming ot
her
s.Har
m-
pr
event
ioni
nst
ruct
susgener
all
ytomakear
ealef
for
ttopr
eventhar
mtoot
her
sfr
om
causesot
hert
hanour
sel
ves.

I
nsummar
y,Rosspr
esent
ssev
encat
egor
iesofpr
imaf
aci
edut
ies,al
thought
her
emay
bemor
ecat
egor
ies.Howev
er,hedoesi
nsi
stt
hatweacknowl
edgeandwi
l
li
ngl
yaccept
t
hesev
encat
egor
ieswi
thoutar
gument
.Hi
sappealf
ort
hei
raccept
ancedoesnotr
ely
pr
imar
il
yonr gumentbutoni
easonandar ntui
ti
on.Whenf
acedwi
thasi
tuat
iont
hat
pr
esent
sconf
li
cti
ngpr
imaf
aci
edut
ies,Rosst
ell
sus,t
hemor
eobl
i
gat
ory
,ouract
ual
dut
y.Theact
ual
dut
yhast
hegr
eat
estamountofpr
imaf
aci
eri
ght
nessov
erwr
ongness.

1.
1.4.Vi
rt
ueEt
hics
Vi
rt
ueEt
hics:
Chal
l
engi
ngt
headequacyofr
ule-
basedt
heor
ies

“
Vir
tueet
hics”i
sat
echni
calt
ermi
ncont
empor
aryWest
ernanal
yti
calmor
alphi
l
osophy
,
usedt
odi
sti
ngui
shanor
mat
iveet
hical
theor
yfocusedont
hev
irt
ues,
ormor
alchar
act
er,
f
rom ot
her
ssuchasdeont
ology(
orcont
ract
ari
ani
sm)andconsequent
ial
i
sm.I
magi
nea
casei
nwhi
chi
tisagr
eedbyev
erysor
toft
heor
istt
hatIshoul
d,say
,hel
psomeonei
n
need.Adeont
ologi
stwi
l
lemphasi
zet
hef
actt
hati
nof
fer
inghel
p,Iwi
l
lbeact
ingi
n
accor
dancewi
thamor
alr
uleorpr
inci
plesuchas“
Dount
oot
her
sasy
ouwoul
dbedone
by
”;aconsequent
ial
i
stwi
l
lpoi
ntoutt
hatt
heconsequencesofhel
pingwi
l
lmaxi
mize
wel
l
-bei
ng;andav
irt
ueet
hici
stwi
l
lemphasi
zet
hef
actt
hatpr
ovi
dinghel
pwoul
dbe
char
it
abl
eorbenev
olent–char
it
yandbenev
olencebei
ngv
irt
ues.

1.
1.4.
1. Ar
ist
otl
e’
sEt
hics
Theanci
entGr
eekphi
l
osopher
,Ar
ist
otl
e,(
384-
322B.
C.)f
ir
stwr
oteadet
ail
eddi
scussi
on
ofv
irt
uemor
ali
tyi
ntheNi
chomacheanEt
hics.‘
Vir
tus’heunder
stoodasst
rengt
h.
Cor
respondi
ngl
y,speci
fi
cvi
rt
uesar
eseenasst
rengt
hsofchar
act
er.But
,manyy
ear
s
af
terAr
ist
otl
e’
sdeat
h,v
irt
uet
heor
ycamet
obeov
er-
shadowedbyt
hedev
elopmentof
ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm anddeont
ology
.

I
nthepastf
if
tyy
ear
s,howev
er,v
irt
uet
heor
yhasr
esur
facedasamaj
ormor
alt
heor
y.
Butwhyi
sthatso?Vi
rt
ueet
hicshasbeenr
est
atedandr
einv
igor
atedi
nthey
ear
ssi
nce
1958 by phi
l
osopher
s such as Phi
l
ippa Foot
,Al
asdai
rMacI
nty
re and El
i
zabet
h
Anscombe.They and many ot
her
s became di
sil
l
usi
oned wi
tht
he pr
omi
ses of
mai
nst
ream t
heor
ies.Theyar
guet
hathow weoughtt
oli
vecoul
dbemuchmor
e
adequat
ely answer
ed by a v
irt
ue-
based t
heor
ythan i
n t
erms of cal
cul
ati
ng
consequencesorobey
ingr
ules.

Wi
thr
espectt
othegood,r
ight
,happi
ness,t
hegoodi
snotadi
sposi
ti
on.Thegood
i
nvol
vesa 
tel
eol
ogi
cal
syst
em t
hati
nvol
vesact
ions.
A.Goodi
sthatwhi
chal
lthi
ngsai
m.Somet
hingi
sgoodi
fitper
for
msi
tspr
oper
f
unct
ion.
 E.
g.,
agoodcof
feecuporagoodr
edoak.
o Ar
ightact
ion i
sthatwhi
ch i
sconduci
vet
othegood,and di
ff
erentgoods
cor
respondt
othedi
ff
eri
ngsci
encesandar
ts.
o "
Thegod"orbestgoodi
sthatwhi
chi
sdesi
redf
ori
tsownsakeandf
ort
hesake
whi
chwedesi
real
lot
herendsorgoods.Forhumanbei eudaemoni
ngs,
  a i
s
act
ivi
tyoft
hesouli
naccor
dancewi
t ar
h  et
e (
excel
l
ence,v
irt
ue,orwhati
t'
sgood
f
or)
.Eudaemoni
  a i
sli
vi
ngwel
landdoi
ngwel
li
ntheaf
fai
rsoft
hewor
ld.
B.The good ofhuman bei
ngs cannotbe answer
ed wi
tht
he exact
it
ude ofa
mat
hemat
icalpr
obl
em si
ncemat
hemat
icsst
art
swi
thgener
alpr
inci
plesandar
gues
t
oconcl
usi
ons.
o Et
hics st
art
s wi
th act
ualmor
alj
udgment
s bef
oret
he f
ormul
ati
on of
gener
alpr
inci
ples.
o Ar
ist
otl
epr
esupposesnat
ural
tendenci
esi
npeopl
e.
C.Ar
ist
otl
edi
sti
ngui
shesbet
weenhappi eudaemoni
ness( a)andmor
alv
irt
ue:
o Mor
alv
irt
uei
snott
heendofl
i
fef
ori
tcangowi
thi
nact
ivi
ty,mi
ser
y,and
unhappi
ness
o Happi
ness,t
heendofl
i
fe,t
hatt
owhi
chal
lai
ms,i
sact
ivi
tyi
naccor
dancewi
th
r
eason(
reasoni
st ar
he  et
e orpecul
i
arexcel
l
enceofper
sons)
.
a.Happi
nessi
sanact
ivi
tyi
nvol
vi
ngbot
hmor
alandi
ntel
l
ect ar
ual
  et
e.
 b.Someext
ernal
goodsar
enecessar
yinor
dert
oexer
ciset
hatact
ivi
ty.

TheGoodChar
act
er
A.Peopl
ehav
eanat
uralcapaci
tyf
orgoodchar
act
er,andi
tisdev
elopedt
hrough
pr
act
ice.Thecapaci
tydoesnotcomef
ir
st-
-i
t'
sdev
elopedt
hroughpr
act
ice.

o Thesequenceofhumanbehav
iorr
aisest
hequest
ionofwhi
chi
spr
eemi
nent
--
act
sordi
sposi
ti
ons.
 Thei
rint
eract
ioni
sbr
okenbyAr
ist
otl
e'
sdi
sti
nct
ion
bet
weenact
swhi
chcr
eat
egooddi
sposi
ti
onsandact
swhi
chf
low f
rom t
he
gooddi
sposi
ti
ononcei
thasbeencr
eat
ed.
Ar
o   et
e i
sadi
sposi
ti
ondev
elopedoutofacapaci
tybyt
hepr
operexer
ciseof
t
hatcapaci
ty.
o Habi
tsar
edev
elopedt
hroughact
ing;aper
son'
schar
act
eri
sthest
ruct
ureof
habi
tsandi
sfor
medbywhatwedo.

B.Vi
rt ar
ue,
  et
e,orexcel
l
encei
sdef
inedasameanbet
weent
woext
remesofexcess
anddef
ecti
nregar
dtoaf
eel
i
ngoract
ionast
hepr
act
ical
l
ywi
seper
sonwoul
d
det
ermi
nei
t.Themeancannotbecal
cul
at apr
ed  ior
i.
o Themeani
srel
ati
vet
othei
ndi
vi
dualandci
rcumst
ances.Forexampl
e,
consi
dert
hef
oll
owi
ngt
rai
ts:

Arist
otel
i
an Vi
rt
ues And Vi
ceOfDefici
ency MeanOrVi
rt
ue Vi
ceOfExcess
VicesSpher
eOfActi
on
Fear Cowar
dice cour
age f
ool
har
diness

Pl
easur
eandPai
n i
nsensi
bil
i
ty t
emper
ance sel
f-
indul
gence

Acqui
sit
ion(
minor
) t
ightwad l
i
ber
ali
ty spendt
hri
ft or
 pr
odi
gal
i
ty

Acqui
sit
ion(
maj
or) unduehumi
l
ity pr
ide or pr
oper unduev
ani
ty
ambi
ti
on

Anger uni
rasci
bil
i
ty pat
ience or good hot
headedness
t
emper

Sel
f-
Expr
essi
on Sel
f-
depr
ecat
ing t
rut
hful
ness boast
ful
ness

Conv
ersat
ion boor
ishness wi
tt
iness buf
fooner
y

Soci
alConduct cant
anker
ous f
ri
endl
i
ness obsequi
ousness

Exhi
bit
ion shamel
essness modest
y shy
ness

I
ndi
gnat
ion spi
tef
ulness r
ight
eous env
y
i
ndi
gnat
ion

o The l
evelofcour
age necessar
yis di
ff
erentf
ora phi
l
osophy t
eacher
,a
commando,
andasy
stemspr
ogr
ammer
.

o Phr
onesi
s orpr
act
icalwi
sdom i
stheabi
l
ityt
oseet
her
ightt
hingt
odoi
nthe
ci
rcumst
ances.Not
ice,especi
all
y,Ar
ist
otl
e'
stheor
y does noti
mpl
y et
hical
r
elat
ivi
sm becauset
her
ear
eappr
opr
iat
est
andar
ds.
o I
nthe 
ont
ologi
cal
 
dimensi
on,v
irt
uei
samean;i
nthe 
axi
ologi
cal
 
dimensi
on,i
tis
an ext
reme orexcel
l
ence.Mar
ti
n Lut
herKi
ng,Jr
.rel
ates hi
s st
ruggl
eto
under
standt
hisdi
ff
erencei
nhi
s"Let
terf
rom Bi
rmi
ngham Jai
l
"whenhewr
ote,
"
Youspeakofouract
ivi
tyi
nBi
rmi
ngham asext
reme…Butt
houghIwasi
nit
ial
l
y
di
sappoi
ntedatbei
ngcat
egor
izedasanext
remi
st,asIcont
inuedt
othi
nkabout
t
hemat
terIgr
adual
l
ygai
nedameasur
eofsat
isf
act
ionf
rom t
hel
abel
.Wasnot
Jesusanext
remi
stf
orl
ove…?WasnotAmosanext
remi
stf
orj
ust
ice…?Wasnot
Paulanext
remi
stf
ort
heChr
ist
iangospel
…?Per
hapst
heSout
h,t
henat
ionand
 t
hewor
ldar
eindi
reneedofcr
eat
iveext
remi
sts.
'
'
o Somepr
esumpt
ivel
yvi
rt
uousbehav
ior
scanbeanext
remeaswhen,
forexampl
e,
t
hemedi
evalphi
l
osopherPet
erAbél
ardexpl
ains,Nol
ongt
imet
her
eaf
terIwas
smi
tt
enwi
thagr
iev
ousi
l
lness,br
oughtuponmebymyi
mmoder
atezealf
or
st
udy
.(Pet
erAbél
ar Hi
d,
  st
ori
aCal
ami
tat
um 
tr
ans.Ral
phAdamsCr
am (
St.Paul
,
MN:
ThomasA.Boy
d,1922)
,4.
)
o I
nthe 
ont
ologi
cal
 
dimensi
on,v
irt
uei
samean;i
nthe 
axi
ologi
caldi
mensi
on,i
tis
anext
remeorexcel
l
ence.
 E.
g.,
Har
tmann'
sDi
agr
am:

 Pl
easur
eandpai
nar
epower
ful
det
ermi
nant
sofouract
ions.

I
II
. 
Pleasur
e i
sthenat
uralaccompani
mentofuni
mpededact
ivi
ty.Pl
easur
e,assuch,i
s
nei
thergoodnorbad.

A.Ev
enso,
pleasur
eissomet
hingposi
ti
veandi
tsef
fecti
stoper
fectt
heexer
ciseof
act
ivi
ty.Ev
ery
thi
ngf
rom pl
ayi
ngchesst
omaki
ngl
ovei
simpr
ovedwi
thski
l
l.

B.Pl
easur
ecannotbedi
rect
lysought
--
iti
sthesi
de-
productofact
ivi
ty.I
tisonl
yan
el
ementofhappi
ness.

C.Thegoodper
son,t
heonewhohasat
tai eudaemoni
ned  a,i
sthest
andar
dast
o
whati
str
ulypl
easantorunpl
easant
.

I
V. 
Fri
endshi
p:aper
son'
srel
ati
onshi
ptoaf
ri
endi
sthesameast
her
elat
iont
oonesel
f.
Thef
ri
endcanbet
houghtofasasecondsel
f.

A.I
nfr
iendshi
paper
sonl
oveshi
msel
f(egoi
sm)notasoneseeksmoneyf
or
 hi
msel
f,butashegi
veshi
smoneyawayt
orecei
vehonor
.

B.Theki
ndsoff
ri
endshi
p:

 Ut
il
it
y
 Pl
easur
e
 TheGood-
-endur
esasl
ongasbot
hret
aint
hei
rchar
act
er.

V.
 The Cont
empl
ati
ve Facul
ty-
-t
he exer
cise ofper
fecthappi
ness i
nint
ell
ect
ualor
phi
l
osophi
cact
ivi
ty.

A.Reasoni
sthehi
ghestf
acul
tyofhumanbei
ngs.Wecanengagei
nitl
ongert
han
ot
heract
ivi
ti
es.

B.Phi
l
osophyi
slov
edasanend-
in-
it
sel
f, eudaemoni
andso  aimpl
i
esl
eisur
eandsel
f
-
suf
fi
ciencyasanenv
ironmentf
orcont
empl
ati
on.

Ar
ist
otl
eonPl
easur
e 

A summar
y ofAr
ist
otl
e'
s et
hics cl
ari
fi
es sev
erali
mpor
tantdi
sti
nct
ion bet
ween
happi
nessandpl
easur
e.

. Eudai
I moni
a:t
hest
ateofper
sonalwel
l
bei
ng,hav
ingsel
f-
wor
th;exhi
bit
ingazest
f
orl
i
fe;
radi
ati
ngener
gy;
achi
evi
nghappi
ness,
"goodspi
ri
t,
"orsel
f-
presence.
I
I. Hence,happi
nessi
sact
ivi
tyoft
hesouli
naccor
dancewi
t ar
h  et
é(excel
l
enceor
v
irt
ue)
.
A. I
.e.
 Li
vi
ngwel
landdoi
ngwel
li
ntheaf
fai
rsoft
hewor
ld.
B. Pi
ctur
eyour
sel
faty
ourbest
. 
 Compar
eMasl
ow'
ssel
f-
act
ual
i
zingper
son
or Jung'
s i
ndi
vi
duat
ion of a per
son wi
th Ar
ist
otl
e'
s descr
ipt
ion
of
 eudai
moni
a.
I
II
. Goodi
sthatt
owhi
chal
lthi
ngai
m;i
.
 e.
,thegoodi
sthatwhi
chper
for
msi
tspr
oper
f
unct
ion.
A. What const
it
utes a good wr
ench or a good cof
fee cup? The
pecul
i
arar
  et
é ofexcel
l
encei
sest
abl
i
shedbyi
tspur
pose.Thepecul
i
ar
 excel
l
encei
stel
eol
ogi
cal
.
B. Whatconst
it
utesagoodper
son?
"
1)Act
ivi
tyoft
hesouli
naccor
dancewi
thr
eason(
thatcapaci
tywhi
chi
suni
quet
o
usasper
sons)
.
2)Thi
s act
ivi
tyi
s bot
h mor
al 
(doi
ng t
he r
ight t
hing at t
he r
ight t
ime)
and 
i
ntel
l
ect ar
ual
  et
é (
pract
ical
wisdom or
 phr
onesi
s).
3)Ar
ist
otl
enot
est
hatsomeext
ernalgoodsar
enecessar
yfort
heexer
ciseoft
hat
act
ivi
ty.
V. Mor
I alVi
rt
ue 
i
snott
heendofl
i
fe,f
ori
tcangowi
thi
nact
ivi
ty,mi
ser
y,and
unhappi
ness.
V. Whati
s good f
ora per
son cannotbe answer
ed wi
tht
he exact
it
ude of
mat
hemat
ics.
A. Et
hics at
tempt
stof
ormul
ate gener
alpr
inci
ples whose appl
i
cat
ion i
s
dependentupont
heci
rcumst i
ancesathand(.
e.,
 
ini
ti
alcondi
ti
ons)
.(Not
e
t
hatAr
ist
otl
e'
stheor
ydoesnoti
mpl
y 
ethi
cal
rel
ati
vi
sm)
B. Thedoct
ri
neoft
hemeani
snotadoct
ri
neofr
elat
ivi
sm butdoct
ri
ne
appl
i
edt
ospeci
fi
cci
rcumst
ances.
 E.
g.,whatandhow muchoneeat
s
di
ff
ersf
ora wei
ght
-l
if
terand a bal
l
eri
na-
-ev
en so,pr
operdi
ethas
gui
del
i
nesandst
andar
dswhi
chappl
ydi
ff
erent
lyaccor
dingt
odi
ff
erent
i
nit
ial
condi
ti
ons.
VI
. Pl
easur
e,i
tsel
f,i
sasi
de-
productofact
ivi
ty;
pleasur
eresul
tsf
rom act
ivi
tywi
thout
hi
ndr
ance.
1)AsAr
ist
otl
eexpr
essesi
t,pl
easur
eist
henat
uralaccompani
mentofuni
mpeded
act
ivi
ty.
2)Pl
easur
e,assuch,
isnei
thergoodnorbad,
buti
ssomet
hingposi
ti
vebecauset
he
ef
fectofpl
easur
eper
fect
stheexer
ciseoft
hatact
ivi
ty.
3)Ev
enso,
Ari
stot
leemphasi
zest
hatpl
easur
eisnott
obesoughtf
ori
tsownsake.
Cf
( .
,thehedoni
sti
cpar
adox.
)
1.
2.Non-
Nor
mat
iveEt
hics/
Met
a-et
hics
1.
2.1.Whati
sMet
a-et
hics?
SupposeIam debat
ingwi
thaf
ri
endt
hequest
ionwhet
herornotweoughtt
ogi
vet
o
f
ami
ner
eli
ef,
whet
herornotwear
emor
all
yobl
i
gedt
ogi
vet
ofami
ner
eli
ef.Thesor
tsof
quest
ionsphi
l
osopher
srai
seaboutt
hiski
ndofdebat
efal
lroughl
yint
otwogr
oups.Fi
rst
,
t
her ef
ear i
rstor
derquest
ionsaboutwhi
chpar
tyi
nthedebat
e,i
fany
,isr
ight
,andwhy
.
Then,t
her esecondor
ear derquest
ionsaboutwhatt
hepar
ti
esi
nthedebat
ear
edoi
ng
whent
heyengagei
nit
.Roughl
y,t
hef
ir
stor
derquest
ionsar
ethepr
ovnceofnor
i mat
ive
et
hics,andt
hesecondor
derquest
ionsar
ethepr
ovnceofmet
i aet
hics.Asoner
ecent
wr
it
erput
sit
:

I
nmet
aet
hics,
wear
econcer
nednotwi
thquest
ionswhi
char
ethepr
ovi
nceofnor
mat
ive
et
hicsl
i
ke'
Shoul
dIgi
vet
ofami
ner
eli
ef?
'or'
Shoul
dIr
etur
nthewal
l
etIf
oundi
nthe
st
reet
?'butwi
thquest
ionsaboutquest
ionsl
i
ket
hese.

I
tisi
mpor
tantt
obecl
eart
hati
nnor
mat
iveet
hicswedonotj
ustl
ookf
orananswert
o
t
hequest
ion'
Shoul
dwegi
vet
ofami
ner
eli
ef?
'weal
sol
ookf
orsomei
nsi
ghti
ntowhy
t
her
ightansweri
sri
ght
.Iti
sint
hei
ranswer
stot
hisl
att
ersor
tof'
why
?'quest
iont
hat
t
hecl
assi
ctheor
iesi
nnor
mat
iveet
hicsdi
sagr
ee.Exampl
esofsucht
heor
iesi
ncl
ude:

 act
-ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm (
oneoughtt
o gi
vet
ofami
ner
eli
efbecauset
hatpar
ti
cul
ar
act
ion,oft
hosepossi
ble,cont
ri
but
esmostt
othegr
eat
erhappi
nessoft
he
gr
eat
estnumber
);r
ule-
uti
l
itar
iani
sm (
oneoughtt
ogi
vet
ofami
ner
eli
efbecause
gi
vi
ngt
ofami
ner
eli
efi
spr
escr
ibedbyar
ulet
hegener
alobser
vanceofwhi
ch
cont
ri
but
esmostt
othegr
eat
erhappi
nessoft
hegr
eat
estnumber
);and

 Kant
iani
sm (
oneoughtt
ogi
vet
ofami
ner
eli
efbecauseuni
ver
salr
efusalt
ogi
ve
t
ofami
ner
eli
efwoul
dgener
atesomeki
ndofi
nconsi
stency
).

Nor
mat
ive et
hics t
hus seeks t
o di
scov
ert
he gener
alpr
inci
ples under
lyi
ng mor
al
pr
act
ice,andi
nthi
swaypot
ent
ial
l
yimpact
suponpr
act
icalmor
alpr
obl
ems:di
ff
erent
gener
alpr
inci
plesmayy
iel
ddi
ff
erentv
erdi
ctsi
npar
ti
cul
arcases.Met
a-et
hics,r
ather
,
concer
nedwi
thquest
ionsaboutt
hef
oll
owi
ng:
 a)Meani
( ng:whati
sthesemant
icf
unct
ionofmor
aldi
scour
se?I
sthef
unct
ionof
mor
aldi
scour
set
ost
atef
act
s,ordoesi
thav
esomeot
hernon-
fact
-st
ati
ngr
ole?
b)Met
( aphy
sics:domor
alf
act
s(orpr
oper
ti
es)exi
st?I
fso,whatar
etheyl
i
ke?Ar
e
t
heyi
dent
icalorr
educi
blet
osomeot
hert
ypeoff
act(
orpr
oper
ty)orar
ethey
i
rr
educi
bleandsui
gener
is?
c)Epi
( stemol
ogyandj
ust
if
icat
ion:i
sther
esuchat
hingasmor
alknowl
edge?How
canweknowwhet
herourmor
alj
udgement
sar
etr
ueorf
alse?Howcanweev
er
j
ust
if
yourcl
aimst
omor
alknowl
edge?
d)Phenomenol
( ogy
:how ar
emor
alqual
i
tiesr
epr
esent
edi
ntheexper
ienceofan
agentmaki
ngamor
alj
udgement
?Dot
heyappeart
obe'
outt
her
e'i
nthewor
ld?

e)Mor
( alpsy
chol
ogy
:whatcanwesayaboutt
hemot
ivat
ionalst
ateofsomeone
maki
ngamor
alj
udgement
?Whatsor
tofconnect
ioni
sther
ebet
weenmaki
nga
mor
alj
udgementandbei
ngmot
ivat
edt
oactast
hatj
udgementpr
escr
ibes?
(
f)Obj
ect
ivi
ty:canmor
alj
udgement
sreal
l
ybecor
rectori
ncor
rect
?Canwewor
k
t
owar
dsf
indi
ngoutt
hemor
alt
rut
h?

Obv
iousl
y,t
hisl
i
sti
snoti
ntendedt
obeexhaust
ive,
andt
hev
ari
ousquest
ionsar
enotal
l
i
ndependent(
forexampl
e,aposi
ti
veanswert
o(f
)looks,
ont
hef
aceofi
t,t
opr
esuppose
t
hatt
hef
unct
ionofmor
aldi
scour
sei
stost
atef
act
s).Buti
tiswor
thnot
ingt
hatt
hel
i
st
i
smuchwi
dert
hanmanyphi
l
osopher
sfor
tyorf
if
tyy
ear
sagowoul
dhav
ethought
.For
exampl
e,onesuchphi
l
osopherwr
it
es:

[
Met
aet
hics]i
snotaboutwhatpeopl
eoughtt
odo.I
tisaboutwhatt
heyar
edoi
ngwhen
t
heyt
alkaboutwhatt
heyoughtt
odo.

Thei
deat
hatmet
aet
hicsi
sexcl
usi
vel
yaboutl
anguagewasnodoubtduet
othemor
e
gener
ali
deat
hatphi
l
osophyasawhol
ehasnof
unct
ionot
hert
hant
hest
udyofor
dinar
y
l
anguageandt
hat'
phi
l
osophi
calpr
obl
ems'
onl
yar
isef
rom t
heappl
i
cat
ionofwor
dsout
oft
hecont
ext
sinwhi
cht
heyar
eor
dinar
il
yused.For
tunat
ely
,thi
s'or
dinar
ylanguage'
concept
ion ofphi
l
osophy has l
ong si
nce ceased t
o hol
d sway
,and t
he l
i
stof
met
aet
hicalconcer
ns – i
n met
aphy
sics,epi
stemol
ogy
,phenomenol
ogyand mor
al
psy
chol
ogy
,aswel
lasi
nsemant
icsandt
het
heor
yofmeani
ng– bear
sthi
sout
.
Posi
ti
onsi
nmet
aet
hicscanbedef
inedi
nter
msoft
heanswer
stheygi
vet
othesesor
ts
ofquest
ion.Someexampl
esofmet
aet
hical
theor
iesar
emor
alr
eal
i
sm,
non-
cogni
ti
vi
sm,
er
ror
-t
heor
yandmor
alant
i-
real
i
sm.

1.
2.2.Cogni
ti
vi
sm andNon-
Cogni
ti
vi
sm
Consi
derapar
ti
cul
armor
alj
udgement
,suchast
hej
udgementt
hatmur
deri
swr
ong.
Whatsor
tofpsy
chol
ogi
calst
ate does t
his expr
ess? Some phi
l
osopher
s,cal
l
ed
cogni
ti
vi
sts,
thi
nkt
hatamor
alj
udgementsuchast
hisexpr
essesabel
i
ef.Bel
i
efscanbe
t
rueorf
alse:t
heyar
etr
uth-
apt
,oraptt
obeassessedi
nter
msoft
rut
handf
alsi
ty.So
cogni
ti
vi
stst
hinkt
hatmor
alj
udgement
sar
ecapabl
eofbei
ngt
rueorf
alse.Ont
heot
her
hand,non-
cogni
ti
vi
stst
hinkt
hatmor
alj
udgement
sexpr
essnon-
cogni
ti
vest
atessuch
asemot
ionsordesi
res.Desi
resandemot
ionsar
enott
rut
h-apt
.Somor
alj
udgement
s
ar
enotcapabl
eofbei
ngt
rueorf
alse.(
Not
ethat
,al
thoughi
tmaybet
ruet
hatIhav
ea
desi
ref
orapi
ntofbeerandf
alset
hatIhav
eadesi
ret
oseeEt
hiopi
awi
ntheWor
ldCup,
t
hisdoesnoti
mpl
ythatdesi
rest
hemsel
vescanbet
rueorf
alse.
)

1.
2.2.
1. St
rongCogni
ti
vi
sm:
Nat
ural
i
sm
A st
rongcogni
ti
vi
stt
heor
yisonewhi
chhol
dst
hatmor
alj
udgement
s(a)ar
eaptf
or
ev
aluat
ion i
nter
msoft
rut
h and f
alsi
ty,and (
b)can bet
heupshotofcogni
ti
vel
y
accessi
ngt
hef
act
swhi
chr
endert
hem t
rue.St
rongcogni
ti
vi
stt
heor
iescanbeei
ther
nat
ural
i
stornon-
nat
ural
i
st.Accor
dingt
oanat
ural
i
st,amor
alj
udgementi
srender
ed
t
rueorf
alsebyanat
uralst
ateofaf
fai
rs,
andi
tist
hisnat
uralst
ateofaf
fai
rst
owhi
cha
t
ruemor
alj
udgementaf
for
dsusaccess.Butwhati
sanat
uralst
ateofaf
fai
rs?G.E.
Moor
e'schar
act
eri
zat
ion:“
By'
nat
ure'
,t
hen,Idomeanandhav
emeantt
hatwhi
chi
sthe
subj
ectmat
teroft
henat
uralsci
encesandal
soofpsy
chol
ogy
.”

A nat
uralpr
oper
tyi
sapr
oper
tywhi
chf
igur
esi
noneoft
henat
uralsci
encesori
n
psy
chol
ogy
:exampl
esmi
ghti
ncl
udet
hepr
oper
tyofbei
ngconduci
vet
othegr
eat
est
happi
ness oft
he gr
eat
estnumberand t
he pr
oper
ty ofbei
ng conduci
vet
othe
pr
eser
vat
ionoft
hehumanspeci
es.Anat
uralst
ateofaf
fai
rsi
ssi
mpl
yast
ateofaf
fai
rs
t
hatconsi
stsi
nthei
nst
ant
iat
ionofanat
ural
proper
ty.

Nat
ural
i
stcogni
ti
vi
stshol
dthatmor
alpr
oper
ti
esar
eident
ical
to(
orr
educi
blet
o)nat
ural
pr
oper
ti
es.TheCor
nel
lreal
i
sts(
e.g.Ni
chol
asSt
urgeon,Ri
char
dBoy
d,andDav
idBr
ink)
t
hinkt
hatmor
alpr
oper
ti
esar
eir
reduci
blenat
ural
proper
ti
esi
nthei
rownr
ight
.Nat
ural
i
st
r
educt
ioni
sts(
e.g.Ri
char
dthatmor
alpr
oper
ti
esar
ereduci
blet
otheot
hernat
ural
pr
oper
ti
est
hatar
ethesubj
ectmat
teroft
henat
uralsci
encesandpsy
chol
ogy
.Bot
hthe
Cor
nel
lreal
i
stsandt
henat
ural
i
str
educt
ioni
stsar
emor
alr
eal
i
sts:t
heyt
hinkt
hatt
her
e
r
eal
l
yar
emor
alf
act
sandmor
alpr
oper
ti
es,
andt
hatt
heexi
stenceoft
hesemor
alf
act
s
andi
nst
ant
iat
ionoft
hesemor
alpr
oper
ti
esi
sconst
it
uti
vel
yindependentofhuman
opi
nion.

1.
2.2.
1.1. St
rongCogni
ti
vi
sm:
Non-
Nat
ural
i
sm
Non-
nat
ural
i
stst
hinkt
hatmor
alpr
oper
ti
esar
enoti
dent
icalt
oorr
educi
blet
onat
ural
pr
oper
ti
es.Theyar
eir
reduci
bleandsuigener
is.Wewi
l
llookatt
wot
ypesofst
rong
cogni
ti
vi
stnon-
nat
ural
i
sm:Moor
e'set
hicalnon-
nat
ural
i
sm,
asdev
elopedi sPr
nhi inci
pia
Et
hica(
fi
rstpubl
i
shedi
n1903)
,accor
dingt
owhi
cht
hepr
oper
tyofmor
algoodnessi
s
non-
nat
ural
,si
mpl
e,andunanal
ysabl
e;andt
hecont
empor
aryv
ersi
onofnon-
nat
ural
i
sm
t
hathasbeendev
elopedbyJohnMcDowel
landDav
idWi
ggi
ns(
roughl
yfr
om t
he1970s
t
othepr
esentday
).Agai
n,bot
hty
pesofnon-
nat
ural
i
star
emor
alr
eal
i
sts:t
heyt
hinkt
hat
t
her
ereal
l
yar
emor
alf
act
sandmor
alpr
oper
ti
es,
andt
hatt
heexi
stenceoft
hesemor
al
f
act
sandi
nst
ant
iat
ionoft
hesemor
alpr
oper
ti
esi
sconst
it
uti
vel
yindependentofhuman
opi
nion.

1.
2.2.
1.2. St
rongCogni
ti
vi
sm wi
thoutMor
alReal
i
sm:Macki
e'
s'Er
ror
-
Theor
y'
JohnMacki
ehasar
guedt
hatal
thoughmor
alj
udgement
sar
eaptt
obet
rueorf
alse,
and
t
hatmor
alj
udgement
s,i
ftr
ue,woul
daf
for
duscogni
ti
veaccesst
omor
alf
act
s,mor
al
j
udgement
sar
einf
actal sf
way al
se.Thi
sisbecauset
her
esi
mpl
yar
enomor
alf
act
sor
pr
oper
ti
esi
nthewor
ldoft
hesor
trequi
redt
orenderourmor
alj
udgement
str
ue:we
hav
enopl
ausi
bleepi
stemol
ogi
calaccountofhow wecoul
daccesssuchf
act
sand
pr
oper
ti
es,and,mor
eov
er,suchpr
oper
ti
esandf
act dbemet
swoul aphy
sical
l
yqueer
,
unl
i
keany
thi
ngel
sei
ntheuni
ver
seasweknowi
t.Amor
alpr
oper
tywoul
dhav
etobe
sucht
hatt
hemer
eappr
ehensi
onofi
tbyamor
alagentwoul
dbesuf
fi
cientt
omot
ivat
e
t
hatagentt
oact
.Macki
efi
ndst
hisi
deaut
ter
lypr
obl
emat
ic.Heconcl
udest
hatt
her
ear
e
nomor
alpr
oper
ti
esormor
alf
act
s,sot
hat(
posi
ti
ve,at
omi
c)mor
alj
udgement
sar
e
uni
for
mlyf
alse:ourmor
alt
hinki
ngi
nvol
vesusi
nar caler
adi ror
.BecauseMacki
edeni
es
t
hatt
her
ear
emor
alf
act
sorpr
oper
ti
es,
hei
snotamor
alr
eal
i
stbutamor
, alant
ir
eal
i
st.

1.
2.2.
1.3. WeakCogni
ti
vi
sm aboutMor
alswi
thoutMor
alReal
i
sm:
'Best
Opi
nion'
Theor
ies
Aweakcogni
ti
vi
stt
heor
yisonewhi
chhol
dst
hatmor
alj
udgement
s

(
a)ar
eaptf
orev
aluat
ioni
nter
msoft
rut
handf
alsi
ty,
but
(
b)cannotbet
heupshotofcogni
ti
veaccesst
omor
alpr
oper
ti
esandst
atesof
af
fai
rs.

Weakcogni
ti
vi
sm t
husagr
eeswi
thst
rongcogni
ti
vi
sm on(
a),butdi
sagr
eeson(
b).An
exampl
eofaweakcogni
ti
vi
stt
heor
ywoul
dbeonewhi
chhel
dthatourbestj
udgement
s
aboutmor
alsdet
ermi
net
heext
ensi
onsofmor
alpr
edi
cat
es,r
athert
hanbei
ngbased
upon some f
acul
t ch t
ywhi racks,det
ect
s orcogni
ti
vel
yaccesses f
act
saboutt
he
i
nst
ant
iat
ionofmor
alpr
oper
ti
es.(
Theext
ensi
onofapr
edi
cat
eist
hecl
assoft
hings,
ev
ent
sorobj
ect
stowhi
cht
hatpr
edi
cat
emaycor
rect
lybeappl
i
ed.
)

Mor
alj
udgement
sar
ethuscapabl
eofbei
ngt
rueorf
alse,ev
ent
hought
heyar
enot
basedonaf
acul
tywi
that
racki
ng,accessi
ngordet
ect
ingr
ole-i
not
herwor
ds,ev
en
t
hought
ruemor
alj
udgement
sar
enott
heupshotofcogni
ti
veaccesst
omor
alst
atesof
af
fai
rs.Thi
svi
ewt
husr
eject
smor
alr
eal
i
sm,
notbydeny
ingt
heexi
stenceofmor
alf
act
s
(
li
ket
heer
ror
-t
heor
y),butbydeny
ingt
hatt
hosef
act
sar
econst
it
uti
vel
yindependentof
humanopi
nion.

1.
2.3.Non-
Cogni
ti
vi
sm
Non-
cogni
ti
vi
stsdenyt
hatmor
alj
udgement
sar
eev
enaptt
obet
rueorf
alse.Non-
cogni
ti
vi
stst
husdi
sagr
eewi
thbot
hweakandst
rongcogni
ti
vi
sm.Weshal
llookata
numberofar
gument
swhi
cht
he non-
cogni
ti
vi
stusesagai
nstcogni
ti
vi
sm.Anexampl
e
ofsuchanar
gumenti
sthear
gumentf
rom mor
alpsy
chol
ogy
.

Supposet
hatmor
alj
udgement
scanexpr
essbel
i
efs,ast
hecogni
ti
vi
stcl
aims.Bei
ng
mot
ivat
edt
odosomet
hingort
opur
sueacour
seofact
ioni
sal
way
samat
terofhav
ing
abel
i
efandadesi
re.Forexampl
e,Iam mot
ivat
edt
oreachf
ort
hef
ri
dgebecauseI
bel
i
evet
hati
tcont
ainswat
erandIhav
eadesi
ref
orwat
er.Buti
tisani
nter
naland
necessar
yfactaboutanagentt
hat
,ifshesi
ncer
elyj
udgest
hatX i
sgood,shei
s
mot
ivat
edt
opur
suet
hecour
seofact
ionX.Soi
famor
alj
udgementexpr
essedabel
i
ef,
i
twoul
dhav
etobeabel
i
efwhi
chsust
ainedani
nter
nalandnecessar
yconnect
iont
oa
desi
re:i
twoul
dhav
etobeanecessar
ytr
utht
hatanagentwhopossessedt
hebel
i
ef
di
woul nt
eral
i
apossesst
hedesi
re.Butnobel
i
efi
snecessar
il
yconnect
edt
oadesi
re
because,asHumecl
aimed,'
bel
i
efsand desi
resar
edi
sti
nctexi
stences'
,and i
tis
i
mpossi
blet
ohav
eanecessar
yconnect
ionbet
weendi
sti
nctexi
stences.Soi
tcannotbe
t
hecaset
hatmor
alj
udgement
sexpr
essbel
i
efs.Somor
alj
udgement
sar
enott
rut
h-apt
.
I
fmor
alj
udgement
scannotexpr
essbel
i
ef whatdot
s, heyexpr
ess?

Weshal
llookatt
hreev
ersi
onsofnon-
cogni
ti
vi
sm whi
chgi
vedi
ff
erentanswer
stot
his
quest
ion:

 J.Ay
ers emot
' ivi
sm (
1936)
,accor
ding t
o whi
ch mor
alj
udgement
s ex
press
emot
ions,
orsent
iment
sofappr
oval
ordi
sappr
oval
;
 Si
monBl
ackbur
n'squasi
-r
eal
i
sm (
1984)
,accor
dingt
owhi
chmor
alj
udgement
s
expr
essourdi
sposi
ti
onst
ofor
m sent
iment
sofappr
oval
ordi
sappr
oval
;and
 Al
l
an Gi
bbar
d's nor
m-expr
essi
vi
sm (
1990)
,accor
ding t
o whi
ch ourmor
al
j
udgement
sexpr
essouraccept
anceofnor
ms.

Per
hapst
hemai
nchal
l
enget
onon-
cogni
ti
vi
sm i
swhati
scal
l heFr
edt ege-Geach
pr
obl
em.Accor
dingt
oemot
ivi
sm,f
orexampl
e,j
udgi
ngt
hatmur
deri
swr
ongi
sreal
l
y
j
ustl
i
keshout
ing'
Boof
ormur
der
!'(
whenIshout'
Boo!
'Iam ev
inci
ngmydi
sappr
oval
;I
am notat
tempt
i odescr
ngt ibesomet
hing)
.Butwhatabout'
I
fmur
deri
swr
ong,
theni
tis
wr
ong t
o mur
dery
ourmot
her
-i
n-l
aw'
? Thi
s makes sense.Buton t
he emot
ivi
st
i
nter
pret
ati
oni
tdoesn'
t(whatwoul
ditsoundl
i
keonanemot
ivi
sti
nter
pret
ati
on?
).

1.
2.3.
1. I
nter
nal
i
sm andExt
ernal
i
sm,
Humeani
sm andAnt
i-Humeani
sm
Oneoft
hepr
emi
sesi
nthear
gumentf
rom mor
alpsy
chol
ogyabov
eist
hecl
aimt
hat
t
her
eisan i
nter
naland necessar
yconnect
ion bet
ween si
ncer
elymaki
ng a mor
al
j
udgementandbei
ngmot
ivat
edt
oacti
nthemannerpr
escr
ibedbyt
hatj
udgement
.Thi
s
cl
ai sknownasi
mi nter
nal
i
sm,becausei
tsay
sthatt
her
eisani
nter
nalorconcept
ual
connect
ionbet
weenmor
alj
udgementandmot
ivat
ion.

Somecogni
ti
vi
stphi
l
osopher
srespondt
othear
gumentf
rom mor
alpsy
chol
ogyby
deny
ingi
nter
nal
i
sm.Theycl
aimt
hatt
heconnect
i weenj
onbet udgementandmot
ivat
ion
i
sonl
yex
ter
nalandcont
ingent
.Suchphi
l
osopher eknownasext
sar ernal
i
sts.Ot
her
cogni
ti
vi
stphi
l
osopher
srespondt
othear
gumentf
rom mor
alpsy
chol
ogybydeny
ing
anot
herpr
emi
se oft
he ar
gument
,the cl
aim t
hatmot
ivat
ion al
way
sinv
olv
es t
he
esenceofbot
pr hbel
i
efsanddesi
res(
thi
spr
emi
sei heHumeant
sknownast heor
yof
mot
ivat
ion,si
ncei
trecei
vedacl
assi
cexposi
ti
onbyHume)
.McDowel
landWi
ggi
ns
anceanant
adv i-
Humeant
heor
yofmot
ivat
ion,accor
dingt
owhi
chbel
i
efst
hemsel
ves
canbei
ntr
insi
cal
l
ymot
ivat
ing.

Deont
ologi
calt
heor
iesdenywhatt
eleol
ogi
calt
heor
iesaf
fi
rm.Theydenyt
hatt
her
ight
,
t
heobl
i
gat
ory
,andt
hemor
all
ygoodar
ewhol
l
y,whet
herdi
rect
lyori
ndi
rect
ly,
afunct
ion
ofwhati
snonmor
all
ygoodorofwhatpr
omot
est
hegr
eat
estbal
anceofgoodov
erev
il
f
orsel
f,one'
ssoci
ety
,ort
hewor
ld asawhol
e.Theyasser
tthatt
her
ear
eot
her
consi
der
ati
onst
hatmaymakeanact
ionorr
uler
ightorobl
i
gat
orybesi
dest
hegoodness
orbadnessofi
tsconsequences-
-cer
tai
nfeat
uresoft
heacti
tsel
fot
hert hev
hant aluei
t
br
ingsi
nto exi
stence,f
orexampl
e,t
hef
actt
hati
tkeepsapr
omi
se,i
sjust
,ori
s
commandedbyGodorbyt
hest
ate.Tel
eol
ogi
stsbel
i
evet
hatt
her
eisoneandonl
yone
basi
corul
ti
mat
eri
ght
-maki
ngchar
act
eri
sti
c,namel
y,t
hecompar
ati
vev
alue(
nonmor
al)
ofwhati
s,pr
obabl
ywi
l
lbe,
ori
sint
endedt
obebr
oughti
ntobei
ng.Deont
ologi
stsei
ther
denyt
hatt
hischar
act
eri
sti
cisr
ight
-maki
ngatal
lort
heyi
nsi
stt
hatt
her
ear
eot
herbasi
c
orul
ti
mat
eri
ght
-maki
ngchar
act
eri
sti
csaswel
l
.Fort
hem t
hepr
inci
pleofmaxi
mizi
ng
t
hebal
anceofgoodov
erev
il
,nomat
terf
orwhom,i
sei
thernotamor
alcr
it
eri
onor
st
andar
datal
l
,or
,atl
east
,iti
snott
heonl
ybasi
corul
ti
mat
eone.

Toputt
hemat
teri
nyetanot
herway
:adeont
ologi
stcont
endst
hati
tispossi
blef
oran
act
ionorr
uleofact
iont
obet
hemor
all
yri
ghtorobl
i
gat
oryoneev
eni
fitdoesnot
pr
omot
ethegr
eat
estpossi
blebal
anceofgoodov
erev
ilf
orsel
f,soci
ety
,oruni
ver
se.I
t
mayber
ightorobl
i
gat
orysi
mpl
ybecauseofsomeot
herf
actabouti
torbecauseofi
ts
ownnat
ure.I
tfol
l
owst
hatadeont
ologi
stmayal
soadoptanyki
ndofav
iewaboutwhat
i
sgoodorbadi
nthenonmor
alsense.

Tel
eol
ogi
stsdi
ff
eront
hequest
ionofwhosegoodi
tist
hatoneoughtt
otr
ytopr
omot
e.
Et
hicalegoi
sm hol
dst
hatonei
sal
way
stodowhatwi
l
lpr
omot
ehi
sowngr
eat
estgood-
-t
hatanactorr
uleofact
ioni
sri
ghti
fandonl
yifi
tpr
omot
esatl
eastasgr
eatabal
ance
ofgoodov
erev
ilf
orhi
mint
hel
ongr
unasanyal
ter
nat
ivewoul
d,andwr
ongi
fitdoes
not
.Thi
svi
ew washel
dbyEpi
cur
us,Hobbes,andNi
etzsche,amongot s.Et
her hical
uni
ver
sal
i
sm,
orwhati
susual
l edut
ycal
l il
it
ari
ani
sm,
takest
heposi
ti
ont
hatt
heul
ti
mat
e
endi
sthegr
eat
estgener
algood-
-thatanactorr
uleofact
ioni
sri
ghti
fandonl
yifi
tis,
orpr
obabl
yis,
conduci
vet
oatl
eastasgr
eatabal
anceofgoodov
erev
ili
ntheuni
ver
se
asawhol
easanyal
ter
nat
ivewoul
dbe,wr
ongi
fiti
snot
,andobl
i
gat
oryi
fiti
sor
pr
obabl
yisconduci
vet
othegr
eat
estpossi
blebal
anceofgoodov
erev
ili
ntheuni
ver
se.
Theso-
cal
l
edut
il
it
ari
ans,f
orexampl
e,Jer
emyBent
ham andJohnSt
uar
tMi
l
l,hav
e
usual
l
ybeenhedoni
stsi
nthei
rvi
ewaboutwhati
sgood,
asser
ti
ngt
hatt
hemor
alendi
s
t
hegr
eat
estbal
anceofpl
easur
eov
erpai
n.Butsomeut
il
it
ari
ansar
enothedoni
sts,f
or
exampl
e,G.E.Moor
eandHast
ingsRashdal
l
,andsohav
ebeencal
l
ed"
Ideal
"ut
il
it
ari
ans.
Thati
s,ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm i
sacer
tai
nki
ndoft
eleol
ogi
calt
heor
yofobl
i
gat
ionanddoesnot
ent
ailanypar
ti
cul
art
heor
yofv
alue,al
thoughaut
il
it
ari
anmustacceptsomepar
ti
cul
ar
t
heor
yofv
alue.

I
twoul
dal
sobepossi
ble,
ofcour
se,
toadoptt
eleol
ogi
calt
heor
iesi
nter
medi
atebet
ween
et
hicalegoi
sm andut
il
it
ari
ani
sm,f
orexampl
e,t
heor
iest
hatsayt
her
ightactorr
ulei
s
oneconduci
vet
othegr
eat
estbal
anceofgoodov
erev
ilf
oracer
tai
ngr
oup-
-one'
s
nat
ion,
class,
fami
l
y,orr eet
ace.Apur hicalal
tr
uistmi
ghtev
encont
endt
hatt
her
ightact
orr
ulei
stheonet
hatmostpr
omot hegoodofot
est herpeopl
e.Weshal
l
,howev
er,
li
mit
ourcomi
ngdi
scussi
ont
oegoi
sm anduni
ver
sal
i
sm.

1.
2.4.Egoi
sm:
Ethi
cal
andpsy
chol
ogi
cal
Egoi
sm
1.
2.4.
1. Et
hical
Egoi
sm
Weusual
l
yassumet
hatmor
albehav
ior
,orbei
nget
hical
,hast
odowi
thnotbei
ngov
erl
y
concer
nedwi
thonesel
f.I
not
herwor
ds,sel
fi
shnessi
sassumedt
obeunaccept
abl
e
at
ti
tude.Ev
enamongschol
ars,t
her
eisdi
sagr
eementaboutwhatconst
it
uteset
hical
behav
ior
.Si
ncev
eryear
lyi
nwest
erni
ntel
l
ect
ualhi
stor
y,t
hev
iewpoi hathumansar
ntt e
notbui
l
ttol
ookoutf
orot
herpeopl
e’
sint
erest
shassur
facedr
egul
arl
y.Someschol
ars
ev
enhol
dthatpr
opermor
alconductconsi l
stof“ooki
ngoutf
ornumberone,
”per
iod.
Thesev
iewpoi
ntsar
eknownaspsy
chol
ogi
cal
egoi
sm andet
hical
egoi
sm r
espect
ivel
y. 

Wemayf
ocusont
heconsequencesofouract
ionsbecausewebel
i
evet
hatt
hose
consequencesj
ust
if
youract
ions(
inot
herwor
ds,t
hatt
heendj
ust
if
ythemeans)
,but
t
hisdoesnotnecessar
il
yimpl
ythatt
heconsequenceswehopef
orar
egoodi
nthe
egoi
stsenset
hatmaymaxi
mizehappi
nessf
oronesel
f.Wemi
ght
,fori
nst
ance,not
agr
eewi
tht
heI
tal
i
anst
atesmanNi
ccol
oMachi
avel
l
i(1469-
1527)t
hati
ftheendi
sto
mai
ntai
npol
i
ticalpowerf
oronesel
f,oneski
ngoronespol
i
ticalpar
ty,t
hent
hiswi
l
l
j
ust
if
yanymeanst
hatonemi
ghtusef
ort
hatpr
opose,suchasf
orce,sur
vei
l
lance,or
ev
endecei
t.Al
thought
hisf
amoust
heor
yisi
ndeedConsequent
ial
i
st,
itdoesnotqual
i
fy
asut
il
it
ari
an,
becausei
tdoesn’
thav
ethecommongoodasi
tsul
ti
mat
eend.

Thi
stheor
yiscal
l
edet
hicalegoi
sm si
mpl
ybecausei
tisanet
hicalt
heor
y,anor
mat
ive
t yabouthowweoughtt
heor obehav
e.Thet
heor
yimpl
i
est
hatweoughtt
obesel
fi
sh.Or
,
t
oputi
tmor
egent
ly,
weoughtt
obesel
f-
int
erest
ed.Cal
l
ingt
het
heor
y“et
hical
”doesnot
suggestt
hatt
her
emi
ghtbeadecentwayt
obesel
fi
sh;
itj
ustmeanst
hatet
hical
egoi
sm
i
sat
heor
ythatadv
ocat
esegoi
sm asamor
alr
ule.
 

 Youshoul
dlookaf
tery
our
sel
f

Et
hicalegoi
sti
nsi
stedt
hati
fyoudon’
ttakeadv
ant
ageofasi
tuat
ion,y
ouar
efool
i
sh.
Thecl
aimt
hati
tmakesgoodsenset
olookaf
tery
our
sel
f,andmor
ali
tyi
sar
esul
toft
hat
sel
f–i
nter
est
.IfImi
str
eatot
her
s,t
heymi
str
eatme,
soIr
esol
vet
obehav
emy
sel
f.Thi
s
i
sar
athert
wist
edv
ersi
onoft
heGol
denRul
e(Dount
oot
her
sasy
ouwoul
dhav
ethem
dount
oyou)
.Iti
stwi
stedbecausei
tispecul
i
arl
ysl
ant
edt
owar
dourownsel
f–i
nter
est
s.
Ther
easonweshoul
dtr
eatot
her
sthewaywewoul
dli
ket
obet
reat
edi
sthati
tgi
vesus
agoodchanceofr
ecei
vi
ngj
ustsucht
reat
ment
;wedoi
tforour
sel
ves,
notf
orot
her
s.So,
dount
oot
her
ssot
haty
ouwi
l
lbedoneunt
oinasi
mil
arway
. 
Onear
gumentf
oret
hicalegoi
sm f
oll
owsi
mmedi
atel
yfr
om t
het
heor
yofpsy
chol
ogi
cal
egoi
sm,whi
ch we exami
ned i
nthe pr
evi
ous sect
ion.I
f Iam psy
chol
ogi
cal
l
y
pr
ogr
ammedt
oactonl
yinmyownbesti
nter
est
,thenIcannev
erbeobl
i
gat
edt
o
per
for
m al
tr
uist
ic(
thati
s,sel
fl
ess)act
stowar
dot
her
s.Mor
efor
mal
l
ythear
gumenti
s
t
his:
(
6)Weal
lal
way
sseekt
omaxi
mizeourownsel
f-
int
erest(
def
ini
ti
onofpsy
chol
ogi
cal
egoi
sm)
.
(
7)I
fonecannotdoanact
,onehasnoobl
i
gat
iont
odot
hatact(
oughtt
oimpl
i
es
can)
.
(
8)Al
tr
uist
ic act
sinv
olv
e put
ti
ng ot
herpeopl
e’
sint
erest
s ahead ofourown
(
def
ini
ti
onofal
tr
uism)
.
(
9)But
,al
tr
uism cont
radi
cts psy
chol
ogi
calegoi
sm and so i
simpossi
ble(
by
pr
emi
ses1and3)
.
(
10) Ther
efor
e,al
tr
uist
icact
sar
enev
ermor
all
yobl
i
gat
ory(
bypr
emi
ses2and
4)
.

Sot
heet
hicalegoi
stmi
ghtcer
tai
nlydeci
det
ost
opf
orast
randedmot
ori
stont
he
f
reeway
,notf
ort
hesakeoft
hemot
ori
stbutt
oensur
ethat“
whatgoesar
oundcomes
ar
ound.
”TheGol
den Rul
eusual
l
yemphasi
zesot
her
s,butf
ort
heet
hicalegoi
sti
t
emphasi
zest
hesel
f.Anyt
heor
ythatl
ookssol
elyt
oconsequencesofact
ionsi
sknown
asaConsequent
ial
i
stt
heor
y.

The consequencest
hatet
hicalegoi
sm st
ipul
atesar
e good consequencesf
ort
he
per
sont
aki
ngt
heact
ion.Say
ingt
hatpeopl
eoughtt
olookaf
tert
hemsel
vesneednot
,of
cour
se,meant
hatoneshoul
dannoyot
her
swhenev
erpossi
ble,st
epont
hei
rtoes,or
del
i
ber
atel
ynegl
ectt
hei
rint
erest
s.I
tsi
mpl
ysuggest
sthatoneshoul
ddowhatwi
l
lbeof
l
ongt
erm benef
itt
oonesel
f,suchasexer
cisi
ng,
eat
ingheal
thyf
ood,
avoi
dingr
epet
it
ive
ar
gument
ati
vesi
tuat
ions,abst
aini
ngf
rom ov
ereat
ing,andsof
ort
h.I
nconj
unct
ion,i
t
suggest
sthatot
herpeopl
e’
sint
erest
sar
eofnoi
mpor
tance.I
fyoumi
ghtadv
ancey
our
owni
nter
est
sbyhel
pingot
her
s,t
henbyal
lmeanshel
pot
her
sbutonl
yify
ouar
ethe
mai
nbenef
ici
ary
.Iti
sfi
net
ohel
pyourchi
l
drengetaheadi
nschool
,becausey
oul
ove
t
hem andt
hisl
ovei
sar
ati
onal
efory
ou.Butt
her
eisnor
easont
olendahandt
oyour
nei
ghbor
’schi
l
dren,unl
essy
oul
i
ket
hem ory
ouachi
evegr
ati
fi
cat
iont
hroughy
our
act
ion.

Thi
sint
erpr
etat
ion,whi
cht
ell
sust
odowhat
everwi
l
lbenef
it
sour
sel
vesr
esul
tsi
na
r
ewr
it
ingoft
heGol
denRul
e,because,obv
iousl
y,i
tisnotal
way
sthecaset
haty
ouwi
l
l
gett
hesamet
reat
mentf
rom ot
hert
haty
ougi
vet
othem.Occasi
onal
l
yyoumi
ghtget
awaywi
thnott
reat
ingot
her
sdecent
lybecauset
heymaynev
erknow t
haty
ouar
ethe
sour
ceoft
hebadt
reat
mentt
heyar
erecei
vi
ng.
Ethi
calegoi
sm t
ell
syout
hati
tis
per
fect
lyal
lri
ghtt
otr
eatot
her
sinawayt
hati
stoy
ouradv
ant
ageandnott
othei
rsas
l
ongasy
oucanbecer
tai
nthaty
ouwi
l
lgetawaywi
thi
t.

Thef
oll
owi
ngar
esomemet
hodt
oappl
ythepr
inci
pleofet
hicalegoi
sm t
oapar
ti
cul
ar
si
tuat
ion.
 Li
stt
hepossi
bleact
s
 Foreachact
,seehowmuchnetgoodi
twoul
ddof
ory
ou.
 I
dent
if
ytheactt
hatdoest
hemostnetgoodf
ory
ou

Somei
mpor
tantt
hingst
onot
iceaboutet
hical
egoi
sm:
 I
tdoesnotj
ustsayt
hat
,fr
om t
hemor
alpoi
ntofv
iew,
one’
sownwel
far
ecount
s
aswel
last
hatofot
her
s.Rat
her
,itsay
sthat
,fr
om t
hemor
alpoi
ntofv
iew,onl
y
one’
sownwel
far
ecount
s,andot
her
s’doesnot
,whenonei
smaki
ngamor
al
deci
sionabouthowt
oact
.
 Et
hicalegoi
sm doesnotf
orbi
donet
ohel
pot
her
s,orr
equi
reonet
ohar
m ot
her
s.
I
tjustsay
sthatwhat
evermor
alr
easony
ouhav
etohel
pot
her
s,ornothar
m
t
hem,mustul
ti
mat
elyst
em f
ort
hewayi
nwhi
chhel
pingt
hem ornothar
ming
t
hem hel
psy
ou.
 Et
hicalegoi
sm does notsayt
hatone oughtal
way
sto do whati
s most
pl
easur
abl
e,orenj
oyabl
e.I
tacknowl
edgest
hatone’
sownsel
f–i
nter
estmay
occasi
onal
l
yrequi
repai
norsacr
if
ice.
1.
2.4.
2. Psy
chol
ogi
cal
Egoi
sm
Themai
nar
gumentt
hathasbeenusedasabasi
sforet
hicalegoi
sm i
sapsy
chol
ogi
cal
one,anar
gumentf
rom humannat
ure.Wear
eal
lsoconst
it
uted,i
tissai
d,t
hatone
al
way
sseeksone'
sownadv
ant
ageorwel
far
e,oral
way
sdoeswhathet
hinkswi
l
lgi
ve
hi
mthegr
eat
estbal
anceofgoodov
erev
il
.InBut
ler
'st
erms,t
hismeanst
hat"
sel
f-
lov
e"
i
stheonl
ybasi
c"pr
inci
ple"i
nhumannat
ure;
inonesetofcont
empor
aryt
erms,
itmeans
t
hat"
ego-
sat
isf
act
ion"i
sthef
inalai
m ofal
lact
ivi
tyort
hat"
thepl
easur
epr
inci
ple"i
sthe
basi
c"dr
ive"i
nev
eryi
ndi
vi
dual
.Ift
hisi
sso,
thear
gumentcont
inues,
wemustr
ecogni
ze
t
hisf
acti
nourmor
alt
heor
yandi
nfert
hatourbasi
cet
hical
pri
nci
plemustbet
hatofsel
f
-
lov
e,al
bei
tcool
sel
f-
lov
e.Tohol
dany
thi
ngel
sei
stof
lyi
nthef
aceoft
hef
act
s.

I
tisusualher
etoobj
ectt
hatonecannotl
ogi
cal
l
yinf
eranet
hicalconcl
usi
onf
rom a
psy
chol
ogi
calpr
emi
sei
nthi
sway
.Thi
sobj
ect
ionhassomef
orce,asweshal
lseei
n
Chapt
er6.Butt
heegoi
stmaynotbedoi
ngt
his.Hemayonl
ybecont
endi
ngt
hat
,if
humannat
urei
sashedescr
ibesi
t,i
tissi
mpl
yunr
eal
i
sti
candev
enunr
easonabl
eto
pr
oposet
hatweoughtbasi
cal
l
ytodoany
thi
ngbutwhati
sforourowngr
eat
estgood.
For
,inasense,wecannotdoany
thi
ngbutt
his,exceptbymi
stake,and,asaf
amous
di
ctum hasi
t.“
Ought
”impl
i
es“
can”
.Thusunder
stood,t
hepsy
chol
ogi
calar
gumentf
or
et
hical
egoi
sm i
satl
eastr
easonabl
e,ev
eni
fiti
snotl
ogi
cal
l
ycompel
l
ing.

Thus,et
hicalegoi
sm hasgener
all
ypr
esupposedwhati edpsy
scal
l chol
ogi
calegoi
sm -
-
t
hateachofusi
sal
way
sseeki
nghi
sowngr
eat
estgood,
whet
hert
hisi
sconcei
vedofas
pl
easur
e,happi
ness,knowl
edge,power
,sel
f-
real
i
zat
ion,orami
xedl
i
fe.Thequest
ioni
s
notwhet
heregoi
sm i
sst
rongi
nhumannat
urebutwhet
herweev
erhav
eanyconcer
nor
desi
ref
ort
hewel
far
eofot
her
sexceptasameanst
oourown,anyconcer
nforor
i
nter
esti
nthei
rwel
far
efori
tsownsake,whi
chi
snotder
ivedf
rom ourconcer
nforour
ownwel
far
e.I
ndeal
i
ngwi
tht
hiset
hical
theor
y;

(
1)Thatt
hedesi
ref
orone'
sowngoodpr
esupposesorbui
l
dsupont
heexi
stenceof
mor
ebasi
cdesi
resf
orf
ood,
fame,
sex,
etc.I
fwedi
dnothav
eanyoft
hese"
pri
mar
y
appet
it
es,
"wewoul
dnothav
eanygoodt
obeconcer
nedabout
;ourwel
far
econsi
sts
oft
hesat
isf
act
ionofsuchdesi
res.

(
2)I
tfol
l
ows,t
hatt
heobj
ectoft
hesebasi
cdesi
resi
snotone'
sownwel
far
e;i
tisf
ood,
f
ame,sex,et
c.,ast
hecasemaybe.One'
sowngoodi
snott
heobj
ectofal
lofone'
s
desi
resbutonl
yofoneoft
hem,
sel
f-l
ove.
(
3)Thati
nsomecasest
heobj
ectofabasi
cdesi
rei
ssomet
hingf
oronesel
f,f
or
exampl
e,f
oodort
heeat
ingoff
ood.Butt
her
eisnonecessi
tyaboutt
his;t
heobj
ect
maybesomet
hingf
orsomeoneel
se,
forexampl
e,enj
oyi
ngt
hesi
ghtoft
heocean.I
n
ot
herwor
ds,t
her
emaybeal
tr
uist
ici
mpul
ses.Ther
emayal
sobeadesi
ret
odot
he
r
ightassuch.Whet
hert
her
ear
esuchdesi
resornoti
saquest
ionofempi
ri
cal
fact
.

(
4)Asamat
teroff
act
,ther
ear
esuchal
tr
uist
ici
nter
est
sint
hewel
far
eofot
her
s(sheer
mal
evol
ence,
ifi
texi
sts,
isadesi
ret
hatanot
herexper
iencepai
nfori
tsownsake)
,as
wel
lasadesi
ret
odot
her
ightassuch.

Att
hispoi
nti
tisusualf
ort
hepsy
chol
ogi
calegoi
stt
osay
,"Yes,
wedot
hingsf
orot
her
s,
butwegetsat
isf
act
ionoutofdoi
ngt
hem,
andt
hissat
isf
act
ioni
sourendi
ndoi
ngt
hem.
Doi
ngt
hem i
sonl
yameanst
othi
ssat
isf
act
ion.Hence,ev
eni
ndoi
ng'
al
tr
uist
ic'
thi
ngs
f
orot
her
s,l
i
ket
aki
ngt
hem t
oseet
heocean,
wear
eseeki
ngourowngood.
"

Tot
hiscr
it
ici
sm,somear
guedt
hat
,ofcour
se,wegetsat
isf
act
ionoutofdoi
ngsuch
t
hings,
butwedonotwantt
odot
hem becauseoft
hesat
isf
act
ionweexpectt
ogetout
oft
hem,wegetsat
isf
act
ionoutofdoi
ngt
hem becausewewant
edt
odot
hem.The
psy
chol
ogi
calegoi
sti
sput
ti
ngt
hecar
tbef
oret
hehor
se.Theyconf heobj
usest ectof
B'
sdesi
re(
A'senj
oyi
ngt
heocean)wi
t hesat
ht isf
act
iont
hatr
esul
tsf
orBwhent
his
obj
ecti
sat
tai
ned.SupposeBf
ail
stogetAt
otheoceanort
hatAdoesnotenj
oyseei
ng
i
t.ThenBwi
l
lexper
iencef
rust
rat
ion,
buti
twi
l
lnotf
oll
owt
hatt
hisf
rust
rat
ioni
shi
sgoal
;
heexper
iencesf
rust
rat
ionbecausehi
sgoal
ist
ohav
eAenj
oyhi
msel
f.

Gener
all
y,Egoi
sti
candpar
ti
cul
ari
sti
cconsequent
ial
i
sm onl
ytakesi
ntoconsi
der
ati
on
howt
heconsequencesofanactwi
l
laf
fectonesel
foragi
vengr
oup–e.
g.one’
sfami
l
y,
f
ell
ow ci
ti
zens/
compat
ri
ots, cl
ass or r
ace. Mor
al r
ight
ness depends on t
he
consequencesf
orani
ndi
vi
dual
agentoral
i
mit
edgr
oup.

1.
2.5.Ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm:
Produci
ngt
hebestconsequences
Thatact
ioni
sbest
,whi
chpr
ocur
est
hegr
eat
esthappi
nessf
ort
hegr
eat
estnumber
s.

Consi
dersomet
radi
ti
onalmor
alpr
inci
plesandseei
ftheyhel
puscomet
oadeci
sion.
Onepr
inci
pleof
tengi
vent
o gui
deact
ioni
s“Lety
ourconsci
encebey
ourgui
de.
”
Supposey
ourconsci
encet
ell
syout
ogi
vet
hemoneyt
otheEt
hiopi
anCof
feeCl
uband
myconsci
encet
ell
smet
ogi
vet
hemoneyt
otheEt
hiopi
anRedCr
ossSoci
ety(
ERCS)
.
Howcanweev
endi
scusst
hemat
ter
?Ifconsci
encei
stheendofi
t,we’
rel
eftmut
e.

Anot
herpr
inci
pleur
gedonusi
s“Dowhat
everi
smostl
ovi
ng”
;Lov
eissur
elyawonder
ful
v
alue.I
tisamor
ewhol
esomeat
ti
tudet
hanhat
e,andweshoul
dov
ercomef
eel
i
ngsof
hat
eifonl
yforourownpsy
chol
ogi
calheal
th.Buti
slov
eenought
ogui
deouract
ions
whent
her
eisaconf
li
ctofi
nter
est
?“Lov
eisbl
i
nd,
”ithasbeensai
d,“
butr
eason,l
i
ke
mar
ri
age,
isaney
e-opener
.”Whom shoul
dIl
ovei
nthecaseoft
hedi
sbur
sementoft
he
mi
l
li
onai
re’
smoney
—themi
l
li
onai
reort
hest
arv
ingpeopl
e?I
t’
snotcl
earhowl
oveal
one
wi
l
lset
tl
eany
thi
ng.I
nfact
,iti
snotobv
ioust
hatwemustal
way
sdowhati
smostl
ovi
ng.
Shoul
dweal
way
str
eatourenemi
esi
nlov
ingway
s?Ori
sitmor
all
yper
missi
blet
ofeel
hat
efort
hosewhohav
epur
posel
yandunj
ust
lyhar
medus,ourl
ovedones,orot
her
i
nnocentpeopl
e?Shoul
dthesur
viv
orsofAuschwi
tzl
oveAdol
phHi
tl
er?Lov
eal
onedoes
notsol
vedi
ff
icul
tmor
ali
ssues.

At
hir
dpr
inci
pleof
tengi
vent
ogui
deourmor
alact
ionsi
stheGol
denRul
e:“
Dot
oot
her
s
asy
ouwoul
dhav
ethem dot
oyou.
”Thi
s,t
oo,
isanobl
erul
eoft
humb,
onet
hatwor
ksi
n
si
mpl
e,commonsensesi
tuat
ions.Buti
thaspr
obl
ems.Fi
rst
,itcannotbet
akenl
i
ter
all
y.
Thus,
ther
ulemustbemodi
fi
ed:“
Dot
oot
her
sasy
ouwoul
dhav
ethem dot
oyoui
fyou
wer
eint
hei
rshoes.
”Howev
er,
thi
sst
il
lhaspr
obl
ems.Li
kewi
se,
theGol
denRul
edoesn’
t
t
ell
met
owhom t
ogi
vet
hemi
l
li
onai
re’
smoney
.

Consci
ence,l
ove,andt
heGol
denRul
ear
eal
lwor
thyr
ulesoft
humbt
ohel
pust
hrough
l
i
fe.Theywor
kformostofus,mostoft
het
ime,i
nor
dinar
ymor
alsi
tuat
ions.But
,in
mor
ecompl
i
cat
edcases,
especi
all
ywhent
her
ear
elegi
ti
mat
econf
li
ctsofi
nter
est
s,t
hey
ar
eli
mit
ed.

Amor
epr
omi
si
ngst
rat
egyf
orsol
vi
ngdi
l
emmasi
sthatoff
oll
owi
ngdef
ini
temor
alr
ules.
Supposey
oudeci
dedt
ogi
vet
hemi
l
li
onai
re’
smoneyt
otheEt
hiopi
anCof
feeCl
ubt
o
keepy
ourpr
omi
seorbecauset
odoot
her
wisewoul
dbest
eal
i
ng.Thepr
inci
pley
ou
f
oll
owedwoul
dbe“
Alway
skeepy
ourpr
omi
se.
”Pr
inci
plesar
eimpor
tanti
nli
fe.I
fyou
deci
dedt
oactont
hepr
inci
pleofkeepi
ngpr
omi
ses,
theny
ouadher
edt
oat
ypeofmor
al
t
heor
ycal
l
eddeont
ology
.Asy
ouwi
l
lseesof
art
hatdeont
ologi
calsy
stemsmai
ntai
n
t
hatt
hecent
erofv
aluei
stheactorki
ndofact
;cer
tai
nfeat
uresi
ntheacti
tsel
fhav
e
i
ntr
insi
cval
ue.Forexampl
e,adeont
ologi
stwoul
dseesomet
hingi
ntr
insi
cal
l
ywr
ongi
n
t
hev
eryactofl
yi
ng.I
f,ont
heot
herhand,y
oudeci
dedt
ogi
vet
hemoneyt
othe
Et
hiopi
anRedCr
ossSoci
ety(
ERCS)t
osav
eanenor
mousnumberofl
i
vesandr
est
ore
economi
csol
vencyt
othesoci
ety
,yousi
dedwi
that
ypeoft
heor
ycal
l
edt
eleol
ogi
cal
et
hics.Somet
imes,i
tisr
efer
redt
oasconsequent
ial
i
stet
hics.Thecent
erofv
alueher
e
i
stheout
comeorconsequencesoft
heact
.Forexampl
e,at
eleol
ogi
stwoul
djudge
whet
herl
yi
ngwasmor
all
yri
ghtorwr
ongbyt
heconsequencesi
tpr
oduced.

Wehav
eal
readyexami
nedonet
ypeoft
eleol
ogi
calet
hics:et
hicalegoi
sm,
thev
iewt
hat
t
heactt
hatpr
oducest
hemostamountofgoodf
ort
heagenti
sther
ightact
.Egoi
sm i
s
t
eleol
ogi
calet
hicsnar
rowedt
otheagenthi
msel
forher
sel
f.Unl
i
keet
hicalegoi
sm,
ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm i
s a uni
ver
salt
eleol
ogi
calsy
stem.I
tcal
l
sfort
he maxi
mizat
ion of
goodnessi
nsoci
ety
—thati
s,t
hegr
eat
estgoodnessf
ort
hegr
eat
estnumber
—andnot
mer
elyt
hegoodoft
heagent
.

1.
2.5.
1. Cl
assi
cUt
il
it
ari
ani
sm
I
nournor
mall
i
vesweuseut
il
it
ari
anr
easoni
ngal
lthet
ime.Asaf
ormalet
hicalt
heor
y,
t
he seedsofut
il
it
ari
ani
sm wer
e sewn byt
he anci
entGr
eekphi
l
osopherEpi
cur
us
(
342–270BCE)
,whost
atedt
hat“
pleasur
eist
hegoalt
hatnat
urehasor
dai
nedf
orus;i
t
i
sal
so t
hest
andar
dbywhi
chwej
udgeev
ery
thi
nggood.
”Accor
dingt
othi
svi
ew,
r
ight
nessandwr
ongnessar
edet
ermi
nedbypl
easur
eorpai
nthatsomet
hingpr
oduces.
Epi
cur
us’
stheor
yfocusedl
argel
yont
hei
ndi
vi
dual
’
sper
sonalexper
ienceofpl
easur
e
andpai
n,andt
othatext
entheadv
ocat
edav
ersi
onofet
hicalegoi
sm.Nev
ert
hel
ess,
Epi
cur
usi
nspi
redaser
iesofei
ght
eent
h-cent
uryphi
l
osopher
swhoemphasi
zedt
he
not
ionofgener
alhappi
ness—t
hati
s,t
hepl
easi
ngconsequencesofact
ionst
hati
mpact
ot
her
sandnotj
ustt
hei
ndi
vi
dual
.

Thecl
assi
calexpr
essi
onsofut
il
it
ari
ani
sm,
though,
appeari
nthewr
it
ingsoft
woEngl
i
sh
phi
l
osopher
sandsoci
alr
efor
mer
sJer
emyBent
ham (
1748–1832)andJohnSt
uar
tMi
l
l
(
1806–1873)
.Theywer
ethenonr
eli
giousancest
orsoft
het
went
iet
h-cent
urysecul
ar
humani
sts,
opt
imi
sti
cabouthumannat
ureandourabi
l
ityt
osol
veourpr
obl
emswi
thout
r
ecour
set
oGod.Engagedi
nast
ruggl
eforl
egalaswel
lasmor
alr
efor
m,t
heywer
e
i
mpat
ientwi
tht
he r
ule-
bound char
act
erofl
aw and mor
ali
tyi
n ei
ght
eent
h-and
ni
net
eent
h-cent
uryGr
eatBr
it
ainandt
ri
edt
omaket
hel
aw ser
vehumanneedsand
i
nter
est
s.

1.
2.5.
2. Jer
emyBent
ham:
Quant
it
yov
erQual
i
ty
Ther
ear
etwomai
nfeat
uresofut
il
it
ari
ani
sm,
bot
hofwhi
chBent
ham ar
ti
cul
ated:

 The consequent
ial
i
stpr
inci
ple(
ori
tst
eleol
ogi
calaspect
):st
ates t
hatt
he
r
ight
nessorwr
ongnessofanacti
sdet
ermi
nedbyt
hegoodnessorbadnessof
t
her
esul
tst
hatf
low f
rom i
t.I
tist
heend,nott
hemeanst
hatcount
s;t
heend
j
ust
if
iest
hemeans.and

 Theut
il
it
ypr
inci
ple(
ori
tshedoni
caspect
):st
atest
hatt
heonl
ythi
ngt
hati
sgood
i
nit
sel
fissomespeci
fi
cty
peofst
ate(
forexampl
e,pl
easur
e,happi
ness,
wel
far
e).

Hedoni
sti
cut
il
it
ari
ani
sm v
iewspl
easur
east
hesol
egoodandpai
nast
heonl
yev
il
.An
acti
sri
ghti
fitei
therbr
ingsaboutmor
epl
easur
ethanpai
norpr
event
spai
n,andanact
i
swr
ongi
fitei
therbr
ingsaboutmor
epai
nthanpl
easur
eorpr
event
spl
easur
efr
om
occur
ri
ng.Bent
ham i
nvent
edaschemef
ormeasur
ingpl
easur
eandpai
nthathecal
l
ed
t
hehedoni
ccal
cul
us:Thequant
it
ati
vescor
eforanypl
easur
eorpai
nexper
iencei
s
obt
ainedbysummi
ngt
hesev
enaspect
sofapl
easur
abl
eorpai
nfulexper
ience:i
ts
i
ntensi
ty,
dur
ati
on,
cer
tai
nty
,near
ness,
frui
tf
ulness,
pur
it
y,andext
ent
.

Addi
ngupt
heamount
sofpl
easur
eandpai
nforeachpossi
bleactandt
hencompar
ing
t
hescor
eswoul
denabl
eust
odeci
dewhi
chactt
oper
for
m.Wi
thr
egar
dtoourex
ampl
e
ofdeci
dingbet
weengi
vi
ngt
hedy
ingman’
smoneyt
otheEt
hiopi
anCof
feeCl
ubort
othe
f
ami
nev
ict
ims,wewoul
daddupt
hel
i
kel
ypl
easur
est
oal
linv
olv
ed,f
oral
lsev
en
qual
i
ties.I
fwef
oundt
hatgi
vi
ngt
hemoneyt
othef
ami
nev
ict
imswoul
dcauseatl
east3
mi
l
li
onhedons(
uni
tsofhappi
ness)butt
hatgi
vi
ngt
hemoneyt
otheEt
hiopi
anCof
fee
Cl
ubwoul
dcausel
esst
han1,
000hedons,wewoul
dhav
eanobl
i
gat
iont
ogi
vet
he
moneyt
othef
ami
nev
ict
ims.
Ther
eissomet
hingappeal
i
ngaboutBent
ham’
sut
il
it
ari
ani
sm.I
tissi
mpl
eint
hatt
her
eis
onl
y one pr
inci
plet
o appl
y:Maxi
mize pl
easur
e and mi
nimi
ze suf
fer
ing.I
tis
commonsensi
cali
nthatwet
hinkt
hatmor
ali
tyr
eal
l
yisaboutr
educi
ngsuf
fer
ingand
pr
omot
ingbenev
olence.I
tissci
ent
if
ic:Si
mpl
ymakequant
it
ati
vemeasur
ement
sand
appl
ythepr
inci
plei
mpar
ti
all
y,gi
vi
ngnospeci
alt
reat
mentt
oour
sel
vesort
oany
oneel
se
becauseofr
ace,
gender
,per
sonal
rel
ati
onshi
p,orr
eli
gion.

1.
2.5.
3. JohnSt
uar
tMi
l
l:Qual
i
tyov
erQuant
it
y
I
twast
omeett
hesesor
tsofobj
ect
ionsandsav
eut
il
it
ari
ani
sm f
rom t
hechar
geof
bei
ngapi
gphi
l
osophyt
hatBent
ham’
ssuccessor
,JohnSt
uar
tMi
l
l,soughtt
odi
sti
ngui
sh
happi
nessf
rom mer
e sensualpl
easur
e.Hi
sver
sion oft
he t
heor
yisof
ten cal
l
ed
eudai
moni
sti
cut
il
it
ari
ani
sm (
from t
heGr
eekeudai
moni
a,meani
ng“
happi
ness”
).He
def
ineshappi
nessi
nter
msofcer
tai
nty
pesofhi
gher
-or
derpl
easur
esorsat
isf
act
ions
suchasi
ntel
l
ect
ual
,aest
het
ic,andsoci
alenj
oyment
s,aswel
lasi
nter
msofmi
nimal
suf
fer
ing.Thati
s,t
her
ear
etwot
ypesofpl
easur
es.Thel
ower
,orel
ement
ary
,incl
ude
eat
ing,dr
inki
ng,sexual
i
ty,r
est
ing,andsensuoust
it
il
lat
ion.Thehi
gheri
ncl
udehi
gh
cul
tur
e,sci
ent
if
icknowl
edge,
int
ell
ect
ual
i
ty,
andcr
eat
ivi
ty.Al
thought
hel
owerpl
easur
es
ar
emor
eint
ensel
ygr
ati
fyi
ng,t
heyal
sol
eadt
opai
nwhenov
eri
ndul
gedi
n.Thehi
gher
pl
easur
est
endt
obemor
elongt
erm,
cont
inuous,
andgr
adual
.

Mi
l
lar
guedt
hatt
hehi
gher
,ormor
eref
ined,
pleasur
esar
esuper
iort
othel
owerones:“
It
i
sbet
tert
obeahumanbei
ngdi
ssat
isf
iedt
hanapi
gsat
isf
ied;bet
tert
obeSocr
ates
di
ssat
isf
iedt
hanaf
oolsat
isf
ied.
”Humansar
etheki
ndofcr
eat
ureswhor
equi
remor
e
t
obet
rul
yhappy
.Theywantt
hel
owerpl
easur
es,butt
heyal
sowantdeepf
ri
endshi
p,
i
ntel
l
ect
ualabi
l
ity
,cul
tur
e,t
heabi
l
ityt
o cr
eat
eand appr
eci
atear
t,knowl
edge,and
wi
sdom.

Thepoi
nti
snotmer
elyt
hathumanswoul
dn’
tbesat
isf
iedwi
thwhatsat
isf
iesapi
gbut
t
hatsomehow t
hequal
i
tyoft
hehi
gherpl
easur
esi
sbet
ter
.Butwhatdoesi
tmeant
o
speakofbet
terpl
easur
e?Thef
ormul
ahecomesupwi
thi
sthi
s:Happi
ness…[
is]nota
l
i
feofr
apt
ure;butmoment
sofsuch,i
nanexi
stencemadeupoff
ew andt
ransi
tor
y
pai
ns,manyandv
ari
ouspl
easur
es,wi
thadeci
dedpr
edomi
nanceoft
heact
iveov
ert
he
passi
ve,
andhav
ingast
hef
oundat
ionoft
hewhol
e,nott
oexpectmor
efr
om l
i
fet
hani
t
i
scapabl
eofbest
owi
ng.

Mi
l
liscl
ear
lypushi
ngt
heboundar
iesoft
heconceptof“
pleasur
e”byemphasi
zi
ng
hi
gherqual
i
tiessuchasknowl
edge,
int
ell
i
gence,
freedom,
fri
endshi
p,l
ove,
andheal
th.I
n
f
act
,onemi
ghtev
ensayt
hathi
sli
tmust
estf
orhappi
nessr
eal
l
yhasl
i
ttl
etodowi
th
act
ual
pleasur
eandmor
etodowi
thanon-
hedoni
ccul
ti
vat
edst
ateofmi
nd.

1.
2.5.
4. Act
-AndRul
e-Ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm
Ther
ear
etwocl
assi
calt
ypesofut
il
it
ari
ani
sm:act
-andr
ule-
uti
l
itar
iani
sm.I
nappl
yi
ng
t
hepr
inci
pleofut
il
it
y,act
-ut
il
it
ari
ans,suchasBent
ham,sayt
hati
deal
l
yweoughtt
o
appl
ythepr
inci
plet
oal
loft
heal
ter
nat
ivesopent
ousatanygi
venmoment
.Wemay
def
ineact
-ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm i
nthi
sway
:

Act
-ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm ar
guest
hatanacti
sri
ghti
fandonl
yifi
tresul
tsi
nasmuchgoodas
anyav
ail
abl
eal
ter
nat
ive.Onepr
act
icalpr
obl
em wi
thact
-ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm i
sthatwecannot
dot
henecessar
ycal
cul
ati
onst
odet
ermi
newhi
chacti
sthecor
rectonei
neachcase,
f
orof
tenwemustactspont
aneousl
yandqui
ckl
y.Sor
ulesoft
humbar
eofpr
act
ical
i
mpor
tance—f
orexampl
e,“
Ingener
al,don’
tli
e,
”and“
Gener
all
y,keepy
ourpr
omi
ses.
”
Howev
er,t
her
ightacti
sst
il
lthatal
ter
nat
ivet
hatr
esul
tsi
nthemostut
il
it
y.Asecond
pr
obl
em wi
th act
-ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm i
sthati
tseemst
ofl
yint
hef
aceoff
undament
al
i
ntui
ti
onsaboutmi
nimal
l
ycor
rectbehav
ior
.Theal
ter
nat
ivet
oact
-ut
li
tar
iani
sm i
sav
iew
cal
l
edr
ule-
uti
l
itar
iani
sm—el
ement
sofwhi
chwef
indi
nMi
l
l’
stheor
y.Mostgener
all
y,t
he
posi
ti
oni
sthi
s:

Rul
e-ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm:Anacti
sri
ghti
fandonl
yifi
tisr
equi
redbyar
ulet
hati
sit
sel
fa
memberofasetofr
uleswhoseaccept
ancewoul
dleadt
ogr
eat
erut
il
it
yforsoci
etyt
han
anyav
ail
abl
e al
ter
nat
ive.Human bei
ngs ar
erul
e-f
oll
owi
ng cr
eat
ures.We l
ear
n by
adher
ingt
other
ulesofagi
vensubj
ect
,whet
heri
tisspeaki
ngal
anguage,
dri
vi
ngacar
,
danci
ng,wr
it
ing an essay
,rock cl
i
mbi
ng,orcooki
ng.We wantt
o hav
e a setof
act
iongui
dingr
ulesbywhi
cht
oli
ve.Theact
-ut
il
it
ari
anr
ule,
todot
heactt
hatmaxi
mizes
ut
il
it
y,i
stoogener
alf
ormostpur
poses.Of
ten,wedon’
thav
eti
met
odeci
dewhet
her
l
yi
ng wi
l
lpr
oducemor
eut
il
it
ythant
rut
htel
l
ing,so weneed amor
especi
fi
crul
e
pr
escr
ibi
ngt
rut
hful
nesst
hatpassest
het
estofr
ati
onal
scr
uti
ny.

TheSt
rengt
hsofUt
il
it
ari
ani
sm

Ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm hast
hreev
eryposi
ti
vef
eat
ures.Thef
ir
stat
tr
act
ionorst
rengt
hist
hati
tis
asi
ngl
epr
inci
ple,anabsol
utesy
stem wi
thapot
ent
ialanswerf
orev
erysi
tuat
ion:Do
whatwi
l
lpr
omot
ethemostut
il
it
y!I
t’
sgoodt
ohav
easi
mpl
e,act
ion-
gui
dingpr
inci
ple
t
hati
sappl
i
cabl
etoev
eryoccasi
on—ev
eni
fitmaybedi
ff
icul
ttoappl
y(l
i
fe’
snotsi
mpl
e).

I
tssecondst
rengt
hist
hatut
il
it
ari
ani
sm seemst
ogett
othesubst
anceofmor
ali
ty.I
tis
notmer
elya f
ormalsy
stem t
hatsi
mpl
yset
sfor
th br
oad gui
del
i
nesf
orchoosi
ng
pr
inci
ples butof
fer
s no pr
inci
ples—such as t
he gui
del
i
ne “
Do what
every
ou can
uni
ver
sal
i
ze.
”Rat
heri
thasamat
eri
alcor
e:Weshoul
dpr
omot
ehuman(
andpossi
bly
ani
mal
)fl
our
ishi
ngandr
educesuf
fer
ing.Thef
ir
stv
irt
uegi
vesusacl
eardeci
sion
pr
ocedur
einar
ri
vi
ngatouransweraboutwhatt
odo.

Thesecondv
irt
ueappeal
stooursenset
hatmor
ali
tyi
smadef
orpeopl
eandt
hat
mor
ali
tyi
snotso much aboutr
ulesasabouthel
ping peopl
e and al
l
evi
ati
ng t
he
suf
fer
ingi
nthewor
ld.Assuch,ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm seemscommonsensi
cal
.Fori
nst
ance,i
t
gi
vesuscl
earandr
easonabl
egui
dancei
ndeal
i
ngwi
tht
heKi
tt
yGenov
esecase:We
shoul
dcal
lthepol
i
ceordowhati
snecessar
ytohel
pher
,asl
ongashel
pingherdoes
notcr
eat
emor
edi
sut
il
it
ythanl
eav
ingheral
one.And,
int
hecaseofdeci
dingwhatt
odo
wi
tht
hedeadmi
l
li
onai
re’
s$2mi
l
li
on,somet
hingi
nussay
sthati
tisabsur
dtokeepa
pr
omi
set
oadeadper
sonwheni
tmeansal
l
owi
nghundr
edsoft
housandsoff
ami
ne
v
ict
imst
odi
e.Farmor
egoodcanbeaccompl
i
shedbyhel
pingt
heneedyt
hanbygi
vi
ng
t
hemoneyt
otheYankees!

At
hir
dst
rengt
hofut
il
it
ari
ani
sm i
sthati
tispar
ti
cul
arl
ywel
lsui
tedt
oaddr
esst
he
pr
obl
em ofpost
eri
ty—namel
y,whyweshoul
dpr
eser
vescar
cenat
uralr
esour
cesf
ort
he
bet
ter
mentoff
utur
egener
ati
onsofhumanst
hatdonoty
etexi
st.Expr
essedr
het
ori
cal
l
y,
t
hequest
ioni
s“Whyshoul
dIcar
eaboutpost
eri
ty;
whathaspost
eri
tyev
erdonef
orme?
”
I
nChapt
er6,wesaw t
hatt
het
heor
yofet
hicalegoi
sm f
ail
edt
ogi
veusanadequat
e
answert
othi
s pr
obl
em.Thati
s,t
he egoi
stgai
ns not
hing by pr
eser
ving nat
ural
r
esour
cesf
orf
utur
egener
ati
onst
hatdonoty
etexi
standt
huscangi
venobenef
itt
othe
egoi
st.Howev
er,ut
il
it
ari
anshav
eoneov
err
idi
ngdut
y:t
omaxi
mizegener
alhappi
ness.
Asl
ongast
hequal
i
tyofl
i
feoff
utur
epeopl
epr
omi
sest
obeposi
ti
ve,wehav
ean
obl
i
gat
iont
ocont
inuehumanexi
stence,
topr
oducehumanbei
ngs,
andt
otakewhat
ever
act
ionsar
enecessar
ytoensur
ethatt
hei
rqual
i
tyofl
i
fei
snotonl
yposi
ti
vebuthi
gh.

Whatar
eourobl
i
gat
ionst
ofut
urepeopl
e?I
fut
il
it
ari
ansar
ecor
rect
,wehav
ean
obl
i
gat
iont
oleav
epost
eri
tyt
oasgoodawor
ldaswecan.Thi
swoul
dmeanr
adi
cal
l
y
si
mpl
i
fyi
ngourl
i
fest
ylessot
hatweusenomor
eresour
cest
hanar
enecessar
y,keepi
ng
asmucht
opsoi
li
ntactaspossi
ble,
prot
ect
ingendanger
edspeci
es,
reduci
ngourcar
bon
di
oxi
deemi
ssi
ons,pr
eser
vingt
hewi
l
der
ness,andmi
nimi
zi
ngourov
eral
ldel
eter
ious
i
mpactont
heenv
ironmenti
ngener
alwhi
l
eusi
ngt
echnol
ogywi
sel
y.

Cr
it
ici
sm ofUt
il
it
ari
ani
sm

Ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm hasbeenar
oundf
orsev
eral
cent
uri
es,
butsot
oohav
ebeeni
tscr
it
ics,
and
weneedt
oaddr
essaser
iesofst
andar
dobj
ect
ionst
out
il
it
ari
ani
sm bef
orewecangi
ve
i
ta“
phi
l
osophi
cal
l
ycl
eanbi
l
lofheal
th.
”

Pr
obl
emswi
thFor
mul
ati
ngUt
il
it
ari
ani
sm

Thef
ir
stsetofpr
obl
emsoccur
sint
hev
eryf
ormul
ati
onofut
il
it
ari
ani
sm:“
Thegr
eat
est
happi
nessf
ort
hegr
eat
estnumber
.”Not
icet
hatwehav
etwo“
great
est
”thi
ngsi
nthi
s
f
ormul
a:“
happi
ness”and “
number
.”Whenev
erwe hav
etwo v
ari
abl
es,we i
nvi
te
pr
obl
emsofdet
ermi
ningwhi
choft
hev
ari
abl
est
orankf
ir
stwhent
heyseem t
oconf
li
ct.
Toseet
hispoi
nt,
consi
dert
hef
oll
owi
ngexampl
e:

Thi
sispr
eci
sel
ythepr
obl
em wi
thut
il
it
ari
ani
sm.Ont
heonehand,wemi
ghtconcer
n
our
sel
veswi
thspr
eadi
nghappi
nessar
oundsot
hatt
hegr
eat
estnumberobt
aini
t(i
n
whi
chcase,weshoul
dgetbusyandpr
ocr
eat
eal
argerpopul
ati
on)
.Ont
heot
herhand,
wemi
ghtbeconcer
nedt
hatt
hegr
eat
estpossi
bleamountofhappi
nessobt
ainsi
n
soci
ety(
inwhi
chcase,wemi
ghtbet
empt
edt
oal
l
ow somepeopl
etobecomef
ar
happi
ert
hanot
her
s,asl
ongast
hei
rincr
easeof
fset
sthel
oser
s’di
mini
shedhappi
ness)
.
Soshoul
dwewor
rymor
eaboutt
otal
happi
nessorabouthi
ghestav
erage?
TheCompar
ati
veConsequencesObj
ect
ion

Anot
hercr
uci
alpr
obl
em wi
thut
il
it
ari
ani
sm i
sthati
tseemst
orequi
reasuper
human
abi
l
ityt
olooki
ntot
hef
utur
eandsur
veyami
nd-
boggl
i
ngar
rayofconsequencesof
act
ions.Ofcour
se,
wenor
mal
l
ydonotknowt
hel
ong-
ter
m consequencesofouract
ions
becausel
i
fei
stoocompl
exandt
heconsequencesgooni
ntot
hei
ndef
ini
tef
utur
e.

TheConsi
stencyObj
ect
iont
oRul
e-Ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm

Anof
ten-
debat
edquest
ionaboutr
ule-
uti
l
itar
iani
sm i
swhet
her
,whenpushedt
oit
s
l
ogi
call
i
mit
s,i
tmustei
therbecomeadeont
ologi
calsy
stem ort
ransf
ormi
tsel
fint
oact
-
ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm.Assuch,i
tisani
nconsi
stentt
heor
ythatof
fer
snot
rul
yindependent
st
andar
dformaki
ngmor
alj
udgment
s.Br
ief
ly,
thear
gumentgoesl
i
ket
his:I
magi
net
hat
f
oll
owi
ngt
hesetofgener
alr
ulesofar
ule-
uti
l
itar
iansy
stem y
iel
ds100hedons(
posi
ti
ve
ut
il
it
yuni
ts)
.Wecoul
dal
way
sfi
ndacasewher
ebr
eaki
ngt
hegener
alr
ulewoul
dresul
t
i
naddi
ti
onalhedonswi
thoutdecr
easi
ngt
hesum oft
hewhol
e.So,f
orexampl
e,we
coul
dimagi
nea si
tuat
ion i
n whi
ch br
eaki
ng t
hegener
alr
ule“
Nev
erl
i
e”t
o spar
e
someone’
sfeel
i
ngswoul
dcr
eat
emor
eut
il
it
y(f
orexampl
e,102hedons)t
hankeepi
ng
t
her
ulewoul
d.I
twoul
dseem t
hatwecoul
dal
way
simpr
oveonanyv
ersi
onofr
ule-
ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm bybr
eaki
ngt
hesetofr
uleswhenev
erwej
udget
hatbydoi
ngsowecoul
d
pr
oduceev
enmor
eut
il
it
ythanbyf
oll
owi
ngt
heset
.

TheNo-
RestObj
ect
ion

Accor
dingt
out
il
it
ari
ani
sm,
oneshoul
dal
way
sdot
hatactt
hatpr
omi
sest
opr
omot
ethe
mostut
il
it
y.Butt
her
eisusual
l
yani
nfi
nit
esetofpossi
bleact
stochoosef
rom,
andev
en
i
fIcanbeexcusedf
rom consi
der
ingal
loft
hem,
Icanbef
air
lysur
ethatt
her
eisof
tena
pr
efer
abl
eactt
hatIcoul
dbedoi
ng.Forexampl
e,whenIam aboutt
ogot
otheci
nema
wi
thaf
ri
end,Ishoul
daskmy
sel
fifhel
pingt
hehomel
essi
nmycommuni
tywoul
dn’
t
pr
omot
emor
eut
il
it
y.WhenIam aboutt
ogot
osl
eep,Ishoul
daskmy
sel
fwhet
herI
coul
datt
hatmomentbedoi
ngsomet
hingt
ohel
psav
etheozonel
ayer
.And,whynot
si
mpl
ygi
veal
lmyasset
s(bey
ondwhati
sabsol
utel
ynecessar
ytokeepmeal
i
ve)t
othe
poort
opr
omot
eut
il
it
y?Fol
l
owi
ngut
il
it
ari
ani
sm,Ishoul
dgetl
i
ttl
eornor
est
,and,
cer
tai
nly
,Ihav
enor
ightt
oenj
oyl
i
fewhenbysacr
if
ici
ngIcanmakeot
her
shappi
er.
Pet
er

ThePubl
i
cit
yObj
ect
ion

I
tisusual
l
ythoughtt
hatmor
alpr
inci
plesmustbeknownt
oal
lsot
hatal
lmayf
reel
y
obeyt
hepr
inci
ples.Butut
il
it
ari
ansusual
l
yhesi
tat
etor
ecommendt
hatev
ery
oneactas
aut
il
it
ari
an,especi
all
yanact
-ut
il
it
ari
an,becausei
ttakesagr
eatdealofdel
i
ber
ati
ont
o
wor
koutt
hel
i
kel
yconsequencesofal
ter
nat
ivecour
sesofact
ion.I
twoul
dbebet
teri
f
mostpeopl
eact
edsi
mpl
yasdeont
ologi
sts.Thus,
uti
l
itar
iani
sm seemst
ocont
radi
ctour
r
equi
rementofpubl
i
cit
y.

TheRel
ati
vi
sm Obj
ect
ion

Somet
imespeopl
eaccuser
ule-
uti
l
itar
iani
sm ofbei
ngr
elat
ivi
sti
cbecausei
tseemst
o
endor
sedi
ff
erentr
ulesi
ndi
ff
erentsoci
eti
es.I
nonesoci
ety
,itmayuphol
dpol
ygamy
,
wher
easi
noursoci
etyi
tdef
endsmonogamy
.Inadeser
tsoci
ety
,ituphol
dsar
ule“
Don’
t
wast
ewat
er,
”wher
easi
nacommuni
tywher
ewat
eri
spl
ent
if
ulnosuchr
uleexi
sts.But
t
hisi
snotr
eal
l
yconv
ent
ionalr
elat
ivi
sm becauset
her
ulei
snotmadev
ali
dbyt
he
communi
ty’
schoosi
ngi
tbutbyt
heact
ual
sit
uat
ion.

Cr
it
ici
sm oft
heEndsJust
if
yingI
mmor
alMeans

Chi
efamongt
hecr
it
ici
smsofut
il
it
ari
ani
sm i
sthatut
il
it
ari
anendsmi
ghtj
ust
if
yimmor
al
means.Ther
ear
emanydast
ardl
ythi
ngst
hatwecandoi
nthenameofmaxi
mizi
ng
gener
alhappi
ness:decei
t,t
ort
ure,sl
aver
y,ev
enki
l
li
ngof
fet
hni
cmi
nor
it
ies.Asl
ongas
t
hel
argerpopul
acebenef
it
s,t
heseact
ionsmi
ghtbej
ust
if
ied.Thegener
alpr
obl
em can
bel
aidouti
nthi
sar
gument
:

(
4)I
famor
alt
heor
yjust
if
iesact
ionst
hatweuni
ver
sal
l
ydeem i
mper
missi
ble,t
hen
t
hatmor
alt
heor
ymustber
eject
ed.
(
5)Ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm j
ust
if
iesact
ionst
hatweuni
ver
sal
l
ydeem i
mper
missi
ble.
(
6)Ther
efor
e,ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm mustber
eject
ed.
TheLy
ingObj
ect
ion

Wi
l
li
am D.Rosshasar
guedt
hatut
il
it
ari
ani
sm i
stober
eject
edbecausei
tleadst
othe
count
eri
ntui
ti
veendor
sementofl
yi
ngwheni
tser
vest
hegr
eat
ergood.Consi
dert
wo
act
s,AandB,t
hatwi
l
lbot
hresul
tin100hedons(
uni
tsofpl
easur
eofut
il
it
y).Theonl
y
di
ff
erencei
sthatAi
nvol
vest
ell
i
ngal
i
eandBi
nvol
vest
ell
i
ngt
het
rut
h.Theut
il
it
ari
an
mustmai
ntai
nthatt
het
woact
sar
eofequalv
alue.Butt
hisseemsi
mpl
ausi
ble;t
rut
h
seemst
obeani
ntr
insi
cal
l
ygoodt
hing.

Whati
ssoi
mpor
tantaboutt
rut
htel
l
ingorsobadaboutl
yi
ng?I
fitt
urnedoutt
hatl
yi
ng
r
eal
l
ypr
omot
ed human wel
far
e,we’
d hav
eto accepti
t.Butt
hat
’snotl
i
kel
y.Our
happi
nessi
sti
edupwi
thaneedf
orr
eli
abl
einf
ormat
ion(
thati
s,t
rut
h)onhow t
o
achi
eveourends,sot
rut
hful
nesswi
l
lbeamemberoft
her
ule-
uti
l
ity
’sset
.Butwher
e
l
yi
ngwi
l
lcl
ear
lypr
omot
eut
il
it
ywi
thoutunder
mini
ngt
hegener
aladher
encet
other
ule,
wesi
mpl
youghtt
oli
e.Don’
tweal
readyacceptl
yi
ngt
oagangst
erort
ell
i
ngwhi
tel
i
est
o
spar
epeopl
e’
sfeel
i
ngs?

TheJust
iceObj
ect
ion

The ut
il
it
ari
an r
esponse was t
hatwe shoul
dreconsi
derwhet
hert
rut
htel
l
ing and
per
sonali
ntegr
it
yar
eval
uest
hatshoul
d nev
erbe compr
omi
sed.The si
tuat
ion i
s
i
ntensi
fi
ed,
though,
whenweconsi
derst
andar
dsofj
ust
icet
hatmostofust
hinkshoul
d
nev
erbedi
spensed wi
th.Let
’sl
ookatt
wo exampl
es,each ofwhi
ch hi
ghl
i
ght
sa
di
ff
erentaspectofj
ust
ice.

Fi
rst
,imagi
net
hatar
apeandmur
deri
scommi
tt
edi
nar
aci
all
yvol
ati
l
ecommuni
ty.As
t
hesher
if
foft
het
own,y
ouhav
espental
i
fet
imewor
kingf
orr
aci
alhar
mony
.Now,j
ust
wheny
ourgoali
sbei
ngr
eal
i
zed,
thi
sinci
dentoccur
s.Thecr
imei
sthoughtt
ober
aci
all
y
mot
ivat
ed,andar
ioti
saboutt
obr
eakoutt
hatwi
l
lver
yli
kel
yresul
tint
hedeat
hof
sev
eralpeopl
eandcr
eat
elong-
last
ingr
aci
alant
agoni
sm.Youseet
haty
oucoul
dfr
ame
at
rampf
ort
hecr
imesot
hatat
ri
alwi
l
lfi
ndhi
m gui
l
tyandhewi
l
lbeexecut
ed.Ther
eis
ev
eryr
easont
obel
i
evet
hataspeedyt
ri
alandexecut
ionwi
l
lheadof
fther
iotandsav
e
communi
tyhar
mony
.Onl
yyou(
andt
her
ealcr
imi
nal
,whowi
l
lkeepqui
etabouti
t)wi
l
l
knowt
hatani
nnocentmanhasbeent
ri
edandexecut
ed.Whati
sthemor
all
yri
ghtt
hing
t
odo?Theut
il
it
ari
anseemscommi
tt
edt
ofr
ami
ngt
het
ramp,butmanywoul
dfi
ndt
his
appal
l
ing.

Asasecondi
l
lust
rat
ion,i
magi
net
haty
ouar
eaut
il
it
ari
anphy
sici
anwho hasf
ive
pat
ient
sundery
ourcar
e.Oneneedsahear
ttr
anspl
ant
,oneneedst
wol
ungs,
oneneeds
al
i
ver
,andt
hel
astt
woeachneedaki
dney
.Now i
ntoy
ourof
fi
cecomesaheal
thy
bachel
orneedi
ngani
mmuni
zat
ion.Youj
udget
hathewoul
dmakeaper
fectsacr
if
icef
or
y
ourf
ivepat
ient
s.Thr
oughaut
il
it
y-cal
cul
us,y
oudet
ermi
net
hat
,wi
thoutadoubt
,you
coul
ddot
hemostgoodbyi
nject
ingt
heheal
thymanwi
thaf
atal
drugandt
henusi
nghi
s
or
ganst
osav
eyourf
iveot
herpat
ient
s.

Thesecar
elessv
iewsofj
ust
iceof
fendus.Thev
eryf
actt
hatut
il
it
ari
ansev
enconsi
der
suchact
ions—t
hatt
heywoul
dmi
suset
hel
egalsy
stem ort
hemedi
calsy
stem t
ocar
ry
outt
hei
rschemes—seemsf
ri
ght
eni
ng.

Howev
er,t
heut
il
it
ari
ancannotexcl
udet
hepossi
bil
i
tyofsacr
if
ici
ngi
nnocentpeopl
efor
t
hegr
eat
ergoodofhumani
ty.Woul
dn’
tweal
lagr
eet
hati
twoul
dber
ightt
osacr
if
ice
onei
nnocentper
sont
opr
eventanenor
mousev
il
?Suppose,f
orexampl
e,amani
aci
s
aboutt
osetof
fanucl
earbombt
hatwi
l
ldest
royNew Yor
kCi
ty.Hei
sschedul
edt
o
det
onat
ethebombi
nonehour
.Hi
spsy
chi
atr
istknowst
hel
unat
icwel
landassur
esus
t
hatt
her
eisonewayt
ost
ophi
m—t
ort
urehi
s10-
year
-ol
ddaught
erandt
elev
isei
t.
Supposef
ort
hesakeoft
hear
gumentt
hatt
her
eisnowayt
osi
mul
atet
het
ort
ure.
Woul
dyounotconsi
dert
ort
uri
ngt
hechi
l
dint
hissi
tuat
ion?Ast
her
ule-
uti
l
itar
ianwoul
d
seei
t,wehav
etwomor
alr
ulest
hatar
einconf
li
ct:t
her
ulet
opr
eventwi
despr
eadhar
m
andt
her
uleagai
nstt
ort
ure.Tor
esol
vet
hisconf
li
ct,t
her
ule-
uti
l
itar
ianmi
ghtappealt
o
t
hissecondl
evelconf
li
ct-
resol
vi
ngr
ule:Wemaysacr
if
iceani
nnocentper
sont
opr
event
asi
gni
fi
cant
lygr
eat
ersoci
alhar
m.Or
,ifnoconf
li
ct-
resol
vi
ngr
ulei
sav
ail
abl
e,t
her
ule-
ut
il
it
ari
ancanappealt
othi
sthi
rd-
lev
elr
emai
nderr
ule:Whennoot
herr
uleappl
i
es,
si
mpl
ydowhaty
ourbestj
udgmentdeemst
obet
heactt
hatwi
l
lmaxi
mizeut
il
it
y.Usi
ng
t
hisr
emai
nderr
ule,
ther
ule-
uti
l
itar
iancoul
djust
if
ytor
tur
ingt
hegi
rl
.

Thus,i
nsuchcases,i
tmi
ghtber
ightt
osacr
if
iceonei
nnocentper
sont
osav
eaci
tyor
pr
eventsomewi
de-
scal
edi
sast
er.I
nthesecases,t
her
ule-
uti
l
itar
ian’
sappr
oacht
o
j
ust
icei
sinf
actt
hesameast
heabov
eappr
oacht
oly
ingandcompr
omi
singone’
s
i
ntegr
it
y:Just
ice i
sjustone mor
elower
-or
derpr
inci
ple wi
thi
n ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm.The
pr
obl
em,cl
ear
ly,i
sdet
ermi
ningwhi
chki
ndsofwi
de-
scal
edi
sast
erswar
rantsacr
if
ici
ng
i
nnocentl
i
ves.Thi
squest
ioni
nvar
iabl
ycomesupi
nwar
ti
me:I
nev
erybombi
ngr
aid,
especi
all
yint
he dr
oppi
ng oft
he at
omi
c bomb on Hi
roshi
ma and Nagasaki
,the
noncombat
ant
–combat
ant di
sti
nct
ion i
s ov
err
idden. I
nnocent ci
vi
li
an l
i
ves ar
e
sacr
if
icedwi
tht
hepr
ospectofendi
ngt
hewar
.Weseem t
obemaki
ngt
hisj
udgment
cal
li
nourdeci
si
ont
odr
iveaut
omobi
l
esandt
rucksev
ent
houghwear
efai
rl
ycer
tai
nthe
pr
act
icewi
l
lresul
tint
hedeat
hoft
housandsofi
nnocentpeopl
eeachy
ear
.Judgment
cal
l
sli
ket
hesehi
ghl
i
ghtut
il
it
ari
ani
sm’
sdi
ff
icul
tyi
nhandl
i
ngi
ssuesofj
ust
ice

Thr
ee-
StepAct
ionFor
mul
a:
Ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm mi
ghtbeconst
ruedasof
fer
ingat
hree-
stepact
ionf
ormul
aforact
ion:
4.Ont
hebasi
sofwhatIknow,Imustpr
ojectt
heconsequencesofeachal
ter
nat
ive
opt
ionopent
ome(
e.g.
,taki
ngdi
ff
erentki
ndsofact
ionsort
aki
ngnoact
ion)
.
5.Cal
cul
atehowmuchhappi
ness,
orbal
anceofhappi
nessov
erunhappi
ness,
isl
i
kel
y
t
obepr
oducedbyant
ici
pat
edconsequencesofeachact
ionornone.
6.Sel
ectt
hatact
ion whi
ch,on bal
ance,wi
l
lpr
oduce t
he gr
eat
estamountof
happi
nessf
ort
hegr
eat
estnumberofpeopl
eaf
fect
ed

Gener
all
y,ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm i
s a mor
alt
heor
y whi
ch t
akes i
nto account how t
he
consequencesofanactwi
l
laf
fectal
lthepar
ti
esi
nvol
ved.Mor
alr
ight
nessdependson
t
heconsequencesf
oral
laf
fect
edpeopl
eorsent
ientbei
ngs.Thef
undament
alpr
inci
ple
ofut
il
it
ari
ani
sm i
sthepr
inci
pleofut
il
it
y:

Thepr
inci
pleofut
il
it
y
 Themor
all
yri
ghtact
ioni
stheonet
hatpr
oducest
hebestov
eral
lconsequences
wi
thr
egar
dtot
heut
il
it
yorwel
far
eofal
ltheaf
fect
edpar
ti
es.
 Jer
emyBent
ham’
ssl
ogan:Ther
ightactorpol
i
cyi
stheonet
hatcauses‘
the
gr
eat
esthappi
nessoft
hegr
eat
estnumber
’–t
hati
s,maxi
mizet
het
otalut
il
it
yor
wel
far
eoft
hemaj
ori
tyofal
ltheaf
fect
edpar
ti
es.
1.
2.5.
5. Al
tr
uism
I
nal
tr
uism anact
ioni
sri
ghti
ftheconsequencesoft
hatact
ionar
efav
orabl
etoal
l
exceptt
heact
or.But
lerar
guedt
hatwehav
eani
nher
entpsy
chol
ogi
calcapaci
tyt
oshow
benev
olencet
oot
her
s.Thi
svi
ewi edpsy
scal
l chol
ogi
calal
tr
uism andmai
ntai
nst
hatat
l
eastsomeofouract
ionsar
emot
ivat
edbyi
nst
inct
ivebenev
olence.

Psy
chol
ogi
calal
tr
uism hol
dst
hatal
lhumanact
ioni
snecessar
il
yot
hercent
eredand
ot
hermot
ivat
ed.A par
all
elanal
ysi
s ofpsy
chol
ogi
calal
tr
uism r
esul
tsi
n opposi
ng
concl
usi
onst
opsy
chol
ogi
calegoi
sm,
andagai
nar
guabl
ythet
heor
yisj
ustascl
osedas
psy
chol
ogi
calegoi
sm.I
fbot
htheor
iescanbev
ali
dlymai
ntai
ned,i
tfol
l
owst
hatt
he
soundnessofei
therorbot
hmustbequest
ioned.Suppose,
forexampl
e,t
hatDegu,
who
i
snotgoodatswi
mmi
ng,sav
esachi
l
dfr
om dr
awi
ngi
nLakeTana.
 Whatul
ti
mat
ely
mot
ivat
edhi
mtodot
his?
 Itwoul
dbeoddt
osuggestt
hati
t’
sul
ti
mat
elyhi
sownbenef
it
t
hatDegui
sseeki
ng.
 Af
teral
l
,hei
sri
ski
nghi
sownl
i
fei
nthepr
ocess.

Al
tr
uist
sar
epeopl
ewhoactsoast
oincr
easeot
herpeopl
e’
spl
easur
e.Theywi
l
lactf
or
t
he sake ofsomeone el
se ev
en i
fitdecr
eases t
hei
rown pl
easur
e and causes
t
hemsel
vespai
n.

Wecandi
ff
erent
iat
eegoi
sti
candal
tr
uist
icdesi
resi
nthef
oll
owi
ngway
:One’
sdesi
rei
s
egoi
sti
cif(
andonl
yif
)itconcer
ns(
whatoneper
cei
vest
obe)t
hebenef
itofonesel
fand
notany
oneel
se.I
nthecont
rar
y,one’
sdesi
r sal
ei tr
uist
ici
f(andonl
yif
)itconcer
ns
(
whatoneper
cei
vest
obe)t
hebenef
itofatl
eastsomeoneot
hert
hanonesel
f.Al
tr
uist
s
r
ejectt
he t
heor
y ofpsy
chol
ogi
calegoi
sm and ar
gue i
nst
ead t
hathumans ar
e
i
nst
inct
ivel
ybenev
olent
.Andi
nst
inct
ivebenev
olence,t
heyar
gue,i
sthef
eat
ureofour
humannat
urewhi
chi
sthebasi
sofoural
tr
uist
icmor
alobl
i
gat
ions

1.
2.6.Deont
ologi
cal
Ethi
cs(
Non-Consequent
ial
i
ty)
Deont
ology
:Whatdut
yasksofus?

Whatmakes a ‘
ri
ght
’actr
ight
?The ut
il
it
ari
an orconsequent
ial
i
stanswert
othi
s
quest
ioni
sthati
tist
hegoodout
comeofanactwhi
chmakesi
tri
ght
.Mor
alr
ight
ness
orwr
ongnessi
scal
cul
atedbydet
ermi
ningt
heext
entt
owhi
cht
heact
ionpr
omot
es
v
aluessuchaspl
easur
e,wel
l
-bei
ng,happi
ness,et
c.Tot
hisext
ent
,theendj
ust
if
iest
he
means.I
nmanyr
espect
s,deont
ologi
calmor
alt
heor
yisdi
amet
ri
cal
l
ytheopposi
teof
ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm.

I
tisr
efer
redas“
themeansj
ust
if
iest
heend”
.Iti
scoi
nedas“
deont
ics”
.Thi
sisat
heor
y
t
hatt
her
ight
nessorwr
ongnessofmor
alact
ioni
sdet
ermi
ned,atl
eastpar
tl
ywi
th
r
efer
encet
ofor
malr
ulesofconductr
athert
hanconsequencesorr
esul
tofanact
ion.I
t
i
sanemphasi
sont
hei
ntent
ions,mot
ives,mor
alpr
inci
plesorper
for
manceofdut
y
r
athert
hanr
esul
ts,
ast
hesi
gnofr
ightact
ion/
mor
ali
tyandi
mmor
ali
ty.I
tisadut
ybased
andaccor
dingt
othi
stheor
y,t
heconsequencesorr
esul
tsofouract
ionhav
enot
hingt
o
dowi
tht
hei
rri
ght
nessorwr
ongness.

Per
for
manceofOne’
sownDut
y

The17t
hcent
uryGer
manphi
l
osopherSamuelPuf
endor
f,whocl
assi
fi
eddozensof
dut
iesundert
hreeheadi
ngs:
dut
iest
oGod,
dut
iest
oonesel
fanddut
iest
oot
her
s!

Concer
ningourdut
iest
owar
dsGod,
hear
guedt
hatt
her
ear
etwoki
nds:(
1)at
heor
eti
cal
dut
ytoknowt
heexi
stenceandnat
ureofGod,and(
2)apr
act
icaldut
ytobot
hinwar
dly
andout
war
dlywor
shi
pGod.
Concer
ningourdut
iest
owar
dsonesel
f;t
hesear
eal
sooft
wosor
ts:(
1)dut
iesoft
he
soul
,whi
chi
nvol
vedev
elopi
ngone'
sski
l
lsandt
alent
s,and(
2)dut
iesoft
hebody
,whi
ch
i
nvol
venothar
mingourbodi
es,aswemi
ghtt
hroughgl
utt
onyordr
unkenness,andnot
ki
l
li
ngonesel
f.
Concer
ningourdut
iest
owar
dsot
her
s;Puf
endor
fdi
vi
dest
hesebet
weenabsol
utedut
ies,
whi
char
euni
ver
sal
l
ybi
ndi
ngonpeopl
e,andcondi
ti
onaldut
ies,whi
char
ether
esul
tof
cont
ract
sbet
weenpeopl
e.
Absol
utedut
iesar
eoft
hreesor
ts:(
1)av
oidwr
ongi
ngot
her
s;(
2)t
reatpeopl
easequal
s,
and(
3)pr
omot
ethegoodofot
her
s.
Condi
ti
onaldut
iesi
nvol
vev
ari
oust
ypesofagr
eement
s,t
hepr
inci
paloneofwhi
chi
sthe
dut
yist
okeepone'
spr
omi
ses.
1.
2.6.
1. TheDi
vi
neCommandTheor
y
Accor
dingt
oonev
iew,cal
l
edt
hedi
vi
necommandt
heor
y(DCT)
,et
hicalpr
inci
plesar
e
si
mpl
ythecommandsofGod.Theyder
ivet
hei
rval
i
dit
yfr
om God’
scommandi
ngt
hem,
andt
heymean“
commandedbyGod.
”Wi
thoutGod,t
her
ewoul
dbenouni
ver
sal
l
yval
i
d
mor
ali
ty.Wecananal
yzet
heDCTi
ntot
hreesepar
atet
heses:

4.Mor
ali
ty(
thati
s,r
ight
nessandwr
ongness)or
igi
nat
eswi
thGod.
5.Mor
alr
ight
nesssi
mpl
ymeans“
wil
l
edbyGod,
”andmor
alwr
ongnessmeans“
bei
ng
agai
nstt
hewi
l
lofGod.
”
6. Becausemor
ali
tyessent
ial
l
yisbasedondi
vi
newi
l
l,notoni
ndependent
lyexi
sti
ng
r
easonsf
oract
ion,
nof
urt
herr
easonsf
oract
ionar
enecessar
y.

Ther
ear
emodi
fi
edv
ersi
onsoft
heDCTt
hatdr
oporqual
i
fyoneormor
eoft
heset
hree
t
heses,butt
hest
rongestf
ormi
ncl
udesal
lthr
eeasser
ti
ons.Wecanchar
act
eri
zet
hat
posi
ti
ont
husl
y:Necessar
il
y,f
oranyper
sonS andf
oral
lact
sA,i
fA i
sfor
bidden
(
requi
red)ofS,
thenGodcommandst
hatnot
-A(
A)f
orS.Li
kewi
se,
ifAi
sper
mit
tedf
orS,
t
henGodhascommandednei
therAnornot
-Af
orS.Br
ingi
ngoutt
hei
mpl
i
cat
ionsoft
his,
wemayl
i
stf
ourpr
oposi
ti
ons:

1.ActAi
swr
ongi
fandonl
yifi
tiscont
rar
ytot
hecommandofGod.
2.ActAi
sri
ght(
requi
red)i
fandonl
yifi
tiscommandedbyGod.
3.ActAi
smor
all
yper
missi
blei
fandonl
yifi
tisper
mit
tedbyt
hecommandofGod.
4.I
fther
eisnoGod,
thennot
hingi
set
hical
l
ywr
ong,
requi
red,
orper
mit
ted.

Wecansummar
izet
heDCTt
hisway
:Mor
ali
tynotonl
yor
igi
nat
eswi
thGod,butmor
al
r
ight
nesssi
mpl
ymeans“
wil
l
edbyGod”andmor
alwr
ongnessmeans“
bei
ngagai
nstt
he
wi
l
lofGod”
.Thati
s,anacti
sri
ghti
nvi
rt
ueofbei
ngper
mit
tedbyt
hewi
l
lofGod,
andan
acti
swr
ongi
nvi
rt
ueofbei
ngagai
nstt
hewi
l
lofGod.Becausemor
ali
tyessent
ial
l
yis
based on di
vi
newi
l
l,noton i
ndependent
lyexi
sti
ng r
easonsf
oract
ion,no f
urt
her
r
easonsf
oract
ionar
enecessar
y.Sowemayask,“
IfGoddoesn’
texi
st,ev
ery
thi
ngi
s
per
missi
ble?
”Ifso,not
hingi
sfor
biddenorr
equi
red.Wi
thoutGod,wehav
emor
al
ni
hil
i
sm.I
fther
eisnoGod,
thennot
hingi
set
hical
l
ywr
ong,
requi
red,
orper
mit
ted.
Pr
obl
emswi
tht
heDi
vi
neCommandTheor
y

Ther
ear
etwopr
obl
emswi
tht
heDCTt
hatneedt
obef
acedbyt
hosewhohol
dit
.

3.DCTwoul
dseem t
omaket
heat
tri
but
ionof“
goodness”t
oGodr
edundant
.Whenwe
say“
Godi
sgood,
”wet
hinkwear
eascr
ibi
ngapr
oper
tyt
oGod;buti
fgoodsi
mpl
y
means“
whatGodcommandsorwi
l
ls,
”thenwear
enotat
tr
ibut
inganypr
oper
tyt
o
God.Ourst
atement“
Godi
sgood”mer
elymeans“
Goddoeswhat
everhewi
l
lst
odo”
or“
Godpr
act
iceswhathepr
eaches,
”andt
hest
atement“
Godcommandsust
odo
whati
sgood”mer
elyi
sthel
ogi
cal
l
yempt
yst
atement“
Godcommandsust
odo
whatGodcommandsust
odo.
”
4.DCTi
sthati
tseemst
omakemor
ali
tyi
ntosome-
thi
ngar
bit
rar
y.I
fGod’
sdecr
eei
s
t
hesol
ear
bit
erofr
ightandwr
ong,i
twoul
dseem t
obel
ogi
cal
l
ypossi
blef
orsuch
hei
nousact
sasr
ape,
kil
l
ingoft
hei
nnocentf
ort
hef
unofi
t,andgr
atui
touscr
uel
tyt
o
becomemor
all
ygoodact
ions—i
fGodsuddenl
ydeci
dedt
ocommandust
odot
hese
t
hings

1.
2.6.
2. Ri
ght
sTheor
y
Aseconddut
y-basedappr
oacht
oet
hi sr
csi i
ght
stheor
y.Mostgener
all
y,a"
ri
ght
"isa
j
ust
if
iedcl
aim agai
nstanot
herper
son'
sbehav
ior-suchasmyr
ightt
onotbehar
medby
y
ou.Ri
ght
sanddut
iesar
erel
atedi
nsuchawayt
hatt
her
ight
sofoneper
soni
mpl
ythe
dut
iesofanot
herper
son.Forexampl
e,i
fIhav
ear
ightt
opay
mentof$10bySmi
th,
then
Smi
thhasadut
ytopayme$10.Thi
siscal
l
edt
hecor
rel
ati
vi
tyofr
ight
sanddut
ies.The
mosti
nfl
uent
ialear
lyaccountofr
ight
stheor
yi hatof17thcent
st uryBr
it
ishphi
l
osopher
JohnLocke,whoar
guedt
hatt
hel
awsofnat
uremandat
ethatweshoul
dnothar
m
any
one'
sli
fe,heal
th,l
i
ber
tyorpossessi
ons.ForLocke,t
hesear
eournat
uralr
ight
s,
gi
vent
ousbyGod.Fol
l
owi
ngLocke,t
heUni
tedSt
atesDecl
arat
ionofI
ndependence
aut
hor
edbyThomasJef
fer
sonr
ecogni
zest
hreef
oundat
ionalr
ight
s:l
i
fe,
li
ber
ty,
andt
he
pur
sui
tofhappi
ness.Jef
fer
sonandot
her
sri
ght
stheor
ist
smai
ntai
nedt
hatwededuce
ot
hermor
especi
fi
cri
ght
sfr
om t
hese,i
ncl
udi
ngt
her
ight
sofpr
oper
ty,mov
ement
,
speech,
andr
eli
giousexpr
essi
on.

Ther
ear
efourf
eat
urest
radi
ti
onal
l
yassoci
atedwi
thmor
alr
ight
s.
  Fi
rst
,ri
ght e nat
s ar urali
nsof
aras t
hey ar
e noti
nvent
ed orcr
eat
ed by
gov
ernment
s.
 Second,
t euni
heyar ver
sali
nsof
arast
heydonotchangef
rom count
ryt
ocount
ry.
 Thi
rd,t e equali
heyar nthesenset
hatr
ight
sar
ethesamef
oral
lpeopl
e,
i
rr
espect
iveofgender
,race,
orhandi
cap.
 Four
th,t ei
heyar nal
i
enabl
ewhi
chmeanst
hatIcannothandov
ermyr
ight
sto
anot
herper
son,
suchasbysel
l
ingmy
sel
fint
osl
aver
y.

1.
2.6.
3. Kant
’sCat
egor
ical
Imper
ati
ve
Thenameoft
heGer
manphi
l
osopher
,ImmanuelKant(
1724-
1804)i
sident
if
iedwi
tht
he
mor
alt
heor
yknownasdeont
ology
.Kantwasadamant
lyopposedt
othei
deat
hatt
he
out
comeofanact
ioncoul
ddet
ermi
nei
tsmor
alwor
th.Fordeont
ologi
sts,i
tisnot
consequenceswhi
chdet
ermi
net
her
ight
nessorwr
ongnessofanact
,but
,rat
her
,the
i
ntent
ionoft
heper
sonwhocar
ri
esoutt
heact
.Theemphasi
sisont
hecor
rect
nessof
t
heact
ion,r
egar
dlessoft
hepossi
blebenef
it
sorhar
mitmi
ghtpr
oduce.Deont
ologi
sts
mai
ntai
nthatt
her
ear
esomemor
alobl
i
gat
ionswhi
char
eabsol
utel
ybi
ndi
ng,nomat
ter
whatconsequencesar
epr
oduced.

TheCat
egor
ical
Imper
ati
ve

AKant
’sdut
y-basedt
heor
yisemphasi
zesasi
ngl
epr
inci
pleofdut
y.Kantagr
eedt
hatwe
hav
emor
aldut
iest
oonesel
fandot
her
s,suchasdev
elopi
ngone’
stal
ent
s,andkeepi
ng
ourpr
omi
sest
o ot
her
s.Howev
er,Kantar
gued t
hatt
her
eisa mor
efoundat
ional
pr
inci
pleofdut
ythatencompassesourpar
ti
cul
ardut
ies.I
tisasi
ngl
e,sel
f-
evi
dent
pr
inci
pleofr
easont
hathecal
l
sthe“
cat
egor
ical
imper
ati
ve.
”

 A cat
egor
icali
mper
ati
ve,hear
gued,i
sfundament
all
ydi
ff
erentf
rom hy
pot
het
ical
i
mper
ati
vest
hathi
ngeonsomeper
sonaldesi
ret
hatwehav
e.Forexampl
e,“
Ify
ou
wantt
ogetagoodj
ob,
theny
ououghtt
ogot
ocol
l
ege.
”Bycont
rast
,acat
egor
ical
i
mper
ati
vesi
mpl
ymandat
esanact
ion,
irr
espect
iveofone’
sper
sonaldesi
res,
such
as“
Yououghtt
odoX.
”

To under
stand Kant
’st
hought
,not
etheemphasi
shepl
acesont deaofgood
hei
i
ntensi
on.Kantbel
i
ev hatnot
edt hingwasgoodi
nit
sel
fexcepta“
goodwi
l
l.
”Int
ell
i
gence,
j
udgmentandal
lot
herf
acet
soft
hehumanper
sonal
i
tyar
eper
hapsgoodanddesi
rabl
e,
butonl
yift
hewi
l
lthatmakesuseoft
hem i
sgood.Bywi
l
l,Kantmeanst
heuni
quel
y
human capaci
tyt
o actaccor
ding t
otheconcept
sbehi
nd l
aws,t
hati
s,pr
inci
ples
pr
esumabl
yoper
ati
ngi
nnat
ure.Agoodwi
l
l,t
her
efor
e,act
sinaccor
dancewi
thnat
ure’
s
l
aws.ForKantawi
l
lcoul
dbegoodwi
thoutqual
i
ficat
iononl
yifi
tal
way
shadi
nvi
ewone
pr
inci
pl whet
e: hert
hemaxi
m ofi
tsact
ioncoul
dbecomeauni
ver
sall
aw.

Thi
sst
andar
dissuchacr
uci
alpar
tofKant
’st
heor
yofet
hics.Kantbel
i
eved,t
hen,t
hat
t
her
ewasj
ustonecommandori
mper
ati
vet
hatwascat
egor
ical
,thati
s,onet
hat
pr
esent
edanact
ionasnecessar
yofi
tsel
f,wi
thoutr
egar
dtoanyot
herend.Hebel
i
eved
t
hatf
rom t
hisonecat
egor
icali
mper
ati
ve,t
hisuni
ver
salcommand,al
lcommandsof
dut
ycoul
dbeder
ived.Kant
’scat
egor
icali
mper
ati
vest
at hatweshoul
est dacti
nsucha
wayt
hatt
hemaxi
m orgener
alr
ulegov
erni
ngouract
ioncoul
dbeauni
ver
sall
aw.

Consi
derhi
sexampl
eofmaki
ngapr
omi
set
haty
ouar
ewi
l
li
ngt
obr
eaki
fitsui
tsy
our
pur
poses.Yourmaxi
m canbeexpr
essedt
hus:t
hismaxi
m coul
dnotbeuni
ver
sal
l
y
act
edupon,becausei
tinv
olv
esacont
radi
cti
onofwi
l
ls.Ont
hesamehand,y
ouar
e
wi
l
li
ngt
omakepr
omi
sesandhonort
hem;ont
heot
herhand,y
ouar
ewi
l
li
ngt
obeak
t
hose pr
omi
ses.Not
ice t
hatKanti
s nota ut
il
it
ari
an:he i
s notar
gui
ng t
hatt
he
consequencesofauni
ver
sal
lawcondoni
ngpr
omi
sebr
eaki
ngwoul
dbebadandt
her
ule
i
sbad.I
nst
ead hei
scl
aimi hatt
ng t her
ulei
ssel
f-
cont
radi
ctor
y;t
hei
nst
it
uti
onof
pr
omi
semaki
ngwoul
ddi
ssol
vei
fsuchamaxi
m wer
euni
ver
sal
i
zed.Hi
sappeali
sto
l
ogi
calconsi
stency
,nott
oconsequences.

Kantgi
v eastt
esatl hreev
ersi
onsorf
ormul
ati
onsoft
hecat
egor
icali
mper
ati
ve.Hi
s
cat
egor
icali
mper
ati
vei
sadeont
ologi
calet
hicalt
heor
y chmeansi
,whi tisbasedont
he
i
deat
hatt
her
ear
ecer
tai
nobj
ect
iveet
hicalr
ulesi
nthewor
ld.Kant
’sv
ersi
oni
spossi
bly
t
hemostwel
l
-known,andr
eli
esheav
il
yonhi
si hatal
deat lpeopl
ear
efundament
all
y
capabl
eofr
easoni
ngi
nthesamemannerandont
hesamel
evel
.Kant
iani
sm f
ocuses
mor
e on i
ntentand act
ion i
nit
sel
f,asopposed t
othe consequent
ial
i
stf
ocusof
ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm.
  Hy
pot
het
icali
mper
ati
vest
el chmeansbestachi
luswhi eveourends.Theydonot
,
howev
er,t
elluswhi
chendsweshoul
dchoose.Thet
ypi
caldi
chot
omyi
nchoosi
ng
endsi
sbet
weenendst
hatar
e"r
ight
"(e.
g.,hel
pingsomeone)andt
hoset
hatar
e
"
good"(
e.g.
,enr
ichi
ngonesel
f)
.Kantconsi
der
edt
he"
ri
ght
"super
iort
othe"
good"
;
t
ohi
m,t
he"
good"wasmor
all
yir
rel
evant
.InKant
'sv
iew,aper
soncannotdeci
de
whet
herconducti
s"r
ight
,"ormor
al,t
hroughempi
ri
calmeans.Suchj
udgment
s
eachedapr
mustber ior
i,usi
ngpur
epr
act
ical
reason.

Reason,separ
atef
rom al
lempi
ri
calexper
ience,candet
ermi
net
hepr
inci
pleaccor
ding
t
owhi
chal
lendscanbedet
ermi
nedasmor
al.I
tist
hisf
undament
alpr
inci
pleofmor
al
r
easont
hati
sknownast
hecat
egor
icali
mper
ati
ve.Pur
epr
act
icalr
easoni
nthepr
ocess
ofdet
ermi
ning i
tdi
ctat
es whatoughtt
o be done wi
thoutr
efer
ence t
o empi
ri
cal
cont
ingentf
act
ors.Mor
alquest
ionsar
edet
ermi
nedi
ndependentofr
efer
encet
othe
par
ti
cul
arsubj
ectposi
ngt
hem.I
tisbecausemor
ali
tyi
sdet
ermi
nedbypur
epr
act
ical
r
easonr
athert
hanpar
ti
cul
arempi
ri
calorsensuousf
act
orst
hatmor
ali
tyi
suni
ver
sal
l
y
v
ali smor
d.Thi aluni
ver
sal
i
sm hascomet
obeseenast
hedi
sti
nct
iveaspectofKant
's
mor
alphi
l
osophyandhashadwi
desoci
ali
mpacti
nthel
egalandpol
i
ticalconcept
sof
humanr
ight
sandequal
i
ty.

Kant
'st
heor
yishi
ngedbyhi
sbel
i
efsonaut
onomyandhi
sfor
mul
ati
onofcat
egor
ical
i
mper
ati
ves.Hebel
i
evedt
hat
,unl
essaper
sonf
reel
yandwi
l
li
ngl
ymakesachoi
ce,
thei
r
act
ionhasnomeani
ng(
andcer
tai
nlynomor
alv
al .Aut
ue) onomyal
l
owsust
obesel
f-
cr
eat
ingwheni
tcomest
oourv
aluesandmor
ali
ty.Aut
onomyi
sone’
sownbel
i
efs,
i
ndependence,andgov
ernment
:act
ingwi
thoutr
egar
dforany
oneel
se.Conv
ersel
y,
het
eronomyi
sact
ingundert
hei
nfl
uenceofsomeoneel
seandal
l
owsf
orani
ndi
vi
dual
t
oconsi
stent
lypl
acebl
ameout
sideofsel
f.

Kantbel
i
evedt
hateachi
ndi
vi
duali
srat
ionalandcapabl
eofmaki
ngf
reechoi
ces;
t
her
ebyr
eli
esonaut
onomoust
hinki
ng.Kantt
houghtt
hatev
eryman,i
fusi
ngr
eason
whenl
ooki
ngatmor
aldi
l
emmas,woul
dagr
eewi
thwhathecal
l
edt
heCat
egor
ical
I
mper
ati
ve(
theCI
).So,whi
l
ethel
aw i
sobj
ect
ive,Kantt
houghtt
hatal
lpeopl
ecoul
d
comet
ounder
standandagr
eewi
thi
taf
teraut
onomousr
efl
ect
ion.Sohow,exact
ly,
doest
heCIt
ellushowt
oact
?Howdoesi
twor
k?Thedeci
sion-
maki
ngpr
ocedur
eoft
he
t
heor
yisact
ual
l
yqui
test
rai
ghtf
orwar
d,andonet
hatmanypeopl
eshoul
dbeabl
eto
gr
aspi
ntui
ti
vel
y(whi
chi
sexact
lywhatKantwant
edt
oachi
eve)
.

Kantt
houghtt
hatwhenamor
alact
ioni
sbei
ngconsi
der
ed,
oneshoul
daskt
hef
oll
owi
ng
quest
ions;whatwoul
dhappeni
fev
ery
onei
nthewor
lddi
dthi
s,al
lthet
ime?Andwoul
d
t
hatbet
heki
ndofwor
ldI
’
dli
ket
oli
vei
n?Wecanl
ookatt
het
ext
-bookexampl
eto
i
l
lust
rat
ethi
s;mur
der
.Sowewantt
oknow whet
hermur
deri
sanet
hical
l
yjust
if
iabl
e
act
ion.Wel
l
,whatwoul
dhappeni
fev
ery
onei
ntheent
ir
ewor
ldst
art
edki
l
li
ngpeopl
e?
Absol
utechaoswoul
densue.I
t’
snott
hesor
tofwor
ldmanypeopl
ewoul
dli
ket
oli
vei
n.
Ther
efor
e,accor
dingt
othecat
egor
icali
mper
ati
ve,mur
deri
swr
ong.Acor
easpectof
t
hist
heor
yi heconceptofi
st ntent
.ToKant
,itwast
hei
ntentt
hatmat
ter
edt
ohi
m.

Let
’sl
ookatanexampl
e.I
magi
ney
ou’
reamur
der
erwal
ki
ngdownt
hest
reet
,andy
ou
seeadef
ensel
essy
oungmani
nfr
ontofy
ou.I
t’
sdar
k,andt
her
e’snooneel
sear
ound.
Youhav
eakni
fei
nyourpocket
.Itwoul
dbeeasyf
ory
out
oki
l
lhi
m.So,y
ouconsi
der
.
May
be,
int
heend,
youchooset
olett
hemanl
i
ve–notbecausey
ouwer
ewor
ri
edabout
act
ingi
mmor
all
y,butbecausey
oudi
dn’
twantt
otaket
her
iskofhi
m scr
eami
ngand
dr
awi
ngt
heat
tent
ionoft
hepol
i
ce(
orsomet
hingt
othatef
fect
).I
nt oudonot
heend,y
ki
l
l.

Accor
dingt
oKant
,youhav
en’
tact
edet
hical
l
y.Youract
iondoesnotmakey
ouabet
ter
per
son.Thi
sisbecausewheny
ouact
ed(
or,r
ather
,chosenott
oact
),y
ouwer
en’
t
consi
der
ingt
heact
ioni
nter
msofi
tsmor
ali
ty.Youdi tmakeamor
dn’ alchoi
ce–y
ou
mer
elyact
edoutofsel
f-
preser
vat
ion.Howev
er,
ify
ouwer
etochoosenott
oki
l
ltheman
becausey
ousuddenl
yreal
i
zedt
hati
twaswr
ongt
oki
l
landdi
dn’
twantt
oactunet
hical
l
y,
t
heny
ouwoul
dhav
eact
edmor
all
y,andwoul
dbeabet
terper
sonf
ori
t.

Kantconcl
udest
hatamor
alpr
oposi
ti
ont
hati
str
uemustbeonet
hati
snott
iedt
oany
par
ti
cul
arcondi
ti
ons,
incl
udi
ngt
hei
dent
it
yoft
heper
sonmaki
ngt
hemor
aldel
i
ber
ati
on.
A mor
almaxi
m musti y absol
mpl ute necessi
ty,whi
ch i
sto sayt
hati
tmustbe
di
sconnect
edf
rom t
hepar
ti
cul
arphy
sical
det
ail
ssur
roundi
ngt
hepr
oposi
ti
on,
andcoul
d
beappl
i
edt
oanyr
ati
onalbei
ng.Thi
sleadst
othef
ir
stf
ormul
ati
onoft
hecat
egor
ical
i
mper
ati
ve:

A.ThePr
inci
pleofUni
ver
sal
i
ty

Thef
ir
stmaxi
m st
atest
hatweshoul
dchooseour'
codesofconduct
'onl
yift
heyser
ve
per
fect/i
mper
fectdut
yandar
egoodf
oral
l
."Actonl
yaccor
dingt
othatmaxi
m wher
eby
y
ou can att
he same t
ime wi
l
lthati
tshoul
d become a uni
ver
sall
aw wi
thout
cont
radi
cti
on.
"Kantdi
vi
dest
hedut
iesi
mposedbyt
hisf
ormul
ati
oni
ntot
wosubset
s:
per
fectandi
mper
fectdut
y.Per
fectdut
iesar
ebl
amewor
thyi
fnotmetandar
ethebasi
c
r
equi
rement
sforahumanbei
ng.Accor
dingt
ohi
sreasoni
ng,wef
ir eaper
sthav fect
dut
ynott
oactbymax
imst
hatr
esul
tinl
ogi
calcont
radi
cti
onswhenweat
temptt
o
uni
ver
sal
i
zet
hem.

Themor
alpr
oposi
tonA:"
i Iti
sper
missi
blet
ost
eal
"woul
dresul
tinacont
radi
cti
onupon
uni
ver
sal
i
sat
ion.Thenot
ionofst
eal
i
ngpr
esupposest
heexi
stenceofpr
oper
ty,
butwer
e
A uni
ver
sal
i
zed,t
hent
her
ecoul
dbenopr
oper
ty,andsot
hepr
oposi
ti
onhasl
ogi
cal
l
y
negat
edi
tsel
f.Anexampl
eofper
fectdut
yist
heav
oidanceofsui
cide.Sui
cidei
stheend
ofl
i
feandKantbel
i
evedt
hat"
sel
f-
lov
eimpel
sthei
mpr
ovementofl
i
fe;
"ifaper
son
commi
tssui
cide,
impr
ovementofl
i
feceases.

I
mper
fectdut
iesar
ethoset
hatdonotachi
evebl
ame,r
athert
heyr
ecei
vepr
aisei
f
compl
eted;
theyar
eci
rcumst
ant
ialdut
iessuchascul
ti
vat
ingt
alent
.Theyar
est
il
lbased
onpur
ereason,butwhi
chal
l
ow f
ordesi
resi
nhow t
heyar
ecar
ri
edouti
npr
act
ice.
Becauset
hesedependsomewhatont
hesubj
ect
ivepr
efer
encesofhumanki
nd,
thi
sdut
y
i
snotasst
rongasaper
fectdut
y,buti
tisst
il
lmor
all
ybi
ndi
ng.Assuch,unl
i
keper
fect
dut
ies,y
oudonotat
tractbl
ameshoul
dyounotcompl
eteani
mper
fectdut
ybuty
ou
shal
lrecei
vepr
aisef
ori
tshoul
dyoucompl
etei
t,asy
ouhav
egonebey
ondt
hebasi
c
dut
iesandt
akendut
yupony
our
sel
f.I
mper
fectdut
iesar
eci
rcumst
ant
ial
,meani
ng
si
mpl
ythaty
oucoul
dnotr
easonabl
yexi
sti
naconst
antst
ateofper
for
mingt
hatdut
y.
Thi
sis whatt
rul
y di
ff
erent
iat
es bet
ween per
fectand i
mper
fectdut
ies,because
i
mper
fectdut
iesar
ethosedut
iest
hatar
enev
ert
rul
ycompl
eted.Exampl
esofi
mper
fect
dut
iesar
eper
fect
ingt
heabi
l
ityt
owr
it
eandpr
oducewor
ks.
B.ThePr
inci
pleofHumani
tyasanEnd,
Nev
erasMer
elyaMeans

Thesecondmaxi
m st
atest
hatweshoul
dnotusehumani
tyofour
sel
vesorot
her
sasa
meanst
oanend.“
Acti
nsuchawayt
haty
out
reathumani
ty,whet
heri
nyourown
per
sonori
ntheper
sonofanyot
her
,nev
ermer
elyasameanst
oanend,butal
way
sat
t
hesamet
imeasanend.
”Ev
eryr
ati
onalact
ionmustsetbef
orei
tsel
fnotonl
ya
pr
inci
ple,
butal
soanend.Mostendsar
eofasubj
ect
iveki
nd,
becauset
heyneedonl
ybe
pur
suedi
ftheyar
einl
i
newi
thsomepar
ti
cul
arhy
pot
het
icali
mper
ati
vet
hataper
son
maychooset
oadopt
.Foranendt
obeobj
ect
ive,i
twoul
dbenecessar
ythatwe
cat
egor
ical
l
ypur
suei
t.Thi
spr
inci
plehasr
ecei
vedmor
ewi
despr
eadappr
ovalt
hanany
ot
herpar
tofKant
’smor
alphi
l
osophy
.Peopl
e,asr
ati
onal
bei
ngs,
areendsi
nthemsel
ves
andshoul
dnev
erbeusedmer
elyasmeanst
oot
herends.Wemayusephy
sicalt
hings
asmeans,butwhenweusepeopl
esi
mpl
yasmeans,asi
nsl
aver
y,pr
ost
it
uti
on,or
commer
cial
expl
oit
ati
on,
wedegr
adet
hem andv
iol
atet
hei
rinner
mostbei
ngsaspeopl
e.

The cat
egor
icali
mper
ati
ve al
so r
egul
ates t
he mor
ali
ty ofact
ions t
hataf
fectus
i
ndi
vi
dual
l
y.Forexampl
e,Sui
cidewoul
dbewr
ongsi
nceIwoul
dbet
reat
ingmyl
i
feasa
meanst
otheal
l
evi
ati
onofmymi
ser
y.Thef
reewi
l
list
hesour
ceofal
lrat
ionalact
ion.
Butt
otr
eati
tasasubj
ect
iveendi
stodenyt
hepossi
bil
i
tyoff
reedom i
ngener
al.
Becauset
heaut
onomouswi
l
list
heoneandonl
ysour
ceofmor
alact
ion,i
twoul
d
cont
radi
ctt
hef
ir
stf
ormul
ati
ont
ocl
aimt
hataper
soni
smer
elyameanst
osomeot
her
end,r
athert
hanal
way
sanendi
nthemsel
ves.Ont
hisbasi
s,Kantder
ivessecond
f
ormul
ati
onoft
hecat
egor
icali
mper
ati
vef
rom t
hef
ir
st.Bycombi
ningt
hisf
ormul
ati
on
wi
tht
hef
ir
st,wel
ear
nt sonhasper
hataper fectdut
ynott
ouset
hehumani
tyof
t
hemsel
vesorot
her
smer
elyasameanst
osomeot
herend.Anexampl
eoft
hesecond
maxi
m woul
dbet
hatofsl
aver
y.Al
thoughi
tcanber
eal
i
zedt
hatasl
aveownerhast
he
r
ightt
oownpr
oper
ty,
theydonothav
ether
ightt
oownaper
son.Ther
ightt
onotowna
per
sonst
emsf
rom t
hei
deal
sofaut
onomyandf
reewi
l
l.Aper
sonwhoi
sowneddoes
nothav
efr
eewi
l
landt
her
efor
eisnotaut
onomousandcannotbehel
dtodut
y;t
he
conceptofsl
aver
ycont
radi
ctst
hef
ir m andKant
stmaxi 'st
heor
ydoesnotal
l
ow f
or
cont
radi
cti
onsoft
hemaxi
ms.
Weshoul
dal
way
str
eatpeopl
ewi
thdi
gni
ty,andnev
eruset
hem asmer
einst
rument
s.
ForKant
,wet
reatpeopl
easanendwhenev
erouract
ionst
owar
dsomeoner
efl
ectt
he
i
nher
entv
alueoft
hatper
son.Donat
ingt
ochar
it
y,f
orexampl
e,i
smor
all
ycor
rectsi
nce
t
hisacknowl
edgest
hei
nher
entv
alueoft
her
eci
pient
.Bycont
rast
,wet
reatsomeoneas
ameanst
oanendwhenev
erwet
reatt
hatper
sonasat
ool
toachi
evesomet
hingel
se.I
t
i
swr
ong,f
orexampl
e,t
ost
ealmynei
ghbor
’scarsi
nceIwoul
dbet
reat
ingherasa
meanst
omyownhappi
ness.

C.ThePr
inci
pleofAut
onomy

The t
hir
dmaxi
m st
atest
hatweshoul
dconsi
derour
sel
vest
o bemember
sint
he
uni
ver
salr
eal
m ofends.Ther
ef e,ev
or eryr
ati
onalbei
ngmustsoactasi
fhewer
e
t
hroughhi
smaxi
m al
way
sal
egi
slat
ingmemberi
ntheuni
ver
salki
ngdom ofends.

Becauseat
rul
yaut
onomouswi
l
lwoul
dnotbesubj
ugat
edt
oanyi
nter
est
,itwoul
donl
y
besubj
ectt
othosel
awsi
tmakesf
ori
tsel
f-buti
tmustal
sor
egar
dthosel
awsasi
fthey
woul
dbeboundt
oot
her
s,ort
heywoul
dnotbeuni
ver
sal
i
zabl
e,andhencet
heywoul
d
notbel
awsofconductatal
l
.ThusKantpr
esent
sthenot
ionoft
hehy
pot
het
ical
Ki
ngdom ofEndsofwhi
chhesuggest
sal
lpeopl
eshoul
dconsi
dert
hemsel
vesbot
h
meansandends.Weshoul
dconsi
derouract
ionst
obeofconsequencet
oev
ery
one
el
sei
nthatouract
ionsaf
fectnotonl
your
sel
vesbutt
hatofot
her
s.Ev
ery
thi
ngwedo
shoul
dnotonl
ybeofbenef
itt
oour
sel
ves,
butbenef
iteachot
heruni
ver
sal
l
y.

"
Acti
nsuchawayt
haty
out
reathumani
ty,whet
heri
nyourownper
sonori
nthatof
anot
her
,al
way
satt
hesamet
imeasanendandnev
ermer
elyasameans.
"Weoughtt
o
actonl
ybymaxi
mst
hatwoul
dhar
moni
zewi
thapossi
bleki
ngdom ofends.Wehav
e
per
fectdut
ynott
oactbymaxi
mst
hatcr
eat
eincoher
entori
mpossi
blest
atesofnat
ural
af
fai
rswhenweat
temptt
ouni
ver
sal
i
zet
hem,
andwehav
eimper
fectdut
ynott
oactby
maxi
mst
hatl
eadt
ounst
abl
eorgr
eat
lyundesi
rabl
est
atesofaf
fai
rs.

Themai
npr
obl
em wi
tht
hecat
egor
icali
mper
ati
vei
sit
sri
gidi
ty.Thef
amousexampl
e
t
hati
l
lust
rat
est
hisi
sthatofacr
azedaxe-
mur
der
ercomi
ngt
oyourf
rontdoorand
aski
ngy
ouwher
eyourchi
l
drenar
e.Youcoul
dli
e–manywoul
dsayy
oushoul
dli
e–but
i
magi
nei
fev
ery
onei
ntheent
ir
ewor
ldl
i
edal
lthet
ime.Thatwoul
dnotbeani
cepl
acet
o
l
i
vei
n,sot
hecat
egor
icali
mper
ati
vesay
syoucan’
tli
e.Youhav
etot
ellt
heaxe-
mur
der
er
t
het
rut
h,sohecangoandki
l
lyourchi
l
dren.Kantwasaskedaboutt
hisper
sonal
l
y,and
hesai
dthatt
hiswasi
ndeedt
hecase.I
twoul
dbei
mmor
alt
oli
etot
heman.Hedi
d,
howev
er,sayt
haty
oucoul
dal
sochooset
olocky
ourdoorandcal
lthepol
i
ce.Her
e’s
anot
herexampl
e–y
ou’
rei
nar
oom wi
thamanwho’
shol
dingagunt
oyourmot
her
’s
head.Youknow he’
l
lshootheranysecond.Ri
ghtnextt
oyou,t
her
e’sabut
ton.I
fyou
pr
esst
hebut
ton,t
hemanwi
l
lfal
lthr
oughat
rapdoorandl
andi
naspi
kepi
t,dy
ing
i
nst
ant
ly.Yourmot
herwi
l
lbesav
ed.

Accor
dingt
othecat
egor
icali
mper
ati
ve,t
hiswoul
dbet
hewr
ongt
hingt
odo.Youcan’
t
pr
esst
hebut
ton.Buti
fyoudon’
t,y
ourmot
herwi
l
ldi
e.I
t’
sinsi
tuat
ionsl
i
ket
hist
hat
st
ri
ctet
hicalsy
stemswi
thspeci
fi
cdeci
sionpr
ocedur
est
endt
ofal
lapar
t.Mor
ali
tyi
s
si
mpl
ytoocompl
ex,
toof
ull
ofexcept
ionsf
ort
heset
heor
iest
oev
erf
ull
ywor
k.

1.
2.6.
4. Ross’
sPr
imaFaci
eDut
iesorMor
alGui
del
i
nes
Af
our
thandmor
erecentdut
y-basedt
heor
yist
hatbyBr
it
ishphi
l
osopherW.
D.Ross,
whi zespr
chemphasi imaf
aci
edut
ies.Si
rWi
l
li
am Dav
idRoss(
15Apr
il1877–5May
1971)
,usual
l
yci
tedasW.D.Ross,
wasaScot
ti
shphi
l
osopher
,knownf
orwor
kinet
hics.
Thet
erm pr
imaf
aci
emeans“
ataf
ir
stsi
ght
”or“
ont
hesur
face.
”Bypr
imaf
aci
edut
ies,
Rossmeansdut
iest
hatdi
ctat
ewhatweshoul
ddowhenot
hermor
alf
act
orsar
enot
consi
der
ed.St
atedanot
herway
,pr
imaf
aci
edut
iesar
edut
iest
hatgener
all
yobl
i
gat
eus;
t
hati
s,t
heyor
dinar
il
yimposeamor
alobl
i
gat
ionbutmaynoti
napar
ti
cul
arcase
becauseofci
rcumst
ances.Anact
ualdut
yist
heact
iont
hatoneoughtt
oper
for
m af
ter
consi
der
ingandwei
ghi
ngal
lthepr
imaf
aci
edut
iesi
nvol
ved.

Accor
dingt
oW.D.Ross(
1877-
1971)
,ther
ear
esev
eralpr
imaf
aci
edut
iest
hatwecan
uset
odet
er newhat
mi ,concr
etel
y,weoughtt
odo.Apr
imaf
aci
edut
yisadut
ythati
s
bi
ndi
ng(
obl
i
gat
ory
)ot
hert
hingsequal
,thati
s,unl
essi
tisov
err
iddenort
rumpedby
anot
herdut
yordut
ies.Anot
herwayofput
ti
ngi
tist
hatwher
ether
eisapr
imaf
aci
edut
y
t
odosomet
hing,t
her
eisatl
eastaf
air
lyst
rongpr
esumpt
ioni
nfav
orofdoi
ngi
t.An
exampl
eofapr
imaf
aci
edut
yist
hedut
ytokeeppr ses.Unl
omi essst
rongermor
al
consi
der
ati
onsov
err
ide,oneoughtt
okeepapr
omi
semade.Bycont
rastwi
thpr
ima
f
aci
edut
ies,ouract
ualorconcr
etedut
yist
hedut
yweshoul
dper
for
mint
hepar
ti
cul
ar
si
tuat
ionofchoi
ce.What
everone'
sact
ualdut
yis,onei
smor
all
yboundt
oper
for
mit
.
Pr
imaf
aci
edut
iesr
elat
etoact
ual
dut
iesasr
easonsdot
oconcl
usi
onsofr
easoni
ng.

Thet
erm"
dut
y"i
n"pr
imaf
aci
edut
y"i
ssl
i
ght
lymi
sleadi
ng.Thepr
imaf
aci
edut
iesar
e
under
stoodasgui
del
i
nes,notr
uleswi
thoutexcept
ion.I
fanact
iondoesnotcor
respond
t
oaspeci
fi
cgui
del
i
ne,onei
snotnecessar
il
yvi
olat
ingar
ulet
hatoneoughtt
ofol
l
ow.
Howev
er,notf
oll
owi
ngt
her
uleoneoughtt
ofol
l
owi
napar
ti
cul
arcasei
sfai
l
ingt
odo
one'
s(act
ual
)dut
y.I
nsuchcasesi
tmakessenset
otal
kaboutv
iol
ati
ngar
ule.Ther
ule
mi
ghtbet
hesamei
nwor
dsasapr
imaf
aci
edut
y(mi
nust
hephr
ase"
unl
essot
hermor
al
consi
der
ati
onsov
err
ide"
),buti
twoul
dno l
ongerbemer
elyagui
del
i
nebecausei
t
descr
ibeswhatoneconcr
etel
yshoul
ddo.

Li
kehi
s17t
hand18t
hcent
urycount
erpar
ts,
Rossar
guest
hatourdut
iesar
e“par
toft
he
f
undament
alnat
ureoft
heuni
ver
se.
”Howev
er,Ross’
sli
stt
hef
oll
owi
ngcat
egor
iesof
pr
ima f
aci
e dut
ies i
s much shor
ter
,whi
ch he bel
i
eves r
efl
ect
s ouract
ualmor
al
conv
ict
ions:

 Dut
iesofFi
del
i
ty:t
hedut
ytokeeppr
omi
sesandt
heobl
i
gat
ionnott
oli
e.Dut
ies
off
idel
i
tyar
edut
iest
okeepone’
spr
omi
sesandcont
ract
sandnott
oengagei
n
decept
ion.
 Dut
iesofRepar
ati
on:Thi
sisadut
ytomakeupf
ort
hei
njur
iesonehasdonet
o
ot
her
s.Rossdescr
ibest
hisdut
yas"
rest
ingonapr
evi
ouswr
ongf
ulact
".I
tist
he
dut
ytocompensat
eot
her
swhenwehar
m t
hem.I
f,f
orexampl
e,Idamage
somet
hingt
hatbel
ongst
osomeoneel
se,
Ihav
eanobl
i
gat
iont
omaker
est
it
uti
on.
 Dut
iesofGr
ati
tude:t
hedut
ytot
hankt
hosewhohel
pus.Suppose,f
orexampl
e,
anespeci
all
ygoodf
ri
endi
ssuddenl
yinneedofassi
stance,Iam dut
yboundt
o
doal
lIcanhel
pthi
sindi
vi
dual
,whoi
nthepasthadact
edsosel
fl
essl
ytowar
dme.
 Dut
iesofJust
ice:Thedut
yofj
ust
icer
equi
rest
hatoneacti
nsuchawayt
hatone
di
str
ibut
esbenef
it
sandbur
densf
air
ly.Rosshi
msel
femphasi
zest
henegat
ive
 aspectoft
hisdut
y:hesay
sthatt
hist
ypeofdut
y"r
est
sont
hef
actorpossi
bil
i
ty
ofadi
str
ibut
ionofpl
easur
eorhappi
ness(
ort
hemeanst
her
eto)t
hati
snoti
n
accor
dwi
tht
hemer
itoft
heper
sonsconcer
ned;
insuchcasest
her
ear
isesadut
y
t
oupsetorpr
eventsuchadi
str
ibut
ion"
.Thust
hedut
yofj
ust
icei
ncl
udest
hedut
y,
i
nsof
araspossi
ble,
topr
eventanunj
ustdi
str
ibut
ionofbenef
it
sorbur
dens.
 Dut
iesofBenef
icence:t
hedut
ytoi
mpr
ovet
hecondi
ti
onsofot
her
s.Thedut
yto
dogoodt
oot
her
s:t
ofost
ert
hei
rheal
th,secur
it
y,wi
sdom,mor
algoodness,or
happi
ness.Thi
sdut
y,say
sRoss,"
rest
supont
hef
actt
hatt
her
ear
eot
herbei
ngs
i
nthewor
ldwhosecondi
ti
onwecanmakebet
teri
nrespectofv
irt
ue,orof
i
ntel
l
igence,
orofpl
easur
e."
 Dut
iesofSel
f-
impr
ovement
:Thedut
yofsel
f-
impr
ovementi
stoactsoast
o
pr
omot
e one’
s own good,i
.e.
,one’
s own heal
th,secur
it
y,wi
sdom,mor
al
goodness,
vir
tue,
int
ell
i
genceandhappi
ness.
 Dut
ies ofNon-
mal
efi
cence:The dut
y ofnon-
inj
ury(
also known as non-
mal
efi
cence)i
sthedut
ynott
ohar
m ot
her
sphy
sical
l
yorpsy
chol
ogi
cal
l
y:t
oav
oid
har
ming t
hei
rheal
th,secur
it
y,i
ntel
l
igence,char
act
er,orhappi
ness.We ar
e
obl
i
gedt
oav
oidhur
ti
ngot
her
sphy
sical
l
y,emot
ional
l
yandpsy
chol
ogi
cal
l
y.

JacquesThi
roux(
2001)cl
aimst
hatRoss'dut
yofnon-
inj
uryi
ncl
udesadut
ytopr
event
i
njur
ytoot
her
s.Thi
sseemst
obewr
ongr
egar
dingRoss,buti
tmi
ghtber
easonabl
eto
addsuchapr
imaf
aci
edut
ytot
hel
i
st.Non-
inj
uryi
nRoss'st
ri
ctsensei
sdi
sti
nctf
rom
t
hepr
event
ionofhar
mtoot
her
s.Non-
inj
uryi
nst
ruct
susgener
all
ytoav
oidi
ntent
ional
l
y,
negl
i
gent
ly,ori
gnor
ant
ly(
when i
gnor
ance i
s av
oidabl
e)har
ming ot
her
s.Har
m-
pr
event
ioni
nst
ruct
susgener
all
ytomakear
ealef
for
ttopr
eventhar
mtoot
her
sfr
om
causesot
hert
hanour
sel
ves.

I
nsummar
y,Rosspr
esent
ssev
encat
egor
iesofpr
imaf
aci
edut
ies,al
thought
her
emay
bemor
ecat
egor
ies.Howev
er,hedoesi
nsi
stt
hatweacknowl
edgeandwi
l
li
ngl
yaccept
t
hesev
encat
egor
ieswi
thoutar
gument
.Hi
sappealf
ort
hei
raccept
ancedoesnotr
ely
pr
imar
il
yonr gumentbutoni
easonandar ntui
ti
on.Whenf
acedwi
thasi
tuat
iont
hat
pr
esent
sconf
li
cti
ngpr
imaf
aci
edut
ies,Rosst
ell
sus,t
hemor
eobl
i
gat
ory
,ouract
ual
dut
y.Theact
ual
dut
yhast
hegr
eat
estamountofpr
imaf
aci
eri
ght
nessov
erwr
ongness.
1.
2.7.Vi
rt
ueEt
hics
Vi
rt
ueEt
hics:
Chal
l
engi
ngt
headequacyofr
ule-
basedt
heor
ies

“
Vir
tueet
hics”i
sat
echni
calt
ermi
ncont
empor
aryWest
ernanal
yti
calmor
alphi
l
osophy
,
usedt
odi
sti
ngui
shanor
mat
iveet
hical
theor
yfocusedont
hev
irt
ues,
ormor
alchar
act
er,
f
rom ot
her
ssuchasdeont
ology(
orcont
ract
ari
ani
sm)andconsequent
ial
i
sm.I
magi
nea
casei
nwhi
chi
tisagr
eedbyev
erysor
toft
heor
istt
hatIshoul
d,say
,hel
psomeonei
n
need.Adeont
ologi
stwi
l
lemphasi
zet
hef
actt
hati
nof
fer
inghel
p,Iwi
l
lbeact
ingi
n
accor
dancewi
thamor
alr
uleorpr
inci
plesuchas“
Dount
oot
her
sasy
ouwoul
dbedone
by
”;aconsequent
ial
i
stwi
l
lpoi
ntoutt
hatt
heconsequencesofhel
pingwi
l
lmaxi
mize
wel
l
-bei
ng;andav
irt
ueet
hici
stwi
l
lemphasi
zet
hef
actt
hatpr
ovi
dinghel
pwoul
dbe
char
it
abl
eorbenev
olent–char
it
yandbenev
olencebei
ngv
irt
ues.

1.
2.7.
1. Ar
ist
otl
e’
sEt
hics
Theanci
entGr
eekphi
l
osopher
,Ar
ist
otl
e,(
384-
322B.
C.)f
ir
stwr
oteadet
ail
eddi
scussi
on
ofv
irt
uemor
ali
tyi
ntheNi
chomacheanEt
hics.‘
Vir
tus’heunder
stoodasst
rengt
h.
Cor
respondi
ngl
y,speci
fi
cvi
rt
uesar
eseenasst
rengt
hsofchar
act
er.But
,manyy
ear
s
af
terAr
ist
otl
e’
sdeat
h,v
irt
uet
heor
ycamet
obeov
er-
shadowedbyt
hedev
elopmentof
ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm anddeont
ology
.

I
nthepastf
if
tyy
ear
s,howev
er,v
irt
uet
heor
yhasr
esur
facedasamaj
ormor
alt
heor
y.
Butwhyi
sthatso?Vi
rt
ueet
hicshasbeenr
est
atedandr
einv
igor
atedi
nthey
ear
ssi
nce
1958 by phi
l
osopher
s such as Phi
l
ippa Foot
,Al
asdai
rMacI
nty
re and El
i
zabet
h
Anscombe.They and many ot
her
s became di
sil
l
usi
oned wi
tht
he pr
omi
ses of
mai
nst
ream t
heor
ies.Theyar
guet
hathow weoughtt
oli
vecoul
dbemuchmor
e
adequat
ely answer
ed by a v
irt
ue-
based t
heor
ythan i
n t
erms of cal
cul
ati
ng
consequencesorobey
ingr
ules.

Wi
thr
espectt
othegood,r
ight
,happi
ness,t
hegoodi
snotadi
sposi
ti
on.Thegood
i
nvol
vesa 
tel
eol
ogi
cal
syst
em t
hati
nvol
vesact
ions.
D.Goodi
sthatwhi
chal
lthi
ngsai
m.Somet
hingi
sgoodi
fitper
for
msi
tspr
oper
f
unct
ion.
 E.
g.,
agoodcof
feecuporagoodr
edoak.
o Ar
ightact
ion i
sthatwhi
ch i
sconduci
vet
othegood,and di
ff
erentgoods
 cor
respondt
othedi
ff
eri
ngsci
encesandar
ts.
o "
Thegod"orbestgoodi
sthatwhi
chi
sdesi
redf
ori
tsownsakeandf
ort
hesake
whi
chwedesi
real
lot
herendsorgoods.Forhumanbei eudaemoni
ngs,
  a i
s
act
ivi
tyoft
hesouli
naccor
dancewi
t ar
h  et
e (
excel
l
ence,v
irt
ue,orwhati
t'
sgood
f
or)
.Eudaemoni
  a i
sli
vi
ngwel
landdoi
ngwel
li
ntheaf
fai
rsoft
hewor
ld.
E.The good ofhuman bei
ngs cannotbe answer
ed wi
tht
he exact
it
ude ofa
mat
hemat
icalpr
obl
em si
ncemat
hemat
icsst
art
swi
thgener
alpr
inci
plesandar
gues
t
oconcl
usi
ons.
o Et
hics st
art
s wi
th act
ualmor
alj
udgment
s bef
oret
he f
ormul
ati
on of
gener
alpr
inci
ples.
o Ar
ist
otl
epr
esupposesnat
ural
tendenci
esi
npeopl
e.
F.Ar
ist
otl
edi
sti
ngui
shesbet
weenhappi eudaemoni
ness( a)andmor
alv
irt
ue:
o Mor
alv
irt
uei
snott
heendofl
i
fef
ori
tcangowi
thi
nact
ivi
ty,mi
ser
y,and
unhappi
ness
o Happi
ness,t
heendofl
i
fe,t
hatt
owhi
chal
lai
ms,i
sact
ivi
tyi
naccor
dancewi
th
r
eason(
reasoni
st ar
he  et
e orpecul
i
arexcel
l
enceofper
sons)
.
c.Happi
nessi
sanact
ivi
tyi
nvol
vi
ngbot
hmor
alandi
ntel
l
ect ar
ual
  et
e.
d.Someext
ernal
goodsar
enecessar
yinor
dert
oexer
ciset
hatact
ivi
ty.

TheGoodChar
act
er
C.Peopl
ehav
eanat
uralcapaci
tyf
orgoodchar
act
er,andi
tisdev
elopedt
hrough
pr
act
ice.Thecapaci
tydoesnotcomef
ir
st-
-i
t'
sdev
elopedt
hroughpr
act
ice.

o Thesequenceofhumanbehav
iorr
aisest
hequest
ionofwhi
chi
spr
eemi
nent
--
act
sordi
sposi
ti
ons.
 Thei
rint
eract
ioni
sbr
okenbyAr
ist
otl
e'
sdi
sti
nct
ion
bet
weenact
swhi
chcr
eat
egooddi
sposi
ti
onsandact
swhi
chf
low f
rom t
he
 gooddi
sposi
ti
ononcei
thasbeencr
eat
ed.
Ar
o   et
e i
sadi
sposi
ti
ondev
elopedoutofacapaci
tybyt
hepr
operexer
ciseof
t
hatcapaci
ty.
o Habi
tsar
edev
elopedt
hroughact
ing;aper
son'
schar
act
eri
sthest
ruct
ureof
habi
tsandi
sfor
medbywhatwedo.

D.Vi
rt ar
ue,
  et
e,orexcel
l
encei
sdef
inedasameanbet
weent
woext
remesofexcess
anddef
ecti
nregar
dtoaf
eel
i
ngoract
ionast
hepr
act
ical
l
ywi
seper
sonwoul
d
det
ermi
nei
t.Themeancannotbecal
cul
at apr
ed  ior
i.
o Themeani
srel
ati
vet
othei
ndi
vi
dualandci
rcumst
ances.Forexampl
e,
consi
dert
hef
oll
owi
ngt
rai
ts:

Arist
otel
i
an Vi
rt
ues And ViceOfDef
ici
ency MeanOrVi
rt
ue Vi
ceOfExcess
VicesSpher
eOfActi
on
Fear cowardi
ce cour
age f
ool
har
diness

Pl
easur
eandPai
n i
nsensi
bil
i
ty t
emper
ance sel
f-
indul
gence

Acqui
sit
ion(
minor
) t
ightwad l
i
ber
ali
ty spendt
hri
ft or
pr
odi
gal
i
ty

Acqui
sit
ion(
maj
or) unduehumi
l
ity pr
ide or pr
oper unduev
ani
ty
ambi
ti
on

Anger uni
rasci
bil
i
ty pat
ience or good hot
headedness
t
emper

Sel
f-
Expr
essi
on Sel
f-
depr
ecat
ing t
rut
hful
ness boast
ful
ness

Conv
ersat
ion boor
ishness wi
tt
iness buf
fooner
y

Soci
alConduct cant
anker
ous f
ri
endl
i
ness obsequi
ousness

Exhi
bit
ion shamel
essness modest
y shy
ness

I
ndi
gnat
ion spi
tef
ulness r
ight
eous env
y
 i
ndi
gnat
ion

o The l
evelofcour
age necessar
yis di
ff
erentf
ora phi
l
osophy t
eacher
,a
commando,
andasy
stemspr
ogr
ammer
.

o Phr
onesi
s orpr
act
icalwi
sdom i
stheabi
l
ityt
oseet
her
ightt
hingt
odoi
nthe
ci
rcumst
ances.Not
ice,especi
all
y,Ar
ist
otl
e'
stheor
y does noti
mpl
y et
hical
r
elat
ivi
sm becauset
her
ear
eappr
opr
iat
est
andar
ds.
o I
nthe 
ont
ologi
cal
 
dimensi
on,v
irt
uei
samean;i
nthe 
axi
ologi
cal
 
dimensi
on,i
tis
an ext
reme orexcel
l
ence.Mar
ti
n Lut
herKi
ng,Jr
.rel
ates hi
s st
ruggl
eto
under
standt
hisdi
ff
erencei
nhi
s"Let
terf
rom Bi
rmi
ngham Jai
l
"whenhewr
ote,
"
Youspeakofouract
ivi
tyi
nBi
rmi
ngham asext
reme…Butt
houghIwasi
nit
ial
l
y
di
sappoi
ntedatbei
ngcat
egor
izedasanext
remi
st,asIcont
inuedt
othi
nkabout
t
hemat
terIgr
adual
l
ygai
nedameasur
eofsat
isf
act
ionf
rom t
hel
abel
.Wasnot
Jesusanext
remi
stf
orl
ove…?WasnotAmosanext
remi
stf
orj
ust
ice…?Wasnot
Paulanext
remi
stf
ort
heChr
ist
iangospel
…?Per
hapst
heSout
h,t
henat
ionand
t
hewor
ldar
eindi
reneedofcr
eat
iveext
remi
sts.
'
'
o Somepr
esumpt
ivel
yvi
rt
uousbehav
ior
scanbeanext
remeaswhen,
forexampl
e,
t
hemedi
evalphi
l
osopherPet
erAbél
ardexpl
ains,Nol
ongt
imet
her
eaf
terIwas
smi
tt
enwi
thagr
iev
ousi
l
lness,br
oughtuponmebymyi
mmoder
atezealf
or
st
udy
.(Pet
erAbél
ar Hi
d,
  st
ori
aCal
ami
tat
um 
tr
ans.Ral
phAdamsCr
am (
St.Paul
,
MN:
ThomasA.Boy
d,1922)
,4.
)
o I
nthe 
ont
ologi
cal
 
dimensi
on,v
irt
uei
samean;i
nthe 
axi
ologi
caldi
mensi
on,i
tis
anext
remeorexcel
l
ence.
 E.
g.,
Har
tmann'
sDi
agr
am:
  Pl
easur
eandpai
nar
epower
ful
det
ermi
nant
sofouract
ions.

I
II
. 
Pleasur
e i
sthenat
uralaccompani
mentofuni
mpededact
ivi
ty.Pl
easur
e,assuch,i
s
nei
thergoodnorbad.

D.Ev
enso,
pleasur
eissomet
hingposi
ti
veandi
tsef
fecti
stoper
fectt
heexer
ciseof
act
ivi
ty.Ev
ery
thi
ngf
rom pl
ayi
ngchesst
omaki
ngl
ovei
simpr
ovedwi
thski
l
l.

E.Pl
easur
ecannotbedi
rect
lysought
--
iti
sthesi
de-
productofact
ivi
ty.I
tisonl
yan
el
ementofhappi
ness.

F.Thegoodper
son,t
heonewhohasat
tai eudaemoni
ned  a,i
sthest
andar
dast
o
whati
str
ulypl
easantorunpl
easant
.

I
V. 
Fri
endshi
p:aper
son'
srel
ati
onshi
ptoaf
ri
endi
sthesameast
her
elat
iont
oonesel
f.
Thef
ri
endcanbet
houghtofasasecondsel
f.

C.I
nfr
iendshi
paper
sonl
oveshi
msel
f(egoi
sm)notasoneseeksmoneyf
or
hi
msel
f,butashegi
veshi
smoneyawayt
orecei
vehonor
.

D.Theki
ndsoff
ri
endshi
p:

 Ut
il
it
y
 Pl
easur
e
 TheGood-
-endur
esasl
ongasbot
hret
aint
hei
rchar
act
er.

V.
 The Cont
empl
ati
ve Facul
ty-
-t
he exer
cise ofper
fecthappi
ness i
nint
ell
ect
ualor
phi
l
osophi
cact
ivi
ty.

A.Reasoni
sthehi
ghestf
acul
tyofhumanbei
ngs.Wecanengagei
nitl
ongert
han
ot
heract
ivi
ti
es.

B.Phi
l
osophyi
slov
edasanend-
in-
it
sel
f, eudaemoni
andso  aimpl
i
esl
eisur
eandsel
f
-
suf
fi
ciencyasanenv
ironmentf
orcont
empl
ati
on.
Ar
ist
otl
eonPl
easur
e 

A summar
y ofAr
ist
otl
e'
s et
hics cl
ari
fi
es sev
erali
mpor
tantdi
sti
nct
ion bet
ween
happi
nessandpl
easur
e.

VI
I. Eudai
moni
a:t
hest
ateofper
sonalwel
l
bei
ng,hav
ingsel
f-
wor
th;exhi
bit
ingazest
f
orl
i
fe;
radi
ati
ngener
gy;
achi
evi
nghappi
ness,
"goodspi
ri
t,
"orsel
f-
presence.
VI
II
. Hence,happi
nessi
sact
ivi
tyoft
hesouli
naccor
dancewi
t ar
h  et
é(excel
l
enceor
v
irt
ue)
.
A. I
.e.
 Li
vi
ngwel
landdoi
ngwel
li
ntheaf
fai
rsoft
hewor
ld.
B. Pi
ctur
eyour
sel
faty
ourbest
. 
 Compar
eMasl
ow'
ssel
f-
act
ual
i
zingper
son
or Jung'
s i
ndi
vi
duat
ion of a per
son wi
th Ar
ist
otl
e'
s descr
ipt
ion
of
 eudai
moni
a.
I
X. Goodi
sthatt
owhi
chal
lthi
ngai
m;i
.
 e.
,thegoodi
sthatwhi
chper
for
msi
tspr
oper
f
unct
ion.
A. What const
it
utes a good wr
ench or a good cof
fee cup? The
pecul
i
arar
  et
é ofexcel
l
encei
sest
abl
i
shedbyi
tspur
pose.Thepecul
i
ar
excel
l
encei
stel
eol
ogi
cal
.
B. Whatconst
it
utesagoodper
son?
"
1)Act
ivi
tyoft
hesouli
naccor
dancewi
thr
eason(
thatcapaci
tywhi
chi
suni
quet
o
usasper
sons)
.
2)Thi
s act
ivi
tyi
s bot
h mor
al 
(doi
ng t
he r
ight t
hing at t
he r
ight t
ime)
and 
i
ntel
l
ect ar
ual
  et
é (
pract
ical
wisdom or
 phr
onesi
s).
3)Ar
ist
otl
enot
est
hatsomeext
ernalgoodsar
enecessar
yfort
heexer
ciseoft
hat
act
ivi
ty.
X. Mor
alVi
rt
ue 
i
snott
heendofl
i
fe,f
ori
tcangowi
thi
nact
ivi
ty,mi
ser
y,and
unhappi
ness.
XI
. Whati
s good f
ora per
son cannotbe answer
ed wi
tht
he exact
it
ude of
mat
hemat
ics.
A. Et
hics at
tempt
stof
ormul
ate gener
alpr
inci
ples whose appl
i
cat
ion i
s
dependentupont
heci
rcumst i
ancesathand(.
e.,
 
ini
ti
alcondi
ti
ons)
.(Not
e
t
hatAr
ist
otl
e'
stheor
ydoesnoti
mpl
y 
ethi
cal
rel
ati
vi
sm)
 B. Thedoct
ri
neoft
hemeani
snotadoct
ri
neofr
elat
ivi
sm butdoct
ri
ne
appl
i
edt
ospeci
fi
cci
rcumst
ances.
 E.
g.,whatandhow muchoneeat
s
di
ff
ersf
ora wei
ght
-l
if
terand a bal
l
eri
na-
-ev
en so,pr
operdi
ethas
gui
del
i
nesandst
andar
dswhi
chappl
ydi
ff
erent
lyaccor
dingt
odi
ff
erent
i
nit
ial
condi
ti
ons.
XI
I. Pl
easur
e,i
tsel
f,i
sasi
de-
productofact
ivi
ty;
pleasur
eresul
tsf
rom act
ivi
tywi
thout
hi
ndr
ance.
4)AsAr
ist
otl
eexpr
essesi
t,pl
easur
eist
henat
uralaccompani
mentofuni
mpeded
act
ivi
ty.
5)Pl
easur
e,assuch,
isnei
thergoodnorbad,
buti
ssomet
hingposi
ti
vebecauset
he
ef
fectofpl
easur
eper
fect
stheexer
ciseoft
hatact
ivi
ty.
6)Ev
enso,
Ari
stot
leemphasi
zest
hatpl
easur
eisnott
obesoughtf
ori
tsownsake.
Cf
( .
,thehedoni
sti
cpar
adox.
)

1.
3.Non-
Nor
mat
iveEt
hics/
Met
a-et
hics
1.
3.1.Whati
sMet
a-et
hics?
SupposeIam debat
ingwi
thaf
ri
endt
hequest
ionwhet
herornotweoughtt
ogi
vet
o
f
ami
ner
eli
ef,
whet
herornotwear
emor
all
yobl
i
gedt
ogi
vet
ofami
ner
eli
ef.Thesor
tsof
quest
ionsphi
l
osopher
srai
seaboutt
hiski
ndofdebat
efal
lroughl
yint
otwogr
oups.Fi
rst
,
t
her ef
ear i
rstor
derquest
ionsaboutwhi
chpar
tyi
nthedebat
e,i
fany
,isr
ight
,andwhy
.
Then,t
her esecondor
ear derquest
ionsaboutwhatt
hepar
ti
esi
nthedebat
ear
edoi
ng
whent
heyengagei
nit
.Roughl
y,t
hef
ir
stor
derquest
ionsar
ethepr
ovnceofnor
i mat
ive
et
hics,andt
hesecondor
derquest
ionsar
ethepr
ovnceofmet
i aet
hics.Asoner
ecent
wr
it
erput
sit
:

I
nmet
aet
hics,
wear
econcer
nednotwi
thquest
ionswhi
char
ethepr
ovi
nceofnor
mat
ive
et
hicsl
i
ke'
Shoul
dIgi
vet
ofami
ner
eli
ef?
'or'
Shoul
dIr
etur
nthewal
l
etIf
oundi
nthe
st
reet
?'butwi
thquest
ionsaboutquest
ionsl
i
ket
hese.

I
tisi
mpor
tantt
obecl
eart
hati
nnor
mat
iveet
hicswedonotj
ustl
ookf
orananswert
o
t
hequest
ion'
Shoul
dwegi
vet
ofami
ner
eli
ef?
'weal
sol
ookf
orsomei
nsi
ghti
ntowhy
t
her
ightansweri
sri
ght
.Iti
sint
hei
ranswer
stot
hisl
att
ersor
tof'
why
?'quest
iont
hat
t
hecl
assi
ctheor
iesi
nnor
mat
iveet
hicsdi
sagr
ee.Exampl
esofsucht
heor
iesi
ncl
ude:

 act
-ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm (
oneoughtt
o gi
vet
ofami
ner
eli
efbecauset
hatpar
ti
cul
ar
act
ion,oft
hosepossi
ble,cont
ri
but
esmostt
othegr
eat
erhappi
nessoft
he
gr
eat
estnumber
);r
ule-
uti
l
itar
iani
sm (
oneoughtt
ogi
vet
ofami
ner
eli
efbecause
gi
vi
ngt
ofami
ner
eli
efi
spr
escr
ibedbyar
ulet
hegener
alobser
vanceofwhi
ch
cont
ri
but
esmostt
othegr
eat
erhappi
nessoft
hegr
eat
estnumber
);and

 Kant
iani
sm (
oneoughtt
ogi
vet
ofami
ner
eli
efbecauseuni
ver
salr
efusalt
ogi
ve
t
ofami
ner
eli
efwoul
dgener
atesomeki
ndofi
nconsi
stency
).

Nor
mat
ive et
hics t
hus seeks t
o di
scov
ert
he gener
alpr
inci
ples under
lyi
ng mor
al
pr
act
ice,andi
nthi
swaypot
ent
ial
l
yimpact
suponpr
act
icalmor
alpr
obl
ems:di
ff
erent
gener
alpr
inci
plesmayy
iel
ddi
ff
erentv
erdi
ctsi
npar
ti
cul
arcases.Met
a-et
hics,r
ather
,
concer
nedwi
thquest
ionsaboutt
hef
oll
owi
ng:

g)Meani
( ng:whati
sthesemant
icf
unct
ionofmor
aldi
scour
se?I
sthef
unct
ionof
mor
aldi
scour
set
ost
atef
act
s,ordoesi
thav
esomeot
hernon-
fact
-st
ati
ngr
ole?
h)Met
( aphy
sics:domor
alf
act
s(orpr
oper
ti
es)exi
st?I
fso,whatar
etheyl
i
ke?Ar
e
t
heyi
dent
icalorr
educi
blet
osomeot
hert
ypeoff
act(
orpr
oper
ty)orar
ethey
i
rr
educi
bleandsui
gener
is?
(
i)Epi
stemol
ogyandj
ust
if
icat
ion:i
sther
esuchat
hingasmor
alknowl
edge?How
canweknowwhet
herourmor
alj
udgement
sar
etr
ueorf
alse?Howcanweev
er
j
ust
if
yourcl
aimst
omor
alknowl
edge?
(
j)Phenomenol
ogy
:how ar
emor
alqual
i
tiesr
epr
esent
edi
ntheexper
ienceofan
agentmaki
ngamor
alj
udgement
?Dot
heyappeart
obe'
outt
her
e'i
nthewor
ld?

k)Mor
( alpsy
chol
ogy
:whatcanwesayaboutt
hemot
ivat
ionalst
ateofsomeone
maki
ngamor
alj
udgement
?Whatsor
tofconnect
ioni
sther
ebet
weenmaki
nga
mor
alj
udgementandbei
ngmot
ivat
edt
oactast
hatj
udgementpr
escr
ibes?
(
l)Obj
ect
ivi
ty:canmor
alj
udgement
sreal
l
ybecor
rectori
ncor
rect
?Canwewor
k
t
owar
dsf
indi
ngoutt
hemor
alt
rut
h?

Obv
iousl
y,t
hisl
i
sti
snoti
ntendedt
obeexhaust
ive,
andt
hev
ari
ousquest
ionsar
enotal
l
i
ndependent(
forexampl
e,aposi
ti
veanswert
o(f
)looks,
ont
hef
aceofi
t,t
opr
esuppose
t
hatt
hef
unct
ionofmor
aldi
scour
sei
stost
atef
act
s).Buti
tiswor
thnot
ingt
hatt
hel
i
st
i
smuchwi
dert
hanmanyphi
l
osopher
sfor
tyorf
if
tyy
ear
sagowoul
dhav
ethought
.For
exampl
e,onesuchphi
l
osopherwr
it
es:

[
Met
aet
hics]i
snotaboutwhatpeopl
eoughtt
odo.I
tisaboutwhatt
heyar
edoi
ngwhen
t
heyt
alkaboutwhatt
heyoughtt
odo.

Thei
deat
hatmet
aet
hicsi
sexcl
usi
vel
yaboutl
anguagewasnodoubtduet
othemor
e
gener
ali
deat
hatphi
l
osophyasawhol
ehasnof
unct
ionot
hert
hant
hest
udyofor
dinar
y
l
anguageandt
hat'
phi
l
osophi
calpr
obl
ems'
onl
yar
isef
rom t
heappl
i
cat
ionofwor
dsout
oft
hecont
ext
sinwhi
cht
heyar
eor
dinar
il
yused.For
tunat
ely
,thi
s'or
dinar
ylanguage'
concept
ion ofphi
l
osophy has l
ong si
nce ceased t
o hol
d sway
,and t
he l
i
stof
met
aet
hicalconcer
ns – i
n met
aphy
sics,epi
stemol
ogy
,phenomenol
ogyand mor
al
psy
chol
ogy
,aswel
lasi
nsemant
icsandt
het
heor
yofmeani
ng– bear
sthi
sout
.
Posi
ti
onsi
nmet
aet
hicscanbedef
inedi
nter
msoft
heanswer
stheygi
vet
othesesor
ts
ofquest
ion.Someexampl
esofmet
aet
hical
theor
iesar
emor
alr
eal
i
sm,
non-
cogni
ti
vi
sm,
er
ror
-t
heor
yandmor
alant
i-
real
i
sm.

1.
3.2.Cogni
ti
vi
sm andNon-
Cogni
ti
vi
sm
Consi
derapar
ti
cul
armor
alj
udgement
,suchast
hej
udgementt
hatmur
deri
swr
ong.
Whatsor
tofpsy
chol
ogi
calst
ate does t
his expr
ess? Some phi
l
osopher
s,cal
l
ed
cogni
ti
vi
sts,
thi
nkt
hatamor
alj
udgementsuchast
hisexpr
essesabel
i
ef.Bel
i
efscanbe
t
rueorf
alse:t
heyar
etr
uth-
apt
,oraptt
obeassessedi
nter
msoft
rut
handf
alsi
ty.So
cogni
ti
vi
stst
hinkt
hatmor
alj
udgement
sar
ecapabl
eofbei
ngt
rueorf
alse.Ont
heot
her
hand,non-
cogni
ti
vi
stst
hinkt
hatmor
alj
udgement
sexpr
essnon-
cogni
ti
vest
atessuch
asemot
ionsordesi
res.Desi
resandemot
ionsar
enott
rut
h-apt
.Somor
alj
udgement
s
ar
enotcapabl
eofbei
ngt
rueorf
alse.(
Not
ethat
,al
thoughi
tmaybet
ruet
hatIhav
ea
desi
ref
orapi
ntofbeerandf
alset
hatIhav
eadesi
ret
oseeEt
hiopi
awi
ntheWor
ldCup,
t
hisdoesnoti
mpl
ythatdesi
rest
hemsel
vescanbet
rueorf
alse.
)

1.
3.2.
1. St
rongCogni
ti
vi
sm:
Nat
ural
i
sm
A st
rongcogni
ti
vi
stt
heor
yisonewhi
chhol
dst
hatmor
alj
udgement
s(a)ar
eaptf
or
ev
aluat
ion i
nter
msoft
rut
h and f
alsi
ty,and (
b)can bet
heupshotofcogni
ti
vel
y
accessi
ngt
hef
act
swhi
chr
endert
hem t
rue.St
rongcogni
ti
vi
stt
heor
iescanbeei
ther
nat
ural
i
stornon-
nat
ural
i
st.Accor
dingt
oanat
ural
i
st,amor
alj
udgementi
srender
ed
t
rueorf
alsebyanat
uralst
ateofaf
fai
rs,
andi
tist
hisnat
uralst
ateofaf
fai
rst
owhi
cha
t
ruemor
alj
udgementaf
for
dsusaccess.Butwhati
sanat
uralst
ateofaf
fai
rs?G.E.
Moor
e'schar
act
eri
zat
ion:“
By'
nat
ure'
,t
hen,Idomeanandhav
emeantt
hatwhi
chi
sthe
subj
ectmat
teroft
henat
uralsci
encesandal
soofpsy
chol
ogy
.”

A nat
uralpr
oper
tyi
sapr
oper
tywhi
chf
igur
esi
noneoft
henat
uralsci
encesori
n
psy
chol
ogy
:exampl
esmi
ghti
ncl
udet
hepr
oper
tyofbei
ngconduci
vet
othegr
eat
est
happi
ness oft
he gr
eat
estnumberand t
he pr
oper
ty ofbei
ng conduci
vet
othe
pr
eser
vat
ionoft
hehumanspeci
es.Anat
uralst
ateofaf
fai
rsi
ssi
mpl
yast
ateofaf
fai
rs
t
hatconsi
stsi
nthei
nst
ant
iat
ionofanat
ural
proper
ty.

Nat
ural
i
stcogni
ti
vi
stshol
dthatmor
alpr
oper
ti
esar
eident
ical
to(
orr
educi
blet
o)nat
ural
pr
oper
ti
es.TheCor
nel
lreal
i
sts(
e.g.Ni
chol
asSt
urgeon,Ri
char
dBoy
d,andDav
idBr
ink)
t
hinkt
hatmor
alpr
oper
ti
esar
eir
reduci
blenat
ural
proper
ti
esi
nthei
rownr
ight
.Nat
ural
i
st
r
educt
ioni
sts(
e.g.Ri
char
dthatmor
alpr
oper
ti
esar
ereduci
blet
otheot
hernat
ural
pr
oper
ti
est
hatar
ethesubj
ectmat
teroft
henat
uralsci
encesandpsy
chol
ogy
.Bot
hthe
Cor
nel
lreal
i
stsandt
henat
ural
i
str
educt
ioni
stsar
emor
alr
eal
i
sts:t
heyt
hinkt
hatt
her
e
r
eal
l
yar
emor
alf
act
sandmor
alpr
oper
ti
es,
andt
hatt
heexi
stenceoft
hesemor
alf
act
s
andi
nst
ant
iat
ionoft
hesemor
alpr
oper
ti
esi
sconst
it
uti
vel
yindependentofhuman
opi
nion.

1.
3.2.
1.1. St
rongCogni
ti
vi
sm:
Non-
Nat
ural
i
sm
Non-
nat
ural
i
stst
hinkt
hatmor
alpr
oper
ti
esar
enoti
dent
icalt
oorr
educi
blet
onat
ural
pr
oper
ti
es.Theyar
eir
reduci
bleandsuigener
is.Wewi
l
llookatt
wot
ypesofst
rong
cogni
ti
vi
stnon-
nat
ural
i
sm:Moor
e'set
hicalnon-
nat
ural
i
sm,
asdev
elopedi sPr
nhi inci
pia
Et
hica(
fi
rstpubl
i
shedi
n1903)
,accor
dingt
owhi
cht
hepr
oper
tyofmor
algoodnessi
s
non-
nat
ural
,si
mpl
e,andunanal
ysabl
e;andt
hecont
empor
aryv
ersi
onofnon-
nat
ural
i
sm
t
hathasbeendev
elopedbyJohnMcDowel
landDav
idWi
ggi
ns(
roughl
yfr
om t
he1970s
t
othepr
esentday
).Agai
n,bot
hty
pesofnon-
nat
ural
i
star
emor
alr
eal
i
sts:t
heyt
hinkt
hat
t
her
ereal
l
yar
emor
alf
act
sandmor
alpr
oper
ti
es,
andt
hatt
heexi
stenceoft
hesemor
al
f
act
sandi
nst
ant
iat
ionoft
hesemor
alpr
oper
ti
esi
sconst
it
uti
vel
yindependentofhuman
opi
nion.

1.
3.2.
1.2. St
rongCogni
ti
vi
sm wi
thoutMor
alReal
i
sm:Macki
e'
s'Er
ror
-
Theor
y'
JohnMacki
ehasar
guedt
hatal
thoughmor
alj
udgement
sar
eaptt
obet
rueorf
alse,
and
t
hatmor
alj
udgement
s,i
ftr
ue,woul
daf
for
duscogni
ti
veaccesst
omor
alf
act
s,mor
al
j
udgement
sar
einf
actal sf
way al
se.Thi
sisbecauset
her
esi
mpl
yar
enomor
alf
act
sor
pr
oper
ti
esi
nthewor
ldoft
hesor
trequi
redt
orenderourmor
alj
udgement
str
ue:we
hav
enopl
ausi
bleepi
stemol
ogi
calaccountofhow wecoul
daccesssuchf
act
sand
pr
oper
ti
es,and,mor
eov
er,suchpr
oper
ti
esandf
act dbemet
swoul aphy
sical
l
yqueer
,
unl
i
keany
thi
ngel
sei
ntheuni
ver
seasweknowi
t.Amor
alpr
oper
tywoul
dhav
etobe
sucht
hatt
hemer
eappr
ehensi
onofi
tbyamor
alagentwoul
dbesuf
fi
cientt
omot
ivat
e
t
hatagentt
oact
.Macki
efi
ndst
hisi
deaut
ter
lypr
obl
emat
ic.Heconcl
udest
hatt
her
ear
e
nomor
alpr
oper
ti
esormor
alf
act
s,sot
hat(
posi
ti
ve,at
omi
c)mor
alj
udgement
sar
e
uni
for
mlyf
alse:ourmor
alt
hinki
ngi
nvol
vesusi
nar caler
adi ror
.BecauseMacki
edeni
es
t
hatt
her
ear
emor
alf
act
sorpr
oper
ti
es,
hei
snotamor
alr
eal
i
stbutamor
, alant
ir
eal
i
st.

1.
3.2.
1.3. WeakCogni
ti
vi
sm aboutMor
alswi
thoutMor
alReal
i
sm:
'Best
Opi
nion'
Theor
ies
Aweakcogni
ti
vi
stt
heor
yisonewhi
chhol
dst
hatmor
alj
udgement
s

(
c)ar
eaptf
orev
aluat
ioni
nter
msoft
rut
handf
alsi
ty,
but
(
d)cannotbet
heupshotofcogni
ti
veaccesst
omor
alpr
oper
ti
esandst
atesof
af
fai
rs.

Weakcogni
ti
vi
sm t
husagr
eeswi
thst
rongcogni
ti
vi
sm on(
a),butdi
sagr
eeson(
b).An
exampl
eofaweakcogni
ti
vi
stt
heor
ywoul
dbeonewhi
chhel
dthatourbestj
udgement
s
aboutmor
alsdet
ermi
net
heext
ensi
onsofmor
alpr
edi
cat
es,r
athert
hanbei
ngbased
upon some f
acul
t ch t
ywhi racks,det
ect
s orcogni
ti
vel
yaccesses f
act
saboutt
he
i
nst
ant
iat
ionofmor
alpr
oper
ti
es.(
Theext
ensi
onofapr
edi
cat
eist
hecl
assoft
hings,
ev
ent
sorobj
ect
stowhi
cht
hatpr
edi
cat
emaycor
rect
lybeappl
i
ed.
)
Mor
alj
udgement
sar
ethuscapabl
eofbei
ngt
rueorf
alse,ev
ent
hought
heyar
enot
basedonaf
acul
tywi
that
racki
ng,accessi
ngordet
ect
ingr
ole-i
not
herwor
ds,ev
en
t
hought
ruemor
alj
udgement
sar
enott
heupshotofcogni
ti
veaccesst
omor
alst
atesof
af
fai
rs.Thi
svi
ewt
husr
eject
smor
alr
eal
i
sm,
notbydeny
ingt
heexi
stenceofmor
alf
act
s
(
li
ket
heer
ror
-t
heor
y),butbydeny
ingt
hatt
hosef
act
sar
econst
it
uti
vel
yindependentof
humanopi
nion.

1.
3.3.Non-
Cogni
ti
vi
sm
Non-
cogni
ti
vi
stsdenyt
hatmor
alj
udgement
sar
eev
enaptt
obet
rueorf
alse.Non-
cogni
ti
vi
stst
husdi
sagr
eewi
thbot
hweakandst
rongcogni
ti
vi
sm.Weshal
llookata
numberofar
gument
swhi
cht
he non-
cogni
ti
vi
stusesagai
nstcogni
ti
vi
sm.Anex
ampl
e
ofsuchanar
gumenti
sthear
gumentf
rom mor
alpsy
chol
ogy
.

Supposet
hatmor
alj
udgement
scanexpr
essbel
i
efs,ast
hecogni
ti
vi
stcl
aims.Bei
ng
mot
ivat
edt
odosomet
hingort
opur
sueacour
seofact
ioni
sal
way
samat
terofhav
ing
abel
i
efandadesi
re.Forexampl
e,Iam mot
ivat
edt
oreachf
ort
hef
ri
dgebecauseI
bel
i
evet
hati
tcont
ainswat
erandIhav
eadesi
ref
orwat
er.Buti
tisani
nter
naland
necessar
yfactaboutanagentt
hat
,ifshesi
ncer
elyj
udgest
hatX i
sgood,shei
s
mot
ivat
edt
opur
suet
hecour
seofact
ionX.Soi
famor
alj
udgementexpr
essedabel
i
ef,
i
twoul
dhav
etobeabel
i
efwhi
chsust
ainedani
nter
nalandnecessar
yconnect
iont
oa
desi
re:i
twoul
dhav
etobeanecessar
ytr
utht
hatanagentwhopossessedt
hebel
i
ef
di
woul nt
eral
i
apossesst
hedesi
re.Butnobel
i
efi
snecessar
il
yconnect
edt
oadesi
re
because,asHumecl
aimed,'
bel
i
efsand desi
resar
edi
sti
nctexi
stences'
,and i
tis
i
mpossi
blet
ohav
eanecessar
yconnect
ionbet
weendi
sti
nctexi
stences.Soi
tcannotbe
t
hecaset
hatmor
alj
udgement
sexpr
essbel
i
efs.Somor
alj
udgement
sar
enott
rut
h-apt
.
I
fmor
alj
udgement
scannotexpr
essbel
i
ef whatdot
s, heyexpr
ess?

Weshal
llookatt
hreev
ersi
onsofnon-
cogni
ti
vi
sm whi
chgi
vedi
ff
erentanswer
stot
his
quest
ion:

 J.Ay
ers emot
' ivi
sm (
1936)
,accor
ding t
o whi
ch mor
alj
udgement
s ex
press
emot
ions,
orsent
iment
sofappr
oval
ordi
sappr
oval
;
 Si
monBl
ackbur
n'squasi
-r
eal
i
sm (
1984)
,accor
dingt
owhi
chmor
alj
udgement
s
 expr
essourdi
sposi
ti
onst
ofor
m sent
iment
sofappr
oval
ordi
sappr
oval
;and
 Al
l
an Gi
bbar
d's nor
m-expr
essi
vi
sm (
1990)
,accor
ding t
o whi
ch ourmor
al
j
udgement
sexpr
essouraccept
anceofnor
ms.

Per
hapst
hemai
nchal
l
enget
onon-
cogni
ti
vi
sm i
swhati
scal
l heFr
edt ege-Geach
pr
obl
em.Accor
dingt
oemot
ivi
sm,f
orexampl
e,j
udgi
ngt
hatmur
deri
swr
ongi
sreal
l
y
j
ustl
i
keshout
ing'
Boof
ormur
der
!'(
whenIshout'
Boo!
'Iam ev
inci
ngmydi
sappr
oval
;I
am notat
tempt
i odescr
ngt ibesomet
hing)
.Butwhatabout'
I
fmur
deri
swr
ong,
theni
tis
wr
ong t
o mur
dery
ourmot
her
-i
n-l
aw'
? Thi
s makes sense.Buton t
he emot
ivi
st
i
nter
pret
ati
oni
tdoesn'
t(whatwoul
ditsoundl
i
keonanemot
ivi
sti
nter
pret
ati
on?
).

1.
3.3.
1. I
nter
nal
i
sm andExt
ernal
i
sm,
Humeani
sm andAnt
i-Humeani
sm
Oneoft
hepr
emi
sesi
nthear
gumentf
rom mor
alpsy
chol
ogyabov
eist
hecl
aimt
hat
t
her
eisan i
nter
naland necessar
yconnect
ion bet
ween si
ncer
elymaki
ng a mor
al
j
udgementandbei
ngmot
ivat
edt
oacti
nthemannerpr
escr
ibedbyt
hatj
udgement
.Thi
s
cl
ai sknownasi
mi nter
nal
i
sm,becausei
tsay
sthatt
her
eisani
nter
nalorconcept
ual
connect
ionbet
weenmor
alj
udgementandmot
ivat
ion.

Somecogni
ti
vi
stphi
l
osopher
srespondt
othear
gumentf
rom mor
alpsy
chol
ogyby
deny
ingi
nter
nal
i
sm.Theycl
aimt
hatt
heconnect
i weenj
onbet udgementandmot
ivat
ion
i
sonl
yex
ter
nalandcont
ingent
.Suchphi
l
osopher eknownasext
sar ernal
i
sts.Ot
her
cogni
ti
vi
stphi
l
osopher
srespondt
othear
gumentf
rom mor
alpsy
chol
ogybydeny
ing
anot
herpr
emi
se oft
he ar
gument
,the cl
aim t
hatmot
ivat
ion al
way
sinv
olv
es t
he
esenceofbot
pr hbel
i
efsanddesi
res(
thi
spr
emi
sei heHumeant
sknownast heor
yof
mot
ivat
ion,si
ncei
trecei
vedacl
assi
cexposi
ti
onbyHume)
.McDowel
landWi
ggi
ns
anceanant
adv i-
Humeant
heor
yofmot
ivat
ion,accor
dingt
owhi
chbel
i
efst
hemsel
ves
canbei
ntr
insi
cal
l
ymot
ivat
ing.