I

ntr
oduct
ion

I
ssuesandar
gument
s

Cr
it
icalt
hinki
ngi
sthecar
eful
,del
i
ber
atedet
ermi
nat
ionofwhet
her
weshoul
daccept
,rej
ectorsuspendj
udgmentaboutacl
aim-and
oft
hedegr
eeofconf
idencewi
thwhi
cht
oacceptorr
ejecti
t.I
n
ot
herwor
ds,
cri
ti
calt
hinki
ngi
sthear
tofensur
ingt
haty
ouuse
t
hebestt
hinki
ngy
ouar
ecapabl
eofi
nanysetofci
rcumst
ances.
Theabi
l
ityt
othi
nkcr
it
ical
l
yisv
ital
l
yimpor
tant
,inf
actourl
i
ves
dependoni
t.Thewayweconductourl
i
vesdependsonwhatwe
bel
i
evet
obet
rue-
onwhatcl
aimsweaccept
.Themor
ecar
eful
l
y
weev
aluat
eacl
aim andt
hemor
eful
l
ywesepar
atei
ssuet
hatar
e
r
elev
antt
oitf
rom t
hoset
hatar
enot
,themor
ecr
it
icali
sour
t
hinki
ng.

Now,
whenev
erwehav
etot
hinkcr
it
ical
l
ythef
ir
sti
tem of
busi
nessi
stomakesur
ewear
efocusi
ngont
hecor
recti
ssue.
Butt
henwhati
sani
ssue?Ani
ssuei
sanymat
terofcont
rov
ersy
oruncer
tai
nty
;itmaybei
ndi
sput
e,i
ndoubt
,orsi
mpl
y“upf
or
r
evi
ew.
”Forexampl
epeopl
emayhav
eopposi
ngv
iewson
abor
ti
on.Onepar
tbei
ngf
orandt
heot
heragai
nstabor
ti
on.I
n
t
hiscase,
whati
sati
ssuei
s“whet
herabor
ti
oni
smor
all
y”
accept
abl
e.Ani
ssuecanal
sobeamat
terofi
nter
naldi
sput
efora
si
ngl
eindi
vi
dual
.Forexampl
e,“
whet
herIshoul
dacceptt
he
mar
ri
agepr
oposaloft
hisguy
,”“
whet
herIshoul
dbuyanewcar
”
et
c.Myuncer
tai
ntyi
swhatmakesi
tani
ssuef
orme.Howt
hen
dower
esol
vei
ssues?I
ssuesar
eset
tl
edt
hroughar
gument
s.
Gener
all
yanar
gumentcanbet
houghtofasanat
temptt
o
suppor
tacl
aim bygi
vi
ngr
easonsf
orbel
i
evi
ngi
t.Thecl
aim one
at
tempt
stosuppor
tisknownast
heconcl
usi
onoft
hear
gument
;
t
hecl
aimst
hatser
veasr
easonsf
orbel
i
evi
ngt
heconcl
usi
onar
e
knownaspr
emi
ses.

So,
thenanar
gumenti
sanat
temptt
osuppor
tacl
aim(
the
concl
usi
on)bypr
ovi
dingr
easonsorar
easonf
orbel
i
evi
ngi
t(t
he
pr
emi
ses)
.Inot
herwor
ds,
inanar
gument
,pr
emi
sesar
edesi
gned
t
opr
ovi
desuppor
tforaconcl
usi
on.

Fact
sandOpi
nions

Thewor
dfacti
sof
tenusedt
oindi
cat
eoremphasi
zet
hatacl
aim
i
str
ue.Forexampl
e,i
tisaf
actt
hatmountKi
l
imanj
aroi
sin
Tanzani
awhi
chmeanst
hesameasi
tist
ruet
hatmount
Ki
l
imanj
aroi
sinTanzani
a.Thewor
dopi
nionont
heot
herhandi
s
usedt
oindi
cat
ethatacl
aimi
sbel
i
eved,
orj
udgedt
obet
rueby
someone,
oft
enaf
teracer
tai
namountoft
hought
.E.
g.,
Iti
s
Juma’
sopi
niont
hatmountKi
l
imanj
aroi
sinTanzani
asay
sthat
Jumabel
i
evesmountKi
l
imanj
aroi
sinTanzani
a.Si
mil
arl
y,i
tis
Jane’
sopi
niont
hatMountKi
l
imanj
aroi
sinKeny
asay
sthatJane
bel
i
evest
hatMountKi
l
imanj
aroi
sinKeny
a.

Tal
ki
ngaboutt
het
woopi
nionsabov
e,i
tmaybeseent
hatt
he
f
ir
stopi
nioni
str
ue,
thati
sthecl
aimi
snotj
ustJuma’
sopi
nion,
it
i
sal
soaf
act
.Thesecondopi
nioni
sfal
se,
i.
e.,
iti
snotaf
actt
hat
MountKi
l
imanj
aroi
sinKeny
a.Thi
smeanst
hatsomeopi
nions
ar
efact
ual(
true)andsomear
enot
.Ther
efor
eoneoft
hegoal
sof
cr
it
icalt
hinki
ngi
stohel
pusf
orm opi
nionst
hatar
efact
ualand
av
oidf
alseopi
nions.

Fact
ualmat
ter(
mat
teroff
act
)

Wesayt
hatani
ssuei
saboutaf
act
ualmat
teroramat
teroff
act
whent
her
ear
eest
abl
i
shedmet
hodsf
orset
tl
ingi
t,i
.e.
,whent
her
e
ar
egener
all
yaccept
edcr
it
eri
aorst
andar
dsonwhi
cht
hei
ssue
cabbej
udged.Not
icet
hatsay
ingsomet
hingi
saf
act
ualmat
teri
n
t
hissensei
sdi
ff
erentf
rom say
ingt
hati
tisaf
act
.Forexampl
e,
consi
dert
hei
ssueofwhet
herl
eukemi
ainhumansi
scausedbya
v
irusornot
.(I
tisnotknownasofy
etwhet
herl
eukemi
aiscaused
byv
irusornot
).Butev
ent
houghwedonotknowt
hati
tisaf
act
t
hatav
iruscausesl
eukemi
a,i
tisaf
act
ualmat
terbecauset
her
e
ar
eaccept
edmet
hodsandcr
it
eri
abymeansofwhi
cht
he
quest
ioncanbeanswer
ed,
namel
y,t
hemet
hodsofl
abor
ator
y
sci
ence.Anot
herexampl
e;whet
herLaur
entBagbowont
hel
ast
el
ect
ionsi
nIv
oryCoastornot
.Or
,whet
herLi
byanswantt
he
oust
erofMuammarGaddaf
iornot
.

Mat
ter
sofPur
eOpi
nion

SupposeRoset
hinksdogsmakebet
terpet
sthancat
sandAi
sha
t
hinkscat
sar
ebet
ter
.Af
tersomedi
scussi
on,
itmi
ghtbeei
ther
RoseorAshercoul
dconv
incet
heot
hert
ochangehi
smi
nd,
buti
t
i
satl
eastl
i
kel
ythatbot
hwi
l
lst
ickwi
tht
hei
ror
igi
nalopi
nions.
Ther
eisnosetoff
act
sornogener
all
yaccept
edmet
hodor
st
andar
dwemi
ghtempl
oyt
hatwoul
denabl
eust
odeci
det
he
i
ssuedef
ini
ti
vel
yonewayort
heot
her
.Fort
hisr
easonwet
hinkof
i
ssuesl
i
ket
hisasmat
ter
sofpur
eopi
nion.

Onecanbeei
therwr
ongorcor
rectwhendi
sagr
eei
ngonamat
ter
off
act
,i.
e.,
twoconf
li
cti
ngopi
nionsaboutamat
teroff
actcannot
bebot
hcor
rect
.Butweal
l
owt
wopeopl
etohol
dconf
li
cti
ng
opi
nionsaboutmat
ter
sofpur
eopi
nion.
Ot
herexampl
esofmat
ter
sofpur
eopi
nion:Somebodymaymake
t
hiscl
aim,
”Godexi
sts”andt
heot
hercont
ends,
“Goddoesnot
exi
st.
”Or“
pol
i
ciesofl
i
ber
ali
sm ar
eessent
ialf
ordev
elopment
.”Or
“
Tanzani
aisani
cecount
ryt
oli
vei
n.”“
Chr
ist
iani
tyi
stheonl
ytr
ue
r
eli
gion”or“
Isl
am i
stheonl
ytr
uer
eli
gion.
”

Obj
ect
iveandsubj
ect
ivecl
aims

Connect
edt
othet
woconcept
sabov
ear
esubj
ect
iveand
obj
ect
ivecl
aims.Now,
clai
msaboutf
act
ualmat
ter
sar
eal
so
knownasobj
ect
ivecl
aims,
wher
eascl
aimsaboutmat
ter
sofpur
e
opi
nionar
eknownassubj
ect
ivecl
aims.Obj
ect
ivecl
aimsar
e
st
atement
sthatar
etr
ueorf
alser
egar
dlessofourper
sonal
pr
efer
ences,
tast
es,
biasesandsoon.Subj
ect
ivecl
aimsar
e
expr
essi
onoft
hosepr
efer
ences,
tast
es,
biasesandsoon,
al
thought
heymayappearatf
ir
stt
obeaboutsomet
hingel
se.For
exampl
e,i
fIsayt
hatMi
ri
ndat
ast
esbet
tert
hanFant
a,Iam say
ing
i
not
herwor
dst
hatIl
i
ket
het
ast
eof
Mir
indabet
tert
hanIl
i
ket
he
t
ast
eofFant
a.So,
IfJanesay
sMi
ri
ndat
ast
esbet
tert
hanFant
a
andAshasay
sFant
atast
esbet
tert
hanMi
ri
nda,
theycanbot
hbe
cor
rectbecauseeachi
sreal
l
yexpr
essi
nghi
sownt
ast
es.

NB:
1.Manypeopl
eassumet
hatacl
aimi
ssubj
ect
ive–amat
terof
pur
eopi
nionsi
mpl
ybecausei
tiscont
rov
ersi
al.Thi
sisabad
mi
stake.Whet
hert
hedeat
hpenal
tyl
ower
scr
imer
ates,
whet
her
humanbei
ngsev
olv
edf
rom mor
epr
imi
ti
vepr
imat
es,
whet
hert
he
wor
ldhasanendornot
-thesear
eal
lcont
rov
ersi
ali
ssues,
butal
l
oft
hem ar
efact
ualmat
ter
s.Thati
s,wecani
magi
nepr
ocedur
es
bywhi
cht
heycanbet
est
edt
odet
ermi
newhet
hert
heyar
etr
ue.

Ther
ear
elegi
ti
mat
edi
sput
esaboutt
heobj
ect
iveandsubj
ect
ive
nat
ureofsomecl
aims.Manypl
acecl
aimsaboutmor
ali
ssuesi
n
t
hiscat
egor
y.“
Steal
i
ngi
swr
ongi
ssai
dbyt
obeanobj
ect
ive
cl
aim,
ast
atementoff
act
,ot
her
stakei
ttobeasubj
ect
ivecl
aim,
anexpr
essi
onofpur
eopi
nion.Ther
ear
esomesophi
sti
cat
ed
ar
gument
sabouthowsuchcl
aimsshoul
dbecl
assi
fi
ed.The
samei
str
uef
orcl
aimsl
i
ke“Godexi
sts.
”Somesayt
hisi
sa
st
rai
ghtf
orwar
dobj
ect
ivecl
aim;
other
ssayi
tisn’
tacl
aim atal
l
.
Howev
eronesor
tsoranal
ysest
heseki
ndsofcl
aims,
theydo
hav
eonet
hingi
ncommon:whet
herornotwecanf
inal
l
y
det
ermi
net
het
rut
haboutt
hem,
itst
il
lremai
nst
ruet
hatsome
opi
nionsar
ebet
terr
easoned(
orhav
emor
eval
ue)
-andi
ndeed,
mor
eint
ell
i
gent
-thanot
her
s.

2.Pr
obl
emsoccurwhenwef
ailt
ounder
standt
hedi
ff
erences
bet
weenmat
ter
soff
actandmat
ter
sofpur
eopi
nion,
and
bet
weenobj
ect
iveandsubj
ect
ivecl
aimswi
thwhi
chwest
ate
t
hem.Wecanwast
eti
mebyt
ryi
ngt
oconv
incesomeonet
o
changehi
sorhermi
ndonamat
terofpur
eopi
nion,
sincei
nthe
l
ongr
unt
her
eisnowayt
ofi
nal
l
yset
tl
ethemat
ter
.Ont
heot
her
hand,
wemakeaser
iousmi
stakei
fwet
reatamat
teroff
actasi
f
i
twer
eoneofpur
eopi
nion.Cal
l
ingi
tpur
eopi
nioncanbean
excusef
orf
ail
i
ngt
opur
suet
hei
ssue;
itcanbeawayofav
oidi
ng
adi
ff
icul
tpr
obl
em orabandoni
ngi
tbef
orewe’
vet
ri
edourbestt
o
set
tl
eitonewayoranot
her
.

3.Ther
eisanot
hermi
staket
hati
ssocommont
hati
tdeser
ves
speci
alconsi
der
ati
on.Youcaneasi
l
yspott
hemi
stakebecausei
t
al
mostal
way
stakest
hesamef
orm,
event
hesamewor
ds:
“
Ever
yonei
sent
it
ledt
ohi
sorherownopi
nion.
”Now,
iti
str
ue
t
hati
nsomesense,
ever
yonei
sent
it
ledt
ohi
sorherownopi
nion
onany
thi
ng.Ther
easonf
ort
hisi
sthat
,inany
thi
ngexcepta
compl
etel
yaut
hor
it
ari
andi
ctat
orshi
p,peopl
ear
enotf
orcedt
o
hol
dagi
vensetofopi
nions.But
-andt
hisi
sthemi
stake–t
he
f
actt
hatwedonotf
orcepeopl
etohav
ethi
sort
hatopi
nionona
subj
ectdoesnotmeant
hatoneopi
nionmaynotbemuchmor
e
i
ntel
l
igent
,muchmor
epr
act
ical
,muchmor
ehumanet
hansome
ot
heropi
nion.I
ndeedsomeopi
nionsar
esobad,
sost
upi
d,orso
danger
oust
hati
tmaybehazar
dousorev
eni
mmor
alt
ohol
d
t
hem.Opi
nionssuchassomer
acesar
esuper
iort
hanot
her
s,or
humansl
aver
yisaj
ust
if
iabl
efor
m ofl
abouroranyonehast
he
r
ightt
oter
minat
ehi
s/herownl
i
fe.Al
thoughi
tisv
italt
oar
gue
agai
nstsuchdef
ect
iveopi
nions,
ther
ealdangeroft
he
“
ent
it
lementer
ror
”ist
hati
tkeepspeopl
efr
om t
alki
ngand
r
easoni
ngwi
thoneanot
her
.Weshoul
dn’
tconf
uset
heequalv
alue
ofpeopl
ewi
tht
heequalv
alueofpeopl
e’
sopi
nions.Remember
j
ustbecauseHumanRi
ght
sChar
tergi
vesequalwor
tht
opeopl
e,i
t
doesnotgi
veequalwor
tht
opeopl
e’
sopi
nions.

Thi
nki
ngaboutourownt
hinki
ng

Ev
ery
bodyt
hinks.I
tisnat
uralt
ohumanst
othi
nk.Buthuman
t
hinki
ngl
eftt
oit
sel
fof
tengr
avi
tat
etowar
dspr
ejudi
ce,
ov
ergener
ali
zat
ion,
commonf
all
aci
es,
sel
fdecept
ion,
rigi
dit
yand
nar
rowness.Ther
efor
ehumant
hinki
ngneedst
obedi
sci
pli
ned,
humanmi
ndsneedst
obet
rai
nedsoast
oav
oidt
heabov
e
t
hinki
ngpr
obl
ems.Thecr
it
icalt
hinki
ngt
radi
ti
onseeksway
sof
under
standi
ngt
hemi
ndandt
hent
rai
ningt
hei
ntel
l
ectsot
hat
such“
err
ors”
,“bl
under
s”and“
dist
ort
ions”oft
houghtar
e
mi
nimi
zed.I
tassumest
hatt
hecapaci
tyofhumansf
orgood
r
easoni
ngcanbenur
tur
edanddev
elopedbyaneducat
ional
pr
ocessai
meddi
rect
lyatt
hatend.

Thi
nki
ngpl
aysav
erypower
fulr
olei
nourl
i
ves.Youar
einmany
way
swhaty
out
hink.What
every
ouar
edoi
ng,
what
every
ouf
eel
,
andwhat
every
ouwant–al
lar
edet
ermi
nedbyt
hequal
i
tyofy
our
t
hinki
ng.Thi
nki
ngi
nfl
uencesourf
eel
i
ngsandf
inal
l
yourf
eel
i
ngs
wi
l
linf
luencet
hewaywebehav
eandact
.Onehast
obeawar
eor
consci
ousofhi
s/herownt
hinki
ng.Howev
erf
ormostpeopl
e,
mostoft
hei
rthi
nki
ngi
ssubconsci
ous,
thati
smostpeopl
ear
e
notawar
eoft
hei
rthi
nki
ng.Andwheny
ouar
enotawar
eofy
our
t
hinki
ngy
ouhav
enochanceofcor
rect
ingi
t.Whent
hinki
ngi
s
subconsci
ousy
ouar
einnoposi
ti
ont
oseeanypr
obl
emsi
nit
.
And,
ify
oudon’
tseeanypr
obl
emsi
nity
ouwon’
tbemot
ivat
edt
o
changei
t.Ev
ent
ual
l
ymostpeopl
ear
evi
cti
msoft
hei
rown
t
hinki
ng.Mostpeopl
ear
ethei
rownwor
stenemy
.Thei
rthi
nki
ngi
s
acont
inualsour
ceofpr
obl
ems,
prev
ent
ingt
hem f
rom
r
ecogni
zi
ngoppor
tuni
ti
es,
keepi
ngt
hem f
rom exer
ti
ngener
gy
wher
eitwi
l
ldot
hemostgood,
poi
soni
ngr
elat
ionshi
ps,
and
l
eadi
ngt
hem downbl
i
ndal
l
eys.Thati
swhycr
it
icalt
hinki
ngi
s
essent
ial
l
ydef
inedast
hear
toft
aki
ngchar
geofy
ourownmi
nd.
Andi
fwecant
akechar
geofourownmi
nds,
wecant
akechar
ge
ofourl
i
ves;
wecani
mpr
ovet
hem,
bri
ngi
ngt
hem underoursel
f
commandanddi
rect
ion.Thi
sinv
olv
esbecomi
ngi
nter
est
edon
howourmi
ndswor
k,howwecanmoni
tor
,fi
net
uneandmodi
fy
t
hei
roper
ati
onsf
ort
hebet
ter
.Iti
nvol
vesget
ti
ngi
ntot
hehabi
tof
r
efl
ect
ivel
yexami
ningouri
mpul
seandaccust
omedway
sof
t
hinki
ngandact
ingi
nev
erydi
mensi
onofourl
i
ves.

Al
lthatwedo,
wedoont
hebasi
sofsomemot
ivat
ionorr
easons.
Butwer
arel
yexami
neourmot
ivat
ionst
oseei
ftheymakesense.
Wer
arel
yscr
uti
nizeourr
easonscr
it
ical
l
ytoseei
ftheyar
e
r
ati
onal
l
yjust
if
ied.Consi
dert
hef
oll
owi
ngr
eall
i
feexampl
es:

1.Asconsumer
swesomet
imesbuyt
hingsi
mpul
siv
elyand
uncr
it
ical
l
y,wi
thoutst
oppi
ngt
odet
ermi
newhet
herwer
eal
l
yneed
whatwear
eincl
i
nedt
obuyorwhet
herwecanaf
for
ditorwhet
her
i
tisgoodf
orourheal
thorwhet
hert
hepr
icei
scompet
it
ive.

2.Aspar
ent
sweof
tenr
espondt
oourchi
l
dreni
mpul
siv
elyand
uncr
it
ical
l
y,wi
thoutst
oppi
ngt
odet
ermi
newhet
herouract
ions
ar
econsi
stentwi
thhowwewantt
oactaspar
ent
sorwhet
herwe
ar
econt
ri
but
ingt
othei
rsel
f-
est
eem orwhet
herwear
e
di
scour
agi
ngt
hem f
rom t
hinki
ngorf
rom t
aki
ngr
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
or
t
hei
rownbehav
ior
.
3.Asci
ti
zenst
oo,
weof
tenv
otei
mpul
siv
elyanduncr
it
ical
l
y,
wi
thoutt
aki
ngt
het
imet
ofami
l
iar
izeour
sel
veswi
tht
her
elev
ant
i
ssuesandposi
ti
ons,
wit
houtt
hinki
ngaboutt
hel
ongr
un
i
mpl
i
cat
ionofwhati
sbei
ngpr
oposed,
wit
houtpay
ingat
tent
iont
o
howpol
i
tici
ansmani
pul
ateusbyf
lat
ter
yorv
agueandempt
y
pr
omi
ses.

4.Asf
ri
ends,
tooof
tenwebecomet
hev
ict
imsofourown
i
nfant
il
eneeds,
“get
ti
ngi
nvol
ved”wi
thpeopl
ewhobr
ingoutt
he
wor
sti
nusorwhost
imul
ateust
oacti
nway
sthatwehav
ebeen
t
ryi
ngt
ochange.

5.Ashusbandsorwi
vest
oo,
oft
enwet
hinkonl
yofourown
desi
resandpoi
ntsofv
iew,
uncr
it
ical
l
yignor
ingt
heneedsand
per
spect
ivesofourmat
es,
assumi
ngt
hatwhatwewantandwhat
wet
hinki
scl
ear
lyj
ust
if
iedandt
rue,
andt
hatwhent
heydi
sagr
ee
wi
thust
heyar
ebei
ngunr
easonabl
eandunf
air
.

6.Aspat
ient
s,t
ooof
tenweal
l
owour
sel
vest
obecomepassi
ve
anduncr
it
icali
nourheal
thcar
e,notest
abl
i
shi
nggoodhabi
tsof
eat
ingandexer
cise,
notquest
ioni
ngwhatourdoct
orsay
s,not
desi
gni
ngandf
oll
owi
nggoodpl
ansf
orourownwel
l
ness.
7.Ast
eacher
s,t
ooof
tenweal
l
owour
sel
vest
ouncr
it
ical
l
yteach
aswehav
ebeent
aught
,gi
vi
ngassi
gnment
sthatst
udent
scan
mi
ndl
essl
ydo,
inadv
ert
ent
lydi
scour
agi
ngt
hei
rini
ti
ati
veand
i
ndependence,
missi
ngoppor
tuni
ti
est
ocul
ti
vat
ethei
rsel
f-
di
sci
pli
neandt
hought
ful
ness.

I
tisqui
tepossi
bleand,
unf
ort
unat
ely
,qui
te“
nat
ural
”tol
i
vean
unexami
nedl
i
fe;
tol
i
vei
namor
eorl
essaut
omat
ed,
uncr
it
ical
way
.Iti
spossi
blet
oli
ve,
inot
herwor
ds,
wit
houtr
eal
l
ytaki
ng
char
geoft
heper
sonswear
ebecomi
ng;
wit
houtdev
elopi
ngor
act
ingupont
heski
l
lsandi
nsi
ght
swear
ecapabl
eof
.Howev
er,
if
weal
l
owour
sel
vest
obecomeunr
efl
ect
iveper
sons–(
orr
ather
,
t
otheext
entt
hatwedo)–wear
eli
kel
ytodoi
njur
ytoour
sel
ves
andt
oot
her
s,andt
omi
ssmanyoppor
tuni
ti
est
omakeourown
l
i
ves,
andt
hel
i
vesofot
her
s,f
ull
er,
happi
er,
andmor
epr
oduct
ive.

Ont
hisv
iew,
youcanseecr
it
icalt
hinki
ngi
sanemi
nent
lypr
act
ical
goalandv
alue.I
tisf
ocusedonananci
entGr
eeki
dealof“
li
vi
ngan
exami
nedl
i
fe”
…(r
ememberSocr
ates.
.?
).I
tisbasedont
heski
l
ls,
t
hei
nsi
ght
sandt
hev
aluesessent
ialt
othatend.I
tisawayof
goi
ngaboutl
i
vingandl
ear
ningt
hatempower
susasi
nst
ruct
ors
andourst
udent
sinqui
tepr
act
icalway
s.Whent
akenser
iousl
yit
cant
ransf
orm ev
erydi
mensi
onofourl
i
fe.
Whenwet
ryt
othi
nkaboutourownt
hinki
ngwehav
etot
ake
st
ockoft
het
hingsorf
act
orst
hathav
ehad,
andcont
inuet
ohav
e
i
nfl
uenceonourt
hinki
ng,
oronourwor
ldv
iew.Themedi
a,t
he
school
i
ng,
thef
ami
l
y,ourpeer
s,r
eli
gion,
tradi
ti
onsandcust
oms
andmanyot
her
s;al
loft
heseagent
shav
ehadandcont
inuest
o
exer
tapr
ofoundi
nfl
uenceonourt
hinki
ngandourl
i
vesi
ngener
al.
Theyhav
ebot
hnegat
iveandposi
ti
veef
fect
s.Af
terr
ecogni
zi
ng
t
hef
actt
hatal
ltheseagent
sar
eresponsi
blef
oraper
son’
swor
ld
v
iew,
onehast
otaket
het
roubl
etochal
l
enget
hecont
ent
sof
t
hese‘
soci
ali
zat
ion’
agent
s.Toquest
ional
lthathasi
nfl
uenced
t
hewaywev
iewt
hewor
ld.Tochal
l
enget
hewr
ongnot
ionsi
nthe
medi
a,f
ami
l
y,school
,rel
i
gionet
c,et
c.

Amongot
hert
hingst
hiscour
sewi
l
lhel
pyout
oimpr
ovet
he
qual
i
tyofy
ourt
hinki
ngbyquest
ioni
ngal
ltheunquest
ioned
i
magi
nat
iveassumpt
ions,
andt
her
efor
ehel
pyout
oachi
evey
our
goal
sandambi
ti
ons,
makebet
terdeci
sions,
andunder
stand
wher
eot
her
sar
etr
yingt
oinf
luencey
ourt
hinki
ng.I
twi
l
lhel
pyou
t
otakechar
geofwhaty
oudoi
nyouracademi
candpr
ivat
eli
fe,
howy
our
elat
ewi
thot
her
sandev
enwhatemot
ionsy
ouf
eel
.
Oncey
oudi
scov
ert
hepowerandt
her
oleoft
hinki
ngi
nyourl
i
fe
y
ouwi
l
lbecomeabet
terpr
obl
em sol
ver
,youw2i
l
lbeabl
etouse
powermor
ewi
sel
y,y
ouwi
l
lbecomel
esssubj
ectt
omani
pul
ati
on,
y
ouwi
l
lli
veaf
ull
er,
mor
ehappyandsecur
eli
fe.

Ot
herbenef
it
sofcr
it
icalt
hinki
ngi
ncl
ude:

1.I
NAcademi
cPer
for
mance

Under
standt
hear
gument
sandbel
i
efsofot
her
s

Cr
it
ical
l
yev
aluat
ingt
hosear
gument
sandbel
i
efs

Dev
elopanddef
endone’
sownwel
l
-suppor
tedar
gument
sand
bel
i
efs.

2.I
NtheWor
kpl
ace

Hel
psust
oref
lectandgetadeeperunder
standi
ngofourown
andot
her
s’deci
sions

Encour
ageopen-
mindednesst
ochange

Ai
dusi
nbei
ngmor
eanal
yti
cali
nsol
vi
ngpr
obl
ems
3.I
NDai
l
yli
fe

Hel
psust
oav
oidmaki
ngf
ool
i
shper
sonaldeci
sions.

Pr
omot
esani
nfor
medandconcer
nedci
ti
zenr
ycapabl
eofmaki
ng
gooddeci
sionsoni
mpor
tantsoci
al,
pol
i
ticalandeconomi
cissues.

Ai
dsi
nthedev
elopmentofaut
onomoust
hinker
scapabl
eof
exami
ningt
hei
rassumpt
ions,
dogmas,
andpr
ejudi
ces.

Thi
nki
ngi
ntheCont
empor
aryGl
obal
i
singWor
ld

Real
i
tyi
ntoday
’swor
ldi
ssoqui
ckl
ychangi
ngt
hati
tisdi
ff
icul
t
t
omast
eronet
hingbef
oreanot
hercomesi
ntoexi
stence.New
gl
obalr
eal
i
tiesar
erapi
dlypenet
rat
ingt
hedeepestst
ruct
uresof
ourl
i
ves:economi
c,soci
al,
cul
tur
al,
pol
i
ticalandenv
ironment
al
r
eal
i
ties.Andt
hesenewgl
obalr
eal
i
tieshav
epr
ofound
i
mpl
i
cat
ionsf
ort
hinki
ngandl
ear
ning,
busi
nessandpol
i
tics,
humanr
ight
sandhumanconf
li
cts.Theser
eal
i
tiesar
ebecomi
ng
i
ncr
easi
ngl
ycompl
ex,
andmanyr
epr
esentsi
gni
fi
cantdanger
s
andt
hreat
s.Tr
adi
ti
onal
l
y,ourt
hinki
nghasbeendesi
gnedf
or
r
out
ine,
forhabi
t,f
oraut
omat
ion,
andf
ixedpr
ocedur
e(mazoea,
kuf
any
aaukuami
nij
ambobi
l
akuj
i
uli
zakwani
ni)
.Butt
he
pr
obl
emswenowf
aceandwewi
l
lincr
easi
ngl
yfacer
equi
rea
r
adi
cal
l
ydi
ff
erentf
orm oft
hinki
ng;
thi
nki
ngt
hati
smor
ecompl
ex,
mor
eadapt
abl
e,andmor
esensi
ti
vet
odi
ver
gentpoi
ntsofv
iew.
Thewor
ldi
nwhi
chwenowl
i
ver
equi
rest
hatwecont
inual
l
yre-
l
ear
n,t
hatwer
out
inel
yret
hinkourdeci
sions,
andwer
egul
arl
yre-
ev
aluat
ethewaywewor
kandl
i
ve.Theset
hreeRswi
l
l
i
ncr
easi
ngl
ydet
ermi
net
hequal
i
tyofourwor
k,t
hequal
i
tyofour
l
i
vesandmor
eourv
erysur
viv
al.

Thef
oll
owi
ngar
esomeexampl
esofnewgl
obalr
eal
i
tiest
hat
posebi
gchal
l
engesandt
hreat
stot
hewor
ldt
oday
.

Ther
evol
uti
ont
hati
staki
ngpl
acei
ngl
obalcommuni
cat
ions.Thi
s
i
sabl
essi
ngi
ndi
sgui
se.I
magi
ne,
from f
axmachi
nest
oe-
mai
l
,
f
rom compl
exel
ect
roni
cmar
ket
ingsy
stemst
osy
stemst
hatt
rack
usandpenet
rat
eourpr
ivat
eli
ves.Thi
smeanst
hatwear
enot
onl
ypr
ovi
dingposi
ti
veoppor
tuni
ti
esf
orpeopl
etobemor
e
ef
fi
cientwi
tht
hei
rti
me,
butsy
stemst
hatr
enderusv
ulner
abl
e
andwi
eldpowerov
erus.

Ont
heonehandwehav
enet
wor
kswher
egoods,
ser
vicesand
i
deasar
efr
eel
yexchangedwi
thi
ndi
vi
dual
swor
ldov
er,
andont
he
ot
herhandwef
acewor
ldwi
desur
vei
l
lancesy
stemst
hatr
ender
pr
ivacyani
l
lusi
on.Oneasks,
howdower
espondt
othese
r
evol
uti
onar
ychanges?
Whati
sonet
oresi
standwhati
sonet
o
suppor
t?Whati
sthef
ateofourf
reedoms,
humanr
ight
s,secur
it
y,
i
ntegr
it
y,et
c.?

Wear
ecaughtupi
nat
hreat
eni
ngwor
ld,
onei
nwhi
chwecanno
l
ongerant
ici
pat
etheknowl
edgeanddat
awewi
l
lneedont
hej
ob
becausewecannol
ongerpr
edi
ctt
heki
ndsofj
obswewi
l
lbe
doi
ng.Awor
ldi
nwhi
chpr
ivacyi
sincr
easi
ngl
ypenet
rat
edby
mul
ti
plei
nvasi
vet
echnol
ogi
es:f
acer
ecogni
ti
onsof
twar
e,DNA
t
est
ing,
emai
lrev
iewsy
stems,
credi
tcar
dtr
acki
ng,
andaut
o-
t
racki
ngsy
stems.Awor
ldi
nwhi
chgl
obalf
orcessubj
ectt
o
v
irt
ual
l
ynocont
rolmakef
arr
eachi
ngdeci
sionst
hatdeepl
y
i
mpactonourl
i
ves.Awor
ldi
nwhi
chcommi
tmentt
oreasonand
r
ati
onal
i
tyhasbeensubst
it
utedwi
thsuper
sti
ti
ousbel
i
efs,
bel
i
efs
i
nsuper
nat
uralbei
ngsandal
lsor
tsofi
rr
ati
onal
i
ty,
thi
ngst
hat
hav
ecl
aimedahandf
ulofl
i
vesespeci
all
yindev
elopi
ngcount
ri
es.

Consi
deri
ssuesofenv
ironment
aldegr
adat
ion,
globalwar
ming,
wor
ldhunger
,ov
erpopul
ati
on,
diseasesl
i
keAI
DS,
flue,
biol
ogi
cal
,
nucl
earandweaponsofmassdest
ruct
ion,
ter
ror
ism andmany
ot
herchal
l
engesandt
hreat
s.
Al
lthesechal
l
engesandt
hreat
spoi
ntt
othef
actt
hatwi
thoutt
he
i
ntel
l
ect
ualabi
l
ityt
oreasont
hrought
hesecompl
expr
obl
ems,
wi
thoutbei
ngabl
etoanal
yzet
hel
ayer
swi
thi
nthem,
wit
hout
knowi
nghowt
oident
if
yandpur
suet
hei
nfor
mat
ionweneedt
o
sol
vet
hem,
wear
eadr
if
tinaseaofconf
usi
on.Wi
thoutt
hegr
asp
oft
hepol
i
ticalr
eal
i
tiesandeconomi
cpr
essur
esandsci
ent
if
ic
dat
a(ont
hephy
sicalenv
ironment
)al
lofwhi
char
e
si
mul
taneousl
ychangi
ng,
wecannotr
ever
set
het
rendoft
he
det
eri
orat
ionoft
hequal
i
tyofl
i
fef
oral
li
nhabi
tant
soft
heear
th.

Abr
iefhi
stor
yoft
hei
deaofCr
it
icalThi
nki
ng

Hi
stor
yofcr
it
icalt
hinki
ngal
l
owsust
odi
sti
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sht
wo
cont
radi
ctor
yint
ell
ect
ualt
endenci
es:at
endencyont
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tof
t
hel
argemaj
ori
tyt
ouncr
it
ical
l
yacceptwhat
everwaspr
esent
ly
bel
i
evedasmor
eorl
esset
ernalt
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handaconf
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cti
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endency
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it
ical
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o
sy
stemat
ical
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yquest
ionwhatwascommonl
yaccept
edandseek
asar
esul
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,mor
eref
lect
ivecr
it
eri
aand
st
andar
dsf
orj
udgi
ngwhati
tdoesanddoesnotmakesenset
o
acceptast
rue.

Mostschol
arst
racet
her
oot
sofcr
it
icalt
hinki
ngt
oSocr
ates,
2500y
ear
sago;
butwet
endt
odi
ff
ert
osomeext
ent
.Asf
orus,
t
her
oot
soft
hespi
ri
tofcr
it
icalt
hinki
ngdat o6thcent
esbackt ury
B.
C.E.
(BCEmeansbef
oret
hecommoner
aorbef
oreChr
ist
,ify
ou
l
i
ke)
.Thi
swast
hebegi
nni
ngofser
iousphi
l
osophi
calt
hinki
ng.
Goi ond6thcent
ngbey ur o8TH cent
yBCEbackt uryBCEwesee
t
hatl
i
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nGr
eeceandpr
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tsoft
hewor
ldwas
domi
nat
edbymy
thol
ogi
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aini
ngt
henat
uralwor
ld.
Andt
hiswor
ldv
iewwaspr
imar
il
yinf
luencedbyt
hegr
eat
est
poet
sofanci
entGr
eece,
namel
y,HomerandHesi
od.Homerand
Hesi
od’
stwel
vedei
ti
eswer
eresponsi
blef
ort
hef
unct
ioni
ngof
t
heuni
ver
seandt
heaf
fai
rsofpeopl
e.Ev
ery
thi
ngwast
her
efor
e
expl
ainedi
nter
msofmy
thsandf
olkt
ales.

I
twasnotunt
ili
nthe6thBCEt
hatwewi
tnesst
headv
entof
t
hinker
swhoquest
ionedt
hepowerandul
ti
mat
elyt
heexi
stence
oft
hegods.Theset
hinker
sincl
udeamongot
her
sThal
es,
Py
thagor
as,
andHer
acl
i
tus.Justast
hedemocr
atsconst
ruct
eda
humancent
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ate,
sodi
dthephi
l
osopher
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veofa
wor
ldwher
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fect
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ated.Soi
nst
eadof
t
hinki
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hewor
ldasapr
oductofsomedei
tyorsuper
nat
ural
power
,theseear
lyphi
l
osopher
ssett
ofi
ndoutt
hest
ufforar
che’
outofwhi
chev
ery
thi
ngcomes.Thi
smar
ksashi
ftf
rom my
tht
o
cr
it
icalt
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nanci
entGr
eeceandhencet
hebegi
nni
ngof
phi
l
osophy
,west
ernphi
l
osophyt
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eci
se.Themai
ntaskofa
cr
it
icalt
hinkeri
stoquest
ionunwar
rant
edbel
i
efsand
assumpt
ions,
tosepar
atet
her
ati
onalf
rom t
hei
rr
ati
onal
.Andt
his
i
swhatexact
lyt
heear
lyphi
l
osopher
sdi
d.Thati
swhyt
heyar
e
cr
edi
tedofbei
ngt
hef
ir
stcr
it
icalt
hinker
s,t
hef
ir
stphi
l
osopher
s.

I
nabout470-
399BCE,
ther
eemer
gedagr
eatt
hinkercal
l
ed
Socr
ates.Socr
ateswasmor
econcer
nedwi
thmor
al,
andpol
i
tical
l
i
feofpeopl
e.Thi
sist
osayhewasnotsomuchi
nter
est
edwi
th
specul
ati
ngaboutt
hephy
sicalwor
ldl
i
kemostofhi
s
pr
edecessor
s.

Socr
atesdi
scov
eredbyamet
hodofpr
obi
ngquest
ioni
ngt
hat
peopl
ecoul
dnotr
ati
onal
l
yjust
if
ythei
rconf
identcl
aimst
o
knowl
edge.Conf
usedmeani
ngs,
inadequat
eev
idence,
orsel
f-
cont
radi
ctor
ybel
i
efsof
tenl
urkedbeneat
hsmoot
hbutl
argel
y
empt
yrhet
ori
c.Socr
atesest
abl
i
shedt
hef
actt
hatonecannot
dependupont
hosei
n"aut
hor
it
y"t
ohav
esoundknowl
edgeand
i
nsi
ght
.Hedemonst
rat
edt
hatper
sonsmayhav
epowerandhi
gh
posi
ti
onandy
etbedeepl
yconf
usedandi
rr
ati
onal
.Heest
abl
i
shed
t
hei
mpor
tanceofaski
ngdeepquest
ionst
hatpr
obepr
ofoundl
y
i
ntot
hinki
ngbef
oreweaccepti
deasaswor
thyofbel
i
ef.He
est
abl
i
shedt
hei
mpor
tanceofseeki
ngev
idence,
closel
y
exami
ningr
easoni
ngandassumpt
ions,
anal
yzi
ngbasi
cconcept
s,
andt
raci
ngouti
mpl
i
cat
ionsnotonl
yofwhati
ssai
dbutofwhati
s
doneaswel
l
.Hi
smet
hodofquest
ioni
ngi
snowknownas
"
Socr
ati
cquest
ioni
ng"andi
sthebestknowncr
it
icalt
hinki
ng
t
eachi
ngst
rat
egy
.Inhi
smodeofquest
ioni
ng,
Socr
ates
hi
ghl
i
ght
edt
heneedi
nthi
nki
ngf
orcl
ari
tyandl
ogi
calconsi
stency
.

Socr
atessett
heagendaf
ort
het
radi
ti
onofcr
it
icalt
hinki
ng,
namel
y,t
oref
lect
ivel
yquest
ioncommonbel
i
efsandexpl
anat
ions,
car
eful
l
ydi
sti
ngui
shi
ngt
hosebel
i
efst
hatar
ereasonabl
eand
l
ogi
calf
rom t
hosewhi
ch-
-howev
erappeal
i
ngt
heymaybet
oour
nat
iveegocent
ri
sm,
howev
ermucht
heyser
veourv
est
ed
i
nter
est
s,howev
ercomf
ort
abl
eorcomf
ort
ingt
heymaybe-l
ack
adequat
eev
idenceorr
ati
onalf
oundat
iont
owar
rantourbel
i
ef.

Socr
ates'
pract
icewasf
oll
owedbyt
hecr
it
icalt
hinki
ngofPl
ato
(
whor
ecor
dedSocr
ates'
thought
),Ar
ist
otl
e,andt
heGr
eek
skept
ics,
allofwhom emphasi
zedt
hatt
hingsar
eof
tenv
ery
di
ff
erentf
rom whatt
heyappeart
obeandt
hatonl
ythet
rai
ned
mi
ndi
spr
epar
edt
oseet
hrought
hewayt
hingsl
ookt
ousont
he
sur
face(
del
usi
veappear
ances)t
othewayt
heyr
eal
l
yar
ebeneat
h
t
hesur
face(
thedeeperr
eal
i
tiesofl
i
fe)
.Fr
om t
hisanci
entGr
eek
t
radi
ti
onemer
gedt
heneed,
forany
onewhoaspi
redt
ounder
stand
t
hedeeperr
eal
i
ties,
tot
hinksy
stemat
ical
l
y,t
otr
acei
mpl
i
cat
ions
br
oadl
yanddeepl
y,f
oronl
ythi
nki
ngt
hati
scompr
ehensi
ve,
wel
l
-
r
easoned,
andr
esponsi
vet
oobj
ect
ionscant
akeusbey
ondt
he
sur
face.

I
nthemi
ddl
eages,
(4thCt
o15thC)t
het
radi
ti
onofsy
stemat
ic
cr
it
icalt
hinki
ngwasembodi
edi
nthewr
it
ingsandt
eachi
ngsof
sucht
hinker
sasThomasAqui
nas(
SummaTheol
ogi
ca)who-
to
ensur
ehi
sthi
nki
ngmett
het
estofcr
it
icalt
hought
-al
way
s
sy
stemat
ical
l
yst
ated,
consi
der
ed,
andanswer
edal
lcr
it
ici
smsof
hi
sideasasanecessar
yst
agei
ndev
elopi
ngt
hem.Aqui
nas
hei
ght
enedourawar
enessnotonl
yoft
hepot
ent
ialpowerof
r
easoni
ngbutal
sooft
heneedf
orr
easoni
ngt
obesy
stemat
ical
l
y
cul
ti
vat
edand"
cross-
exami
ned.
"Ofcour
se,
Aqui
nas'
thi
nki
ngal
so
i
l
lust
rat
est
hatt
hosewhot
hinkcr
it
ical
l
ydonotal
way
srej
ect
est
abl
i
shedbel
i
efs,
onl
ythosebel
i
efst
hatl
ackr
easonabl
e
f
oundat
ions.

I
ntheRenai
ssance(
15t
hand16t
hCent
uri
es)
,af
loodofschol
ars
i
nEur
opebegant
othi
nkcr
it
ical
l
yaboutr
eli
gion,
art
,soci
ety
,
humannat
ure,
law,
andf
reedom.Theypr
oceededwi
tht
he
assumpt
iont
hatmostoft
hedomai
nsofhumanl
i
fewer
einneed
ofsear
chi
nganal
ysi
sandcr
it
ique.Amongt
heseschol
arswer
e
Col
et,
Erasmus,
andMor
einEngl
and.Theyf
oll
owedupont
he
i
nsi
ghtoft
heanci
ent
s.

Fr
anci
sBacon,
inEngl
and,
wasexpl
i
cit
lyconcer
nedwi
tht
heway
wemi
suseourmi
ndsi
nseeki
ngknowl
edge.Her
ecogni
zed
expl
i
cit
lyt
hatt
hemi
ndcannotsaf
elybel
eftt
oit
snat
ural
t
endenci
es.I
nhi
sbookTheAdv
ancementofLear
ning,
hear
gued
f
ort
hei
mpor
tanceofst
udy
ingt
hewor
ldempi
ri
cal
l
y.Hel
aidt
he
f
oundat
ionf
ormoder
nsci
encewi
thhi
semphasi
sont
he
i
nfor
mat
ion-
gat
her
ingpr
ocesses.Heal
socal
l
edat
tent
iont
othe
f
actt
hatmostpeopl
e,i
flef
ttot
hei
rowndev
ices,
dev
elopbad
habi
tsoft
hought(
whi
chhecal
l
ed"
idol
s")t
hatl
eadt
hem t
o
bel
i
evewhati
sfal
seormi
sleadi
ng.Hecal
l
edat
tent
iont
o"I
dol
sof
t
het
ri
be"(
theway
sourmi
ndnat
ural
l
ytendst
otr
icki
tsel
f)
,"I
dol
s
oft
hemar
ket
-pl
ace"(
theway
swemi
susewor
ds)
,"I
dol
soft
he
t
heat
er"(
ourt
endencyt
obecomet
rappedi
nconv
ent
ional
sy
stemsoft
hought
),and"
Idol
soft
heschool
s"(
thepr
obl
emsi
n
t
hinki
ngwhenbasedonbl
i
ndr
ulesandpoori
nst
ruct
ion)
.Hi
s
bookcoul
dbeconsi
der
edoneoft
heear
li
estt
ext
sincr
it
ical
t
hinki
ng,
forhi
sagendawasv
erymucht
het
radi
ti
onalagendaof
cr
it
icalt
hinki
ng.

Somef
if
tyy
ear
slat
eri
nFr
ance,
Descar
teswr
otewhatmi
ghtbe
cal
l
edt
hesecondt
exti
ncr
it
icalt
hinki
ng,
Rul
esf
ort
heDi
rect
ion
oft
heMi
nd.I
nit
,Descar
tesar
guedf
ort
heneedf
oraspeci
al
sy
stemat
icdi
sci
pli
ningoft
hemi
ndt
ogui
dei
tint
hinki
ng.He
ar
ti
cul
atedanddef
endedt
heneedi
nthi
nki
ngf
orcl
ari
tyand
pr
eci
sion.Hedev
elopedamet
hodofcr
it
icalt
houghtbasedont
he
pr
inci
pleofsy
stemat
icdoubt
.Heemphasi
zedt
heneedt
obase
t
hinki
ngonwel
l
-thoughtt
hroughf
oundat
ionalassumpt
ions.Ev
ery
par
toft
hinki
ng,
hear
gued,
shoul
dbequest
ioned,
doubt
ed,
and
t
est
ed.

I
nthesamet
imeper
iod,
SirThomasMor
edev
elopedamodelofa
newsoci
alor
der
,Ut
opi
a,i
nwhi
chev
erydomai
noft
hepr
esent
wor
ldwassubj
ectt
ocr
it
ique.Hi
simpl
i
citt
hesi
swast
hat
est
abl
i
shedsoci
alsy
stemsar
einneedofr
adi
calanal
ysi
sand
cr
it
ique.Thecr
it
icalt
hinki
ngoft
heseRenai
ssanceandpost
-
Renai
ssanceschol
arsopenedt
hewayf
ort
heemer
genceof
sci
enceandf
ort
hedev
elopmentofdemocr
acy
,humanr
ight
s,
andf
reedom f
ort
hought
.

I
ntheI
tal
i
anRenai
ssance,
Machi
avel
l
i(ThePr
ince)cr
it
ical
l
y
assessedt
hepol
i
ticsoft
heday
,andl
aidt
hef
oundat
ionf
or
moder
ncr
it
icalpol
i
ticalt
hought
.Her
efusedt
oassumet
hat
gov
ernmentf
unct
ionedast
hosei
npowersai
ditdi
d.Rat
her
,he
cr
it
ical
l
yanal
yzedhowi
tdi
dfunct
ionandl
aidt
hef
oundat
ionf
or
pol
i
ticalt
hinki
ngt
hatexposesbot
h,ont
heonehand,
ther
eal
agendasofpol
i
tici
ansand,
ont
heot
herhand,
themany
cont
radi
cti
onsandi
nconsi
stenci
esoft
hehar
d,cr
uel
,wor
ldoft
he
pol
i
ticsofhi
sday
.

HobbesandLocke(
in16t
hand17t
hCent
uryEngl
and)di
spl
ayed
t
hesameconf
idencei
nthecr
it
icalmi
ndoft
het
hinkert
hatwe
f
indi
nMachi
avel
l
i.Nei
theraccept
edt
het
radi
ti
onalpi
ctur
eof
t
hingsdomi
nanti
nthet
hinki
ngoft
hei
rday
.Nei
theraccept
edas
necessar
il
yrat
ionalt
hatwhi
chwasconsi
der
ed"
nor
mal
"int
hei
r
cul
tur
e.Bot
hlookedt
othecr
it
icalmi
ndt
oopenupnewv
ist
asof
l
ear
ning.Hobbesadopt
edanat
ural
i
sti
cvi
ewoft
hewor
ldi
nwhi
ch
ev
ery
thi
ngwast
obeexpl
ainedbyev
idenceandr
easoni
ng.Locke
def
endedacommonsenseanal
ysi
sofev
ery
dayl
i
feandt
hought
.
Hel
aidt
het
heor
eti
calf
oundat
ionf
orcr
it
icalt
hinki
ngaboutbasi
c
humanr
ight
sandt
her
esponsi
bil
i
tiesofal
lgov
ernment
sto
submi
ttot
her
easonedcr
it
ici
sm oft
hought
fulci
ti
zens.

I
twasi
nthi
sspi
ri
tofi
ntel
l
ect
ualf
reedom andcr
it
icalt
houghtt
hat
peopl
esuchasRober
tBoy
le(
int
he17t
hCent
ury
)andSi
rIsaac
Newt
on(
int
he17t
hand18t
hCent
ury
)di
dthei
rwor
k.I
nhi
s
Scept
icalChy
mist
,Boy
lesev
erel
ycr
it
ici
zedt
hechemi
calt
heor
y
t
hathadpr
ecededhi
m.Newt
on,
int
urn,
dev
elopedaf
ar-
reachi
ng
f
ramewor
koft
houghtwhi
chr
oundl
ycr
it
ici
zedt
het
radi
ti
onal
l
y
accept
edwor
ldv
iew.Heext
endedt
hecr
it
icalt
houghtofsuch
mi
ndsasCoper
nicus,
Gal
i
leo,
andKepl
er.Af
terBoy
leandNewt
on,
i
twasr
ecogni
zedbyt
hosewhor
efl
ect
edser
iousl
yont
henat
ural
wor
ldt
hategocent
ri
cvi
ewsofwor
ldmustbeabandonedi
nfav
or
ofv
iewsbasedent
ir
elyoncar
eful
l
ygat
her
edev
idenceandsound
r
easoni
ng.

Anot
hersi
gni
fi
cantcont
ri
but
iont
ocr
it
icalt
hinki
ngwasmadeby
t
het
hinker
soft
heFr
enchenl
i
ght
enment
:Bay
le,
Mont
esqui
eu,
Vol
tai
re,
andDi
der
ot.Theyal
lbeganwi
tht
hepr
emi
set
hatt
he
humanmi
nd,
whendi
sci
pli
nedbyr
eason,
isbet
terabl
etof
igur
e
outt
henat
ureoft
hesoci
alandpol
i
ticalwor
ld.Whati
smor
e,f
or
t
heset
hinker
s,r
easonmustt
urni
nwar
duponi
tsel
f,i
nor
dert
o
det
ermi
neweaknessesandst
rengt
hsoft
hought
.Theyv
alued
di
sci
pli
nedi
ntel
l
ect
ualexchange,
inwhi
chal
lvi
ewshadt
obe
submi
tt
edt
oser
iousanal
ysi
sandcr
it
ique.Theybel
i
evedt
hatal
l
aut
hor
it
ymustsubmi
tinonewayoranot
hert
othescr
uti
nyof
r
easonabl
ecr
it
icalquest
ioni
ng.
TheAgeofEnl
i
ght
enment(
orsi
mpl
ytheEnl
i
ght
enment
)is
anot
heri
mpor
tantl
andmar
kint
hehi
stor
yofcr
it
icalt
hinki
ng.I
tis
t
heer
ainWest
ernphi
l
osophy
,int
ell
ect
ual
,sci
ent
if
icandcul
tur
al
l
i
fe,
cent
eredupont
he18t
hcent
ury
,inwhi
chr
easonwas
adv
ocat
edast
hepr
imar
ysour
cef
orl
egi
ti
macyandaut
hor
it
y.I
tis
al
soknownast
heAgeofReason.

TheEnl
i
ght
enmentwasl
essasetofi
deast
hani
twasasetof
v
alues.Ati
tscor
ewasacr
it
icalquest
ioni
ngoft
radi
ti
onal
i
nst
it
uti
ons,
cust
oms,
andmor
als,
andast
rongbel
i
efi
nrat
ional
i
ty
andsci
ence.

Enl
i
ght
enmentbr
oket
hrough"
thesacr
edci
rcl
e,
"whosedogma
hadci
rcumscr
ibedt
hinki
ng.TheSacr
edCi
rcl
eisat
erm usedby
Pet
erGayt
odescr
ibet
hei
nter
dependentr
elat
ionshi
pbet
ween
t
heher
edi
tar
yar
ist
ocr
acy
,thel
eader
soft
hechur
chandt
het
ext
oft
heBi
ble.Thi
sint
err
elat
ionshi
pmani
fest
sit
sel
faski
ngs
i
nvoki
ngt
hedoct
ri
ne"
Div
ineRi
ghtofKi
ngs"t
orul
e.Thuschur
ch
sanct
ionedt
her
uleoft
heki
ngandt
heki
ngdef
endedt
hechur
ch
i
nret
urn.TheEnl
i
ght
enmenti
shel
dtobet
hesour
ceofcr
it
ical
i
deas,
suchast
hecent
ral
i
tyoff
reedom,
democr
acy
,andr
eason
aspr
imar
yval
uesofsoci
ety
.Thi
svi
ewar
guest
hatt
he
est
abl
i
shmentofacont
ract
ualbasi
sofr
ight
swoul
dleadt
othe
mar
ketmechani
sm andcapi
tal
i
sm,
thesci
ent
if
icmet
hod,
r
eli
gioust
oler
ance,
andt
heor
gani
zat
ionofst
atesi
ntosel
f-
gov
erni
ngr
epubl
i
cst
hroughdemocr
ati
cmeans.I
nthi
svi
ew,
the
t
endencyoft
hephi
l
osophesi
npar
ti
cul
art
oappl
yrat
ional
i
tyt
o
ev
erypr
obl
em i
sconsi
der
edt
heessent
ialchange.

Ei
ght
eent
hCent
uryt
hinker
sext
endedourconcept
ionofcr
it
ical
t
houghtev
enf
urt
her
,dev
elopi
ngoursenseoft
hepowerofcr
it
ical
t
houghtandofi
tst
ool
s.Appl
i
edt
othepr
obl
em ofeconomi
cs,
it
pr
oducedAdam Smi
th'
sWeal
thofNat
ions.I
nthesamey
ear
,
appl
i
edt
othet
radi
ti
onalconceptofl
oyal
tyt
otheki
ng,
it
pr
oducedt
heDecl
arat
ionofI
ndependence.Appl
i
edt
oreason
i
tsel
f,i
tpr
oducedKant
'sCr
it
iqueofPur
eReason.

I
nthe19t
hCent
ury
,cr
it
icalt
houghtwasext
endedev
enf
urt
her
i
ntot
hedomai
nofhumansoci
all
i
febyComt
eandSpencer
.
Appl
i
edt
othepr
obl
emsofcapi
tal
i
sm,
itpr
oducedt
hesear
chi
ng
soci
alandeconomi
ccr
it
iqueofKar
lMar
x.Appl
i
edt
othehi
stor
y
ofhumancul
tur
eandt
hebasi
sofbi
ologi
call
i
fe,
itl
edt
oDar
win'
s
DescentofMan.Appl
i
edt
otheunconsci
ousmi
nd,
iti
sref
lect
ed
i
nthewor
ksofSi
gmundFr
eud.Appl
i
edt
ocul
tur
es,
itl
edt
othe
est
abl
i
shmentoft
hef
iel
dofAnt
hropol
ogi
calst
udi
es.Appl
i
edt
o
l
anguage,
itl
edt
othef
iel
dofLi
ngui
sti
csandt
omanydeep
pr
obi
ngsoft
hef
unct
ionsofsy
mbol
sandl
anguagei
nhumanl
i
fe.

I
nthe20t
hCent
ury
,ourunder
standi
ngoft
hepowerandnat
ureof
cr
it
icalt
hinki
nghasemer
gedi
nincr
easi
ngl
ymor
eexpl
i
cit
f
ormul
ati
ons.I
n1906,
Wil
l
iam Gr
aham Sumnerpubl
i
shedal
and-
br
eaki
ngst
udyoft
hef
oundat
ionsofsoci
ologyandant
hropol
ogy
,
Fol
kway
s,i
nwhi
chhedocument
edt
het
endencyoft
hehuman
mi
ndt
othi
nksoci
ocent
ri
cal
l
yandt
hepar
all
elt
endencyf
or
school
stoser
vet
he(
uncr
it
ical
)funct
ionofsoci
ali
ndoct
ri
nat
ion:

"
School
smakeper
sonsal
lononepat
ter
n,or
thodoxy
.School
educat
ion,
unl
essi
tisr
egul
atedbyt
hebestknowl
edgeandgood
sense,
wil
lpr
oducemenandwomenwhoar
eal
lofonepat
ter
n,as
i
ftur
nedi
nal
athe.
..
Anor
thodoxyi
spr
oducedi
nregar
dtoal
lthe
gr
eatdoct
ri
nesofl
i
fe.I
tconsi
stsoft
hemostwor
nand
commonpl
aceopi
nionswhi
char
ecommoni
nthemasses.The
popul
aropi
nionsal
way
scont
ainbr
oadf
all
aci
es,
hal
f-
tr
uths,
and
gl
i
bgener
ali
zat
ions(
p.630)
."

Att
hesamet
ime,
Sumnerr
ecogni
zedt
hedeepneedf
orcr
it
ical
t
hinki
ngi
nli
feandi
neducat
ion:

"
Cri
ti
cism i
stheexami
nat
ionandt
estofpr
oposi
ti
onsofanyki
nd
whi
char
eof
fer
edf
oraccept
ance,
inor
dert
ofi
ndoutwhet
her
t
heycor
respondt
oreal
i
tyornot
.Thecr
it
icalf
acul
tyi
sapr
oduct
ofeducat
ionandt
rai
ning.I
tisament
alhabi
tandpower
.Iti
sa
pr
imecondi
ti
onofhumanwel
far
ethatmenandwomenshoul
dbe
t
rai
nedi
nit
.Iti
souronl
yguar
ant
eeagai
nstdel
usi
on,
decept
ion,
super
sti
ti
on,
andmi
sappr
ehensi
onofour
sel
vesandourear
thl
y
ci
rcumst
ances.Educat
ioni
sgoodj
ustsof
arasi
tpr
oduceswel
l
-
dev
elopedcr
it
icalf
acul
ty..
..
Ateacherofanysubj
ectwhoi
nsi
sts
onaccur
acyandar
ati
onalcont
rolofal
lpr
ocessesandmet
hods,
andwhohol
dsev
ery
thi
ngopent
ounl
i
mit
edv
eri
fi
cat
ionand
r
evi
sioni
scul
ti
vat
ingt
hatmet
hodasahabi
tint
hepupi
l
s.Men
educat
edi
nitcannotbest
ampeded.
..
Theyar
esl
owt
obel
i
eve.
Theycanhol
dthi
ngsaspossi
bleorpr
obabl
einal
ldegr
ees,
wi
thoutcer
tai
ntyandwi
thoutpai
n.Theycanwai
tforev
idence
andwei
ghev
idence.
..
Theycanr
esi
stappeal
stot
hei
rdear
est
pr
ejudi
ces.
..
Educat
ioni
nthecr
it
icalf
acul
tyi
stheonl
yeducat
ion
ofwhi
chi
tcanbet
rul
ysai
dthati
tmakesgoodci
ti
zens(
pp.632,
633)
."

NB:Thet
wocol
oredt
ext
sabov
emustbe‘
memor
ized.
’
JohnDeweyagr
eed.Fr
om hi
swor
k,wehav
eincr
easedoursense
oft
hepr
agmat
icbasi
sofhumant
hought(
it
sinst
rument
alnat
ure)
,
andespeci
all
yit
sgr
oundi
ngi
nact
ualhumanpur
poses,
goal
s,and
obj
ect
ives.Fr
om t
hewor
kofLudwi
gWi
tt
genst
einwehav
e
i
ncr
easedourawar
enessnotonl
yoft
hei
mpor
tanceofconcept
sin
humant
hought
,butal
sooft
heneedt
oanal
y sa
zeconcept ndassess
t
hei
rpowerandl
i
mit
ati
ons.Fr
om t
hewor
kofPi
aget
,wehav
e
i
ncr
easedourawar
enessoft
heegocent
ri
candsoci
ocent
ri
c
t
endenci houghta
esofhumant ndoft
hespeci
alneedt
odev
elop
cr
it
icalt
houghtwhi
chi
sabl
etor
easonwi
thi
nmul
ti
plest
andpoi
nts,
andt
ober
aisedt
othel
evelof"
consci
ousr
eal
i
zat
ion.
"Fr
om t
he
massi
vecont
ri
but
ionofal
lthe"
har
d"sci
ences,
wehav
elear
ned
t
hepowerofi
nfor
mat
ionandt
hei
mpor
tanceofgat
her
ingi
nfor
mat
ion
wi
thgr
eatcar
eandpr
eci
sion,
andwi
thsensi
ti
vi
tyt
oit
spot
ent
ial
i
naccur
acy
,di
stor
ti
on,
ormi
suse.Fr
om t
hecont
ri
but
ionofdept
h-
psy
chol
ogy
,wehav
elear
nedhoweasi
l
ythehumanmi
ndi
ssel
f-
decei
ved,
howeasi
l
yitunconsci
ousl
yconst
ruct
sil
l
usi
onsand
del
usi
ons,
howeasi
l
yitr
ati
onal
i
zesandst
ereot
ypes,
proj
ect
sand
scapegoat
s.

Tosum up,
thet
ool
sandr
esour
cesoft
hecr
it
icalt
hinkerhav
e
beenv
ast
lyi
ncr
easedi
nvi
rt
ueoft
hehi
stor
yofcr
it
icalt
hought
.
Hundr
edsoft
hinker
shav
econt
ri
but
edt
oit
sdev
elopment
.Each
maj
ordi
sci
pli
nehasmadesomecont
ri
but
iont
ocr
it
icalt
hought
.

Mor
edef
ini
ti
onsofcr
it
icalt
hinki
ng

“Cr
it
icalt
hinki
ngconsi
stsofament
alpr
ocessofanal
yzi
ngor
ev
aluat
ingi
nfor
mat
ion,
par
ti
cul
arl
yst
atement
sorpr
oposi
ti
ons
t
hatpeopl
ehav
eof
fer
edast
rue.I
tfor
msapr
ocessofr
efl
ect
ing
upont
hemeani
ngofst
atement
s,exami
ningt
heof
fer
edev
idence
andr
easoni
ng,
andf
ormi
ngj
udgment
saboutt
hef
act
s.”or

“Cr
it
icalt
hinki
ngi
sthei
ntel
l
ect
ual
l
ydi
sci
pli
nedpr
ocessof
act
ivel
yandski
l
lful
l
yconcept
ual
i
zing,
appl
yi
ng,
anal
yzi
ng,
sy
nthesi
zi
ng,
and/
orev
aluat
ingi
nfor
mat
iongat
her
edf
rom,
or
gener
atedby
,obser
vat
ion,
exper
ience,
ref
lect
ion,
reasoni
ng,
or
communi
cat
ion,
asagui
det
obel
i
efandact
ion.“

Mor
eDef
ini
ti
ons…

Cr
it
icalThi
nki
ngi
sthegener
alt
erm gi
vent
oawi
der
angeof
cogni
ti
veandi
ntel
l
ect
ualski
l
lsneededt
o:

(
i)
Eff
ect
ivel
yident
if
y,anal
yze,
andev
aluat
ear
gument
s.
(
ii
)Di
scov
erandov
ercomeper
sonalpr
ejudi
cesandbi
ases.

(
ii
i)
For
mul
ateandpr
esentconv
inci
ngr
easonsi
nsuppor
tof
concl
usi
ons.

(
iv)
Maker
easonabl
e,i
ntel
l
igentdeci
sionsaboutwhatt
obel
i
eve
andwhatt
odo.

Whatar
eyoudoi
ngwheny
ouar
ethi
nki
ngcr
it
ical
l
y?Wheny
ouar
e
t
hinki
ngcr
it
ical
l
yyouar
eact
ual
l
y:

(
i)
Anal
yzi
ng

(
ii
)Ev
aluat
ing

i
i
i)Reasoni
ng

(
iv)
Maki
ngdeci
sions

(
v)Sol
vi
ngpr
obl
ems

Si
xSt
epsi
nCr
it
icalThi
nki
ng
St
ep1:Knowl
edge

I
nter
msofcr
it
icalt
hinki
ng,
thebasi
clev
elofacqui
sit
ionof
knowl
edger
equi
rest
haty
oubeabl
etoi
dent
if
ywhati
sbei
ngsai
d:
t
het
opi
c,t
hei
ssue,
thet
hesi
s,andt
hemai
npoi
nts.

St
ep2:Compr
ehensi
on

Compr
ehensi
onmeansunder
standi
ngt
hemat
eri
alr
ead,
hear
dor
seen.I
ncompr
ehendi
ng,
youmaket
henewknowl
edget
haty
ou
hav
eacqui
redy
ourownbyr
elat
ingi
ttowhaty
oual
readyknow.
Thebet
tery
ouar
einv
olv
edwi
tht
hei
nfor
mat
ion,
thebet
tery
ou
wi
l
lcompr
ehendi
t.Asal
way
s,t
hepr
imar
ytestofwhet
hery
ou
hav
ecompr
ehendedsomet
hingi
swhet
hery
oucanputwhaty
ou
hav
ereadorhear
dint
oyourownwor
ds.Rev
iewsomekeywor
ds
t
hathel
pyoui
dent
if
ywhencompr
ehensi
oni
scal
l
edf
or.
Remembert
hatcompr
ehendi
ngsomet
hingi
mpl
i
est
haty
oucan
gobey
ondmer
elypar
rot
ingt
hemat
eri
albackbuti
nst
eadt
haty
ou
cangi
vet
hemat
eri
aly
ourownsi
gni
fi
cance.

St
ep3:Appl
i
cat
ion

Appl
i
cat
ionr
equi
rest
haty
ouknowwhaty
ouhav
eread,
hear
d,or
seen,
thaty
oucompr
ehendi
t,andt
haty
oucar
ryoutsomet
askt
o
appl
ywhaty
oucompr
ehendt
oanact
ualsi
tuat
ion.Rev
iewt
he
somet
askst
hatr
equi
reappl
i
cat
ion.

St
ep4:Anal
ysi
s

Anal
ysi
sinv
olv
esbr
eaki
ngwhaty
our
eadorheari
ntoi
ts
componentpar
ts,
inor
dert
omakecl
earhowt
hei
deasar
e
or
der
ed,
rel
ated,
orconnect
edt
oot
heri
deas.Anal
ysi
sdeal
swi
th
bot
hfor
m andcont
ent
.Rev
iewhowcr
it
icalt
hinker
sanal
yzef
orm.
Rev
iewhowcr
it
icalt
hinker
sanal
yzecont
ent
.

St
ep5:Sy
nthesi
s

Sy
nthesi
sinv
olv
est
heabi
l
ityt
oputt
oget
hert
hepar
tsy
ou
anal
yzedwi
thot
heri
nfor
mat
iont
ocr
eat
esomet
hingor
igi
nal
.
Rev
iewsomekeywor
dst
hathel
pyoui
dent
if
ywhensy
nthesi
sis
cal
l
edf
or.

St
ep6:Ev
aluat
ion
Ev
aluat
ionoccur
soncewehav
eunder
stoodandanal
yzedwhati
s
sai
dorwr
it
tenandt
her
easonsof
fer
edt
osuppor
tit
.Thenwecan
appr
aiset
hisi
nfor
mat
ioni
nor
dert
odeci
dewhet
hery
oucangi
ve
orwi
thhol
dbel
i
ef,
andwhet
herornott
otakeapar
ti
cul
aract
ion.
Rev
iewsomekeywor
dst
hathel
pyoui
dent
if
ywhensy
nthesi
sis
cal
l
edf
or.Nev
erputev
aluat
ionaheadoft
heot
herst
epsi
ncr
it
ical
t
hinki
ngst
eps;
other
wise,
youwi
l
lbegui
l
tyofa"
rusht
o
j
udgement
."Whenemot
ionsubst
it
utesf
orr
easons,
eval
uat
ion
i
ncor
rect
lypr
ecedesanal
ysi
s.

EXERCI
SE1:Foreachoft
hef
oll
owi
ngt
estquest
ions,
deci
de
whi
choft
hesi
xst
epsy
ouar
easkedt
oper
for
m.

Expl
ainwhati
smeantbyt
hephr
ase"
negat
iver
einf
orcement
".
Answer

Whowast
heaut
horoft
heDecl
arat
ionofI
ndependence? Answer

Compar
eandcont
rastt
het
hemesofJackLondon’
sCal
loft
he
Wi
l
dandWhi
teFang. Answer

Fory
ourf
inalexam i
nhomeeconomi
cs,
youwi
l
lbeaskedt
otake
anexi
sti
ngdr
esspat
ter
nandmodi
fyi
tint
oyourowndesi
gn.
Answer

Di
scusst
hemer
it
soft
heMar
shal
lPl
anf
oll
owi
ngWor
ldWarI
I.
Answer

Oft
hef
oll
owi
ngmy
thol
ogi
calf
igur
es,
whi
chdoesnotbel
ongwi
th
t
heot
her
s?Si
ren,
Kel
pie,
Lor
elei
,Amazon.Answer

Combi
ningt
het
heor
iesofJohnSt
uar
tMi
l
l,Jer
emyBent
ham,
and
JohnRawl
s,sket
chouty
ourownt
heor
yofsoci
alj
ust
ice.Answer

Usi
ngQuest
ion7,
giv
ethr
eeway
sCongr
esscoul
dimpl
ement
y
ourt
heor
yofsoci
alj
ust
ice.Answer

Wr
it
eacr
it
iqueofl
astni
ght
’sdr
amadepar
tmentper
for
manceof
Twel
ft
hNi
ght
.Answer

Def
ineandexpl
aint
het
erm,
"apr
ior
i.
" Answer

Ont
hecadav
eroft
hef
etalpi
gint
hebi
ologyl
abor
ator
y,i
dent
if
y
t
heaor
ta,
thehear
tandt
hel
ungs.Answer

Ont
hemapatt
hef
rontoft
hecl
ass,
ident
if
ythecount
ryof
I
ndonesi
a.Answer

Cr
it
icalThi
nki
ngSt
andar
ds(
CTS)

Themostsi
gni
fi
cantcr
it
ical(
int
ell
ect
ual
)thi
nki
ngst
andar
ds:

(
i)
Clar
it
y(i
i
)Accur
acy(
ii
i)
Preci
sion(
iv)
Rel
evance(
v)Dept
h
(
vi)
Breadt
h(v
ii
)Logi
c(v
ii
i)
Fai
rness

Letusnowexpl
ainonest
andar
daf
tert
heot
her
.

1.
CTS-Cl
ari
ty

Coul
dyouel
abor
atef
urt
heront
hatpoi
nt?

Coul
dyouexpr
esst
hatpoi
nti
nanot
herway
?

Coul
dyougi
vemeani
l
lust
rat
ion?
Coul
dyougi
vemeanexampl
e?

Cl
ari
tyi
sthegat
ewayst
andar
d.Thati
s,onceast
atementl
acks
cl
ari
tyt
henal
lot
herst
andar
dsdonotappl
y.Ast
atementmustbe
cl
earf
ir
stsot
haty
oucangoondeci
dingwhet
heri
tisaccur
ate,
pr
eci
se,
etc.

CTS–Accur
acy

I
sthatr
eal
l
ytr
ue?

Howcoul
dwecheckt
hat
?

Howcoul
dwef
indouti
fthati
str
ue?

CTS–Pr
eci
sion

Coul
dyougi
vemor
edet
ail
s?

Coul
dyoubemor
especi
fi
c?
Ast
atementcanbebot
hcl
earandaccur
ate,
butnotpr
eci
se.E.
g
YaoMi
ngi
sTALL!Whathei
ght
?Compar
edt
owhom/
what
?.

Rel
evance

Howi
sthatconnect
edt
othequest
ion?

Howdoest
hatbearont
hei
ssue?

E.
g.Ist
udi
edhar
dal
lsemest
er;
ther
efor
eIshoul
dgetA+.A
st
atementcanbecl
ear
,accur
ate,
andpr
eci
se,
butnotr
elev
antt
o
t
hequest
ionati
ssue.Youmustunl
ear
nwhaty
ouhav
elear
ned.

–Dept
h

Howdoesy
ouransweraddr
esst
hecompl
exi
ti
esi
nthequest
ion?

Howar
eyout
aki
ngi
ntoaccountt
hepr
obl
emsi
nthequest
ion?

I
sthatdeal
i
ngwi
tht
hemostsi
gni
fi
cantf
act
ors?

Ast
atementcanbecl
ear
,accur
ate,
preci
se,
andr
elev
ant
,but
super
fi
cial
.eg.Gr
avedangery
ouar
ein.I
mpat
ienty
ouar
e.
Br
eadt
h

Doweneedt
oconsi
deranot
herpoi
ntofv
iew?

I
sther
eanot
herwayt
olookatt
hisquest
ion?

Whatwoul
dthi
slookl
i
kef
rom aconser
vat
ivest
andpoi
nt?

Whatwoul
dthi
slookl
i
kef
rom t
hepoi
ntofv
iewof
..
.?

Al
i
neofr
easoni
ngmaybecl
ear
,accur
ate,
preci
se,
rel
evant
,and
deep,
butl
ackbr
eadt
h.Headache!
!!Yougot0mar
ksf
or
“
Par
ti
cipat
ion”
,becausey
oudi
dn’
tpar
ti
cipat
eint
hecl
ass
di
scussi
onatal
l
.Thati
swhyy
ouf
ail
ed.

Logi
c

Doest
hisr
eal
l
ymakesense?

Doest
hatf
oll
owf
rom whaty
ousai
d?

Howdoest
hatf
oll
ow?
Butbef
orey
oui
mpl
i
edt
hisandnowy
ouar
esay
ingt
hat
;howcan
bot
hbet
rue?

e.
g.Super
manseest
hroughany
thi
ng.Super
manseest
hrough
wal
l
s.Super
manseest
hroughYou.

Whent
hecombi
nat
ionoft
hought
sar
emut
ual
l
ysuppor
ti
ngand
makesensei
ncombi
nat
ion,
thet
hinki
ngi
slogi
cal
.

Fai
rness

Cr
it
icalt
hinki
ngdemandst
hatourt
hinki
ngbef
air
.

Open-
minded

I
mpar
ti
al

Fr
eeofdi
stor
ti
ngbi
asesandpr
econcept
ions

Fai
r-
mindednessi
sanessent
ialat
tri
but
eofaCr
it
icalThi
nker
.
Di
ff
icul
ttoachi
eve,
buty
oumustt
ry!
CTS–GoodThi
nki
ngi
s…

CLEAR……….
..
..
rat
hert
han.
..
..
..
.UNCLEAR

ACCURATE….
..
.r
athert
han…….
INACCURATE

PRECI
SE…….
..
.r
athert
han…….
VAGUE

RELEVANT…….
rat
hert
han…….
IRELEVANT

CONSI
STENT….
rat
hert
han……I
NCONSI
STENT

LOGI
CAL……….
rat
hert
han……I
LLOGI
CAL

COMPLETE……r
athert
han……I
NCOMPLETE

FAI
R…………….
rat
hert
han….
..
.BI
ASED

I
ntel
l
ect
ualVi
rt
uesorHabi
ts
Wheni
ndi
vi
dual
spossessi
ntel
l
ect
ualski
l
lsal
one,
wit
houtt
he
i
ntel
l
ect
ualt
rai
tsofmi
nd,
weaksensecr
it
icalt
hinki
ngr
esul
ts.Fai
r
-
mindedorst
rongsensecr
it
icalt
hinki
ngr
equi
resi
ntel
l
ect
ual
humi
l
it,
yempat
hy,
int
egr
it
y,per
sev
erance, age,
cour aut ,
onomy
conf
idencei
nreason,
andot
heri
ntel
l
ect
ualt
rai
ts.Thus,
cri
ti
cal
t
hinki
ngwi
thoutessent
iali
ntel
l
ect
ualt
rai
tsof
tenr
esul
tsi
ncl
ever
,
butmani
pul
ati
veandof
tenunet
hicalorsubj
ect
ivet
hought
.

Weakv
ersusSt
rongCr
it
icalThi
nki
ng

Cr
it
icalt
hinki
ngi
nvol
vesbasi
cint
ell
ect
ualski
l
ls,
butt
heseski
l
ls
canbeusedt
oser
vet
woi
ncompat
ibl
eends:sel
f-
cent
erednessor
f
air
-mi
ndedness.Aswedev
elopt
hebasi
cint
ell
ect
ualski
l
lst
hat
cr
it
icalt
hinki
ngent
ail
s,wecanbegi
ntouset
hoseski
l
lsi
na
sel
fi
shori
naf
air
-mi
ndedway
.Inot
herwor
ds,
wecandev
elopi
n
suchawayt
hatwel
ear
ntoseemi
stakesi
nourownt
hinki
ng,
as
wel
last
het
hinki
ngofot
her
s.Orwecanmer
elydev
elopsome
pr
ofi
ciencyi
nmaki
ngouropponent
'st
hinki
ngl
ookbad.

Ty
pical
l
y,peopl
eseemi
stakesi
not
her
'st
hinki
ngwi
thoutbei
ng
abl
etocr
edi
tthest
rengt
hsi
nthoseopposi
ngv
iews.Li
ber
alssee
mi
stakesi
nthear
gument
sofconser
vat
ives;
conser
vat
ivessee
mi
stakesi
nthear
gument
sofl
i
ber
als.Bel
i
ever
sseemi
stakesi
n
t
het
hinki
ngofnonbel
i
ever
s;nonbel
i
ever
sseemi
stakesi
nthe
t
hinki
ngofbel
i
ever
s.Thosewhoopposeabor
ti
onr
eadi
l
ysee
mi
stakesi
nthear
gument
sforabor
ti
on;
thosewhof
avorabor
ti
on
r
eadi
l
yseemi
stakesi
nthear
gument
sagai
nsti
t.

Wecal
ltheset
hinker
sweak-
sensecr
it
icalt
hinker
s.Wecal
lthe
t
hinki
ng"
weak"because,
thoughi
tiswor
kingwel
lfort
het
hinker
i
nsomer
espect
s,i
tismi
ssi
ngcer
tai
nimpor
tanthi
gher
-l
evelski
l
ls
andv
aluesofcr
it
icalt
hinki
ng.Mostsi
gni
fi
cant
ly,
itf
ail
sto
consi
der
,ingoodf
ait
h,v
iewpoi
ntst
hatcont
radi
cti
tsown
v
iewpoi
nt.I
tlacksf
air
-mi
ndedness.

Anot
hert
radi
ti
onalnamef
ort
heweak-
senset
hinkeri
sfoundi
n
t
hewor
dsophi
st.Sophi
str
yist
hear
tofwi
nni
ngar
gument
s
r
egar
dlessofwhet
hert
her
ear
eobv
iouspr
obl
emsi
nthet
hinki
ng
bei
ngused.Ther
eisasetofl
ower
-l
evelski
l
lsofr
het
ori
c,or
ar
gument
ati
on,
bywhi
chonecanmakebadt
hinki
ngl
ookgood
andgoodt
hinki
ngl
ookbad.Weseet
hisof
teni
nunet
hicall
awy
ers
andpol
i
tici
answhoar
emer
elyconcer
nedwi
thwi
nni
ng.Theyuse
emot
ional
i
sm andt
ri
cker
yinani
ntel
l
ect
ual
l
yski
l
ledway
.

Sophi
sti
cthi
nker
ssucceedonl
yift
heydonotcomeupagai
nst
whatwecal
lst
rong-
sensecr
it
icalt
hinker
s.St
rong-
sensecr
it
ical
t
hinker
sar
enoteasi
l
ytr
ickedbysl
i
ckar
gument
ati
on.AsWi
l
li
am
Gr
aham Sumner(
1906)sai
dal
mostacent
uryago,
they

cannotbest
ampeded…ar
esl
owt
obel
i
eve…canhol
dthi
ngsaspossi
ble
orpr
obabl
einal
ldegr
ees,
wit
houtcer
tai
ntyandwi
thoutpai
n…canwai
tfor
ev
idenceandwei
ghev
idence…canr
esi
stappeal
stot
hei
rdear
est
pr
ejudi
ces….

Per
hapsev
enmor
eimpor
tant
,st
rong-
sensecr
it
icalt
hinker
sst
ri
ve
t
obef
air
-mi
nded.Theyuset
hinki
ngi
nanet
hical
l
yresponsi
ble
manner
.Theywor
ktounder
standandappr
eci
atet
hev
iewpoi
nts
ofot
her
s.Theyar
ewi
l
li
ngt
oli
stent
oar
gument
stheydonot
necessar
il
yhol
d.Theychanget
hei
rvi
ewswhenf
acedwi
thbet
ter
r
easoni
ng.Rat
hert
hanusi
ngt
hei
rthi
nki
ngt
omani
pul
ateot
her
s
andt
ohi
def
rom t
het
rut
h(i
naweak-
senseway
),t
heyuse
t
hinki
ngi
nanet
hical
,reasonabl
emanner
.

Webel
i
evet
hatt
hewor
ldal
readyhast
oomanyski
l
ledsel
fi
sh
t
hinker
s,t
oomanysophi
stsandi
ntel
l
ect
ualconar
ti
sts,
toomany
unscr
upul
ousl
awy
ersandpol
i
tici
answhospeci
ali
zei
ntwi
sti
ng
i
nfor
mat
ionandev
idencet
osuppor
tthei
rsel
fi
shi
nter
est
sandt
he
v
est
edi
nter
est
soft
hosewhopayt
hem.Wehopet
haty
ou,
the
r
eader
,wi
l
ldev
elopasahi
ghl
yski
l
led,
fai
r-
mindedt
hinker
,one
capabl
eofexposi
ngt
hosewhoar
emast
ersatpl
ayi
ngi
ntel
l
ect
ual
gamesatt
heexpenseoft
hewel
l
-bei
ngofi
nnocentpeopl
e.We
hopeaswel
lthaty
oudev
elopt
hei
ntel
l
ect
ualcour
aget
oar
gue
publ
i
clyagai
nstwhati
sunet
hicali
nhumant
hinki
ng.Wewr
it
ethi
s
bookwi
tht
heassumpt
iont
haty
ouwi
l
ltakeser
iousl
ythef
air
-
mi
ndednessi
mpl
i
edbyst
rong-
sensecr
it
icalt
hinki
ng.

Tot
hinkcr
it
ical
l
yint
hest
rongsenser
equi
rest
hatwedev
elopf
air
-
mindednessatt
hesamet
imet
hatwel
ear
nbasi
ccr
it
icalt
hinki
ng
ski
l
ls,
andt
husbegi
nto"
pract
ice"f
air
-mi
ndednessi
nourt
hinki
ng.
I
fwedo,
weav
oidusi
ngourski
l
lst
ogai
nunf
airadv
ant
ageov
er
ot
her
s.Weav
oidusi
ngourt
hinki
ngt
ogetwhatwewantatt
he
expenseoft
her
ight
sandneedsofot
her
s.Wet
reatal
lthi
nki
ngby
t
hesamehi
ghst
andar
ds.Weexpectgoodr
easoni
ngf
rom t
hose
whosuppor
tusaswel
last
hosewhoopposeus.Wesubj
ectour
ownr
easoni
ngt
othesamecr
it
eri
aweappl
ytor
easoni
ngt
o
whi
chwear
eunsy
mpat
het
ic.Wequest
ionourownpur
poses,
ev
idence,
concl
usi
ons,
impl
i
cat
ions,
andpoi
ntsofv
iewwi
tht
he
samev
igort
hatwequest
iont
hoseofot
her
s.

Dev
elopi
ngf
air
-mi
ndedt
hinker
str
ytoseet
heact
ualst
rengt
hs
andweaknessesofanyr
easoni
ngt
heyassess.Thi
sist
heki
ndof
t
hinkerwehopet
hisbookwi
l
lhel
pyoubecome.So,
rightf
rom t
he
begi
nni
ng,
wear
egoi
ngt
oexpl
oret
hechar
act
eri
sti
cst
hatar
e
r
equi
redf
ort
hest
rongest
,mostf
air
-mi
ndedt
hinki
ng.Asy
our
ead
t
hrought
her
estoft
hebook,
wehopey
ouwi
l
lnot
icehowwear
e
at
tempt
ingt
ofost
er"
str
ong-
sense"cr
it
icalt
hinki
ng.I
ndeed,
unl
esswei
ndi
cat
eot
her
wise,
ever
yti
mewenowuset
hewor
ds
"
cri
ti
calt
hinki
ng,
"fr
om t
hispoi
ntonwar
d,wewi
l
lmeancr
it
ical
t
hinki
ngi
nthest
rongsense.

I
nther
emai
nderoft
hischapt
er,
wewi
l
lexpl
oret
hev
ari
ous
i
ntel
l
ect
ual"
vir
tues"t
hatf
air
-mi
ndedt
hinki
ngr
equi
res(
Figur 1)
e3. .
Ther
eismuchmor
etof
air
-mi
ndednesst
hanmostpeopl
ereal
i
ze.
Fai
r-
mindednessr
equi
resaf
ami
l
yofi
nter
rel
atedand
i
nter
dependentst
atesofmi
nd.

Fi
gur
e3.
1.Cr
it
icalt
hinker
sst
ri
vet
odev
elopessent
ialt
rai
tsor
char
act
eri
sti
csofmi
nd.Thesear
eint
err
elat
edi
ntel
l
ect
ualhabi
ts
t
hatl
eadt
odi
sci
pli
nedsel
f-
command.
I
naddi
ti
ont
ofai
r-
mindedness,
str
ong-
sensecr
it
icalt
hinki
ng
i
mpl
i
eshi
gher
-or
dert
hinki
ng.Asy
oudev
elopasat
hinkerand
i
nter
nal
i
zet
het
rai
tsofmi
ndt
hatweshal
lsoondi
scuss,
youwi
l
l
dev
elopav
ari
etyofski
l
lsandi
nsi
ght
sthatar
eabsenti
ntheweak
-
sensecr
it
icalt
hinker
.

Asweexami
nehowt
hev
ari
oust
rai
tsofmi
ndar
econduci
vet
o
f
air
-mi
ndedness,
wewi
l
lal
sol
ookatt
hemanneri
nwhi
cht
he
t
rai
tscont
ri
but
etoqual
i
tyoft
hought(
ingener
al)
.Inaddi
ti
ont
o
t
hef
air
nesst
hatst
rong-
sensecr
it
icalt
hinki
ngi
mpl
i
es,
dept
hof
t
hinki
ngandhi
ghqual
i
tyoft
hinki
ngar
eal
soi
mpl
i
ed.Weak-
sense
cr
it
icalt
hinker
sdev
elopar
angeofi
ntel
l
ect
ualski
l
ls(
forexampl
e,
ski
l
lsofar
gument
ati
on)andmayachi
evesomesuccessi
n
get
ti
ngwhatt
heywant
,butt
heydonotdev
elopanyoft
het
rai
ts
hi
ghl
i
ght
edi
nthi
schapt
er.

I
tisi
mpor
tantt
onot
ethatmanypeopl
econsi
der
edsuccessf
uli
n
busi
nessori
nthei
rpr
ofessi
onar
e,i
nfact
,sel
fi
sht
hinker
s.I
nsel
f-
i
ndul
gentandmat
eri
ali
sti
ccul
tur
es,
thei
dea"
ifi
tisgoodf
ormei
t
i
sgoodf
orev
ery
one"i
staci
tl
yassumedwhennotov
ert
lyst
ated.
Thepur
sui
tofmoney
,of
tenatt
heexpenseoft
her
ight
sand
needsofot
her
s,i
sconsi
der
ednotonl
yaccept
abl
e,butal
so
commendabl
e.Nev
ert
hel
esswhent
hepur
sui
tofweal
thand
poweri
sunbr
idl
ed,
inj
ust
iceof
tenr
esul
ts.Thehumanmi
ndi
s
r
eadi
l
yabl
etoj
ust
if
yit
sownsel
fi
shnessandl
ackof
consi
der
ati
onf
orot
her
s.Thepower
fulf
indmanyr
easonst
o
i
gnor
ethei
nter
est
soft
heweak(
Figur 2)
e3. .

Fi
gur
e3.
2.Thesear
etheopposi
tesoft
hei
ntel
l
ect
ualv
irt
ues.
Theyoccurnat
ural
l
yint
hemi
ndandcanonl
ybecount
ered
t
hroughcul
tur
ali
zat
ionofi
ntel
l
ect
ualv
irt
ues.
Tr
uecr
it
icalt
hinker
s,i
nthest
rongsense,
real
i
zet
heeasewi
th
whi
cht
hemi
ndcani
gnor
ether
ight
sandneedsofot
her
s.They
r
ecogni
zet
hatt
ober
easonabl
eandj
usti
snott
ocompl
ywi
th
nat
urebutt
odef
yit
.Theyr
ecogni
zet
hedi
ff
icul
tyofent
eri
ngi
nto
poi
ntsofv
iewdi
ff
erentf
rom ourown.Theyar
ewi
l
li
ngt
odot
he
wor
kthati
srequi
redt
ogobey
ondsel
fi
sht
hinki
ng.

Letust
urnt
othecomponentt
rai
tsoft
hest
rong-
sensecr
it
ical
t
hinker
.Af
terwet
akeupeachi
ndi
vi
dualt
rai
tasi
tst
andsi
n
r
elat
iont
ofai
r-
mindedness,
wewi
l
lhi
ghl
i
ghti
tssi
gni
fi
canceasa
cont
ri
but
ort
othegener
aldev
elopmentofhi
ghl
evel
soft
hinki
ng.
WhatDoesFai
r-
MindednessRequi
re?

Fi
rst
,thebasi
cconcept
:

Fai
r-
mindednessent
ail
saconsci
ousnessoft
heneedt
otr
eatal
lvi
ewpoi
nts
al
i
ke,
wit
houtr
efer
encet
oone'
sownf
eel
i
ngsorsel
fi
shi
nter
est
s,ort
he
f
eel
i
ngsorsel
fi
shi
nter
est
sofone'
sfr
iends,
company
,communi
ty,
or
nat
ion.I
timpl
i
esadher
encet
oint
ell
ect
ualst
andar
ds(
suchasaccur
acyand
soundl
ogi
c),
uni
nfl
uencedbyone'
sownadv
ant
ageort
headv
ant
ageof
one'
sgr
oup.

Tobef
air
-mi
ndedi
stost
ri
vet
otr
eatev
eryv
iewpoi
ntr
elev
antt
oa
si
tuat
ioni
nanunbi
ased,
unpr
ejudi
cedway
.Itent
ail
sa
consci
ousnessoft
hef
actt
hatwe,
bynat
ure,
tendt
opr
ejudget
he
v
iewsofot
her
s,pl
aci
ngt
hem i
nto"
fav
orabl
e"(
agr
eeswi
thus)
and"
unf
avor
abl
e"(
disagr
eeswi
thus)cat
egor
ies.Wet
endt
ogi
ve
l
esswei
ghtt
ocont
rar
yvi
ewst
hant
oourown.Thi
sisespeci
all
y
t
ruewhenwehav
esel
fi
shr
easonsf
oropposi
ngv
iews.For
exampl
e,t
hemanuf
act
urer
sofasbest
osadv
ocat
edi
tsusei
n
homesandschool
s,andmadel
argepr
ofi
tsoni
tsuse,
even
t
hought
heyknewf
ormanyy
ear
sthatt
hepr
oductwas
car
cinogeni
c.Theyi
gnor
edt
hev
iewpoi
ntandwel
far
eoft
he
i
nnocentuser
soft
hei
rpr
oduct
.Ifwecani
gnor
ethepot
ent
ial
l
y
har
mfulef
fect
sofapr
oductwemanuf
act
ure,
wecanr
eapt
he
benef
it
sthatcomewi
thl
argepr
ofi
tswi
thoutexper
ienci
ngpangs
ofconsci
ence.Thus,
fai
r-
mindednessi
sespeci
all
yimpor
tant
whent
hesi
tuat
ioncal
l
sonust
oconsi
dert
hepoi
ntofv
iewof
t
hosewhowel
far
eisi
nconf
li
ctwi
thourshor
t-
ter
mvest
ed
i
nter
est
.

Theopposi
teoff
air
-mi
ndednessi
sint
ell
ect
ualsel
f-
cent
eredness.
I
tisdemonst
rat
edbyt
hef
ail
ureoft
hinker
stot
reatpoi
ntsofv
iew
t
hatdi
ff
ersi
gni
fi
cant
lyf
rom t
hei
rownbyt
hesamest
andar
dst
hat
t
heyt
reatt
hei
rown.

Achi
evi
ngat
rul
yfai
r-
mindedst
ateofmi
ndi
schal
l
engi
ng.I
t
r
equi
resust
osi
mul
taneousl
ybecomei
ntel
l
ect
ual
l
yhumbl
e,
i
ntel
l
ect
ual
l
ycour
ageous,
int
ell
ect
ual
l
yempat
het
ic,
int
ell
ect
ual
l
y
honest
,int
ell
ect
ual
l
yper
sev
erant
,conf
identi
nreason(
asat
oolof
di
scov
eryandl
ear
ning)
,andi
ntel
l
ect
ual
l
yaut
onomous.

Wi
thoutt
hisf
ami
l
yoft
rai
tsi
nani
ntegr
atedconst
ell
ati
on,
ther
eis
not
ruef
air
-mi
ndedness.Butt
heset
rai
ts,
singl
yandi
n
combi
nat
ion,
arenotcommonl
ydi
scussedi
nev
ery
dayl
i
fe,
and
ar
erar
elyt
aught
.Theyar
enotdi
scussedont
elev
isi
on.Your
f
ri
endsandcol
l
eagueswi
l
lnotasky
ouquest
ionsaboutt
hem.
I
ntr
uth,
becauset
heyar
elar
gel
yunr
ecogni
zed,
theset
rai
tsar
e
notcommonl
yval
ued.Yeteachoft
hem i
sessent
ialt
ofai
r-
mi
ndednessandt
hedev
elopmentofcr
it
icalt
hinki
ng.Letussee
howandwhyt
hisi
sso.

I
ntel
l
ect
ualHumi
l
ity
:Hav
ingKnowl
edgeofI
gnor
ance

Wewi
l
lbegi
nwi
tht
hef
air
-mi
ndedt
rai
tofi
ntel
l
ect
ualhumi
l
ity
:

I
ntel
l
ect
ualhumi
l
itymaybedef
inedashav
ingaconsci
ousnessoft
he
l
i
mit
sofone'
sknowl
edge,
incl
udi
ngasensi
ti
vi
tyt
oci
rcumst
ancesi
nwhi
ch
one'
snat
iveegocent
ri
sm i
sli
kel
ytof
unct
ionsel
f-
decept
ivel
y.Thi
sent
ail
s
bei
ngawar
eofone'
sbi
ases,
one'
spr
ejudi
ces,
thel
i
mit
ati
onsofone'
s
v
iewpoi
nt,
andt
heext
entofone'
signor
ance.I
ntel
l
ect
ualhumi
l
itydepends
onr
ecogni
zi
ngt
hatoneshoul
dnotcl
aim mor
ethanoneact
ual
l
yknows.I
t
doesnoti
mpl
yspi
nel
essnessorsubmi
ssi
veness.I
timpl
i
est
hel
ackof
i
ntel
l
ect
ualpr
etent
iousness,
boast
ful
ness,
orconcei
t,combi
nedwi
th
i
nsi
ghti
ntot
hel
ogi
calf
oundat
ions,
orl
ackofsuchf
oundat
ions,
ofone'
s
bel
i
efs.

Theopposi
teofi
ntel
l
ect
ualhumi
l
ityi
sint
ell
ect
ualar
rogance,
a
l
ackofconsci
ousnessoft
hel
i
mit
sofone'
sknowl
edge,
wit
hli
tt
le
ornoi
nsi
ghti
ntosel
f-
decept
ionort
hel
i
mit
ati
onsofone'
spoi
ntof
v
iew.I
ntel
l
ect
ual
l
yar
rogantpeopl
eof
tenf
allpr
eyt
othei
rown
bi
asandpr
ejudi
ce,
andf
requent
lycl
aimt
oknowmor
ethant
hey
act
ual
l
yknow.

Whenwet
hinkofi
ntel
l
ect
ualar
rogance,
wear
enotnecessar
il
y
i
mpl
yi
ngaper
sonwhoi
sout
war
dlysmug,
haught
y,i
nsol
ent
,or
pompous.Out
war
dly
,theper
sonmayappearhumbl
e.For
exampl
e,aper
sonwhouncr
it
ical
l
ybel
i
evesi
nacul
tleadermay
beout
war
dlysel
f-
eff
aci
ng(
"Iam not
hing.Youar
eev
ery
thi
ng"
),
buti
ntel
l
ect
ual
l
yheorshei
smaki
ngasweepi
nggener
ali
zat
ion
t
hati
snotwel
lfounded,
andhascompl
etef
ait
hint
hat
gener
ali
zat
ion.

Unf
ort
unat
ely
,inhumanl
i
fepeopl
eoft
hef
ullr
angeofper
sonal
i
ty
t
ypesar
ecapabl
eofbel
i
evi
ngt
heyknowwhatt
heydon'
tknow.
Ourownf
alsebel
i
efs,
misconcept
ions,
prej
udi
ces,
il
lusi
ons,
my
ths,
propaganda,
andi
gnor
anceappeart
ousast
hepl
ain,
unv
arni
shedt
rut
h.Whati
smor
e,whenchal
l
enged,
weof
tenr
esi
st
admi
tt
ingt
hatourt
hinki
ngi
s"def
ect
ive.
"Wet
henar
e
i
ntel
l
ect
ual
l
yar
rogant
,ev
ent
houghwemi
ghtf
eelhumbl
e.Rat
her
t
hanr
ecogni
zi
ngt
hel
i
mit
sofourknowl
edge,
wei
gnor
eand
obscur
ethosel
i
mit
s.Fr
om suchar
rogance,
muchsuf
fer
ingand
wast
eresul
t.
I
tisnotuncommonf
ort
hepol
i
ce,
forexampl
e,t
oassumeaman
i
sgui
l
tyofacr
imebecauseofhi
sappear
ance,
becausehei
s
bl
ackf
orexampl
e,orbecausehewear
sanear
ri
ng,
orbecausehe
hasadi
shev
eledandunkemptl
ookabouthi
m.Owi
ngt
othe
pr
ejudi
cesdr
ivi
ngt
hei
rthi
nki
ng,
thepol
i
cear
eof
teni
ncapabl
eof
i
ntel
l
ect
ualhumi
l
ity
.Inasi
mil
arway
,pr
osecut
orshav
ebeen
knownt
owi
thhol
dexcul
pat
oryev
idenceagai
nstadef
endanti
n
or
dert
o"pr
ove"t
hei
rcase.I
ntel
l
ect
ual
l
yri
ght
eousi
nthei
rvi
ews,
t
heyf
eelconf
identt
hatt
hedef
endanti
sgui
l
ty.Why
,ther
efor
e,
shoul
dn'
ttheysuppr
essev
idencet
hatwi
l
lhel
pthi
s"gui
l
ty"per
son
gof
ree?

I
ntel
l
ect
ualar
rogancei
sincompat
ibl
ewi
thf
air
-mi
ndedness
becausewecannotj
udgef
air
lywhenwear
einast
ateof
i
gnor
anceaboutt
heobj
ectofourj
udgment
.Ifwear
eignor
ant
aboutar
eli
gion(
say
,Buddhi
sm)
,wecannotbef
airi
njudgi
ngi
t.
Andi
fwehav
emi
sconcept
ions,
prej
udi
ces,
ori
l
lusi
onsabouti
t,
wewi
l
ldi
stor
tit(
unf
air
ly)i
nourj
udgment
.Wewi
l
lmi
srepr
esenti
t
andmakei
tappeart
obeot
hert
hani
tis.Ourf
alseknowl
edge,
mi
sconcept
ions,
prej
udi
ces,
andi
l
lusi
onsst
andi
nthewayoft
he
possi
bil
i
tyofourbei
ngf
air
.Ori
fwear
eint
ell
ect
ual
l
yar
rogant
,we
wi
l
lbei
ncl
i
nedt
ojudget
ooqui
ckl
yandbeov
erl
yconf
identi
nour
j
udgment
.Cl
ear
ly,
theset
endenci
esar
eincompat
ibl
ewi
thbei
ng
f
air(
tot
hatwhi
chwear
ejudgi
ng)
.

Whyi
sint
ell
ect
ualhumi
l
ityessent
ialt
ohi
gher
-l
evelt
hinki
ng?I
n
addi
ti
ont
ohel
pingusbecomef
air
-mi
ndedt
hinker
s,knowl
edgeof
ouri
gnor
ancecani
mpr
oveourt
hinki
ngi
nav
ari
etyofway
s.I
tcan
enabl
eust
orecogni
zet
hepr
ejudi
ces,
fal
sebel
i
efs,
andhabi
tsof
mi
ndt
hatl
eadt
ofl
awedl
ear
ning.Consi
der
,forexampl
e,our
t
endencyt
oacceptsuper
fi
ciall
ear
ning.Muchhumanl
ear
ningi
s
super
fi
cial
.Wel
ear
nal
i
ttl
eandt
hinkweknowal
ot.Weget
l
i
mit
edi
nfor
mat
ionandgener
ali
zehast
il
yfr
om i
t.Weconf
use
cut
esyphr
aseswi
thdeepi
nsi
ght
s.Weuncr
it
ical
l
yacceptmuch
t
hatwehearandr
ead—especi
all
ywhenwhatwehearorr
ead
agr
eeswi
thouri
ntensel
yhel
dbel
i
efsort
hebel
i
efsofgr
oupst
o
whi
chwebel
ong.

Thedi
scussi
oni
nthechapt
erst
hatf
oll
owencour
agesi
ntel
l
ect
ual
humi
l
ityandwi
l
lhel
ptor
aisey
ourawar
enessofi
ntel
l
ect
ual
ar
rogance.Seei
fyou,
from t
hismoment
,canbegi
ntodev
elopi
n
y
our
sel
fagr
owi
ngawar
enessoft
hel
i
mit
ati
onsofy
our
knowl
edgeandani
ncr
easi
ngsensi
ti
vi
tyt
oinst
ancesofy
our
i
nadv
ert
enti
ntel
l
ect
ualar
rogance.Wheny
oudo,
cel
ebr
atet
hat
sensi
ti
vi
ty.Rewar
dyour
sel
fforf
indi
ngweaknessesi
nyour
t
hinki
ng.Consi
derr
ecogni
ti
onofweaknessani
mpor
tantst
rengt
h,
notaweakness.Asast
art
er,
answert
hef
oll
owi
ngquest
ions:

Cany
ouconst
ructal
i
stofy
ourmostsi
gni
fi
cantpr
ejudi
ces?
(
Thi
nkofwhaty
oubel
i
eveabouty
ourcount
ry,
yourr
eli
gion,
your
company
,yourf
ri
ends,
yourf
ami
l
y,si
mpl
ybecause
ot
her
s—col
l
eagues,
par
ent
s,f
ri
ends,
peergr
oup,
medi
a—conv
eyed
t
heset
oyou.
)

Doy
ouev
erar
guef
ororagai
nstv
iewswheny
ouhav
eli
tt
le
ev
idenceuponwhi
cht
obasey
ourj
udgment
?

Doy
ouev
erassumet
haty
ourgr
oup(
yourcompany
,yourf
ami
l
y,
y
ourr
eli
gion,
yournat
ion,
yourf
ri
ends)i
scor
rect(
wheni
tisi
n
conf
li
ctwi
thot
her
s)ev
ent
houghy
ouhav
enotl
ookedatt
he
si
tuat
ionf
rom t
hepoi
ntofv
iewoft
heot
her
swi
thwhi
chy
ou
di
sagr
ee?

Testt
heI
dea
I
ntel
l
ect
ualHumi
l
ity

Nameaper
sony
out
hinky
ouknowf
air
lywel
l
.Maket
wo
l
i
sts.I
nthef
ir
stl
i
sti
ncl
udeev
ery
thi
ngy
ouknowf
orsur
e
aboutt
heper
son.I
nthesecondl
i
sti
ncl
udeev
ery
thi
ngy
ou
knowy
oudon'
tknowabouthi
m/her
.Forexampl
e:"
Iknow
f
orsur
ethatmyspousel
i
kest
ogar
den,
butI
'
m al
sosur
e
t
hatIhav
enev
err
eal
l
yunder
stoodwhatherf
ear
sand
per
sonaldesi
reswer
e.Iknowmanysuper
fi
cialt
hings
abouther
,butaboutheri
nnersel
fIknowl
i
ttl
e."Suppor
t
whaty
oucl
aim bywr
it
ingoutanexpl
anat
ionofy
our
t
hinki
ng.

I
ntel
l
ect
ualCour
age:Bei
ngWi
l
li
ngt
oChal
l
engeBel
i
efs

Nowl
et'
sconsi
deri
ntel
l
ect
ualcour
age:

I
ntel
l
ect
ualcour
agemaybedef
inedashav
ingaconsci
ousnessoft
heneed
t
ofaceandf
air
lyaddr
essi
deas,
bel
i
efs,
orv
iewpoi
ntst
owar
dwhi
chone
hasst
rongnegat
iveemot
ionsandt
owhi
chonehasnotgi
venaser
ious
hear
ing.I
ntel
l
ect
ualcour
agei
sconnect
edt
other
ecogni
ti
ont
hati
deast
hat
soci
etyconsi
der
sdanger
ousorabsur
dar
esomet
imesr
ati
onal
l
yjust
if
ied
(
inwhol
eori
npar
t).Concl
usi
onsandbel
i
efsi
ncul
cat
edi
npeopl
ear
e
somet
imesf
alseormi
sleadi
ng.Todet
ermi
nef
oronesel
fwhatmakes
sense,
onemustnotpassi
vel
yanduncr
it
ical
l
yacceptwhatonehasl
ear
ned.
I
ntel
l
ect
ualcour
agecomesi
ntopl
ayher
ebecauset
her
eissomet
rut
hin
somei
deasconsi
der
eddanger
ousandabsur
d,anddi
stor
ti
onorf
alsi
tyi
n
somei
deasst
rongl
yhel
dbysoci
algr
oupst
owhi
chwebel
ong.Peopl
e
needcour
aget
obef
air
-mi
ndedt
hinker
sint
heseci
rcumst
ances.The
penal
ti
esf
ornonconf
ormi
tycanbesev
ere.
Theopposi
teofi
ntel
l
ect
ualcour
age,
int
ell
ect
ualcowar
dice,i
sthe
f
earofi
deast
hatdonotconf
ormt
oone'
sown.I
fwel
ack
i
ntel
l
ect
ualcour
age,
wear
eaf
rai
dofgi
vi
ngser
iousconsi
der
ati
on
t
oideas,
bel
i
efs,
orv
iewpoi
ntst
hatweper
cei
veasdanger
ous.We
f
eelper
sonal
l
ythr
eat
enedbysomei
deaswhent
heyconf
li
ct
si
gni
fi
cant
lywi
thourper
sonali
dent
it
y—whenwef
eelt
hatan
at
tackont
hei
deasi
sanat
tackonusasaper
son.

Al
loft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
deasar
e"sacr
ed"i
nthemi
ndsofsome
peopl
e:bei
ngaconser
vat
ive,
bei
ngal
i
ber
al;
bel
i
evi
ngi
nGod,
di
sbel
i
evi
ngi
nGod;
bel
i
evi
ngi
ncapi
tal
i
sm,
bel
i
evi
ngi
nsoci
ali
sm;
bel
i
evi
ngi
nabor
ti
on,
disbel
i
evi
ngi
nabor
ti
on;
bel
i
evi
ngi
ncapi
tal
puni
shment
,di
sbel
i
evi
ngi
ncapi
talpuni
shment
.Nomat
terwhat
si
dewear
eon,
weof
tensayofour
sel
ves:"
Iam a(
an)[
inser
t
sacr
edbel
i
efher
e;f
orexampl
e,Iam aChr
ist
ian.Iam a
conser
vat
ive.Iam asoci
ali
st.Iam anat
hei
st]
."

Oncewedef
inewhowear
einr
elat
iont
oanemot
ional
commi
tmentt
oabel
i
ef,
wear
eli
kel
ytoexper
iencei
nnerf
ear
whent
hati
deaorbel
i
efi
squest
ioned.Quest
ioni
ngt
hebel
i
ef
seemst
obequest
ioni
ngus.Thei
ntensel
yper
sonalf
eart
hatwe
f
eeloper
atesasabar
ri
eri
nourmi
ndst
obei
ngf
air(
tot
he
opposi
ngbel
i
ef)
.Whenwedoseem t
oconsi
dert
heopposi
ngi
dea,
wesubconsci
ousl
yunder
minei
t,pr
esent
ingi
tini
tsweakestf
orm,
i
nor
dert
orej
ecti
t.Thi
sisonef
orm ofi
ntel
l
ect
ualcowar
dice.
Somet
imes,
then,
weneedi
ntel
l
ect
ualcour
aget
oov
ercomeour
sel
f-
creat
edi
nnerf
ear
—thef
earweour
sel
veshav
ecr
eat
edby
l
i
nki
ngouri
dent
it
ytoaspeci
fi
csetofbel
i
efs.

I
ntel
l
ect
ualcour
agei
sjustasi
mpor
tanti
nourpr
ofessi
onalasi
n
ourper
sonall
i
ves.I
f,f
orexampl
e,wear
eunabl
etoanal
yzet
he
wor
k-r
elat
edbel
i
efswehol
d,t
henwear
eessent
ial
l
ytr
appedby
t
hosebel
i
efs.Wedonothav
ethecour
aget
oquest
ionwhatwe
hav
eal
way
stakenf
orgr
ant
ed.Wear
eunabl
etoquest
iont
he
bel
i
efscol
l
ect
ivel
yhel
dbyourco-
wor
ker
s.Wear
eunabl
eto
quest
ion,
forexampl
e,t
heet
hicsofourdeci
sionsandour
behav
ioratwor
k.Butf
air
-mi
ndedmanager
s,empl
oyer
s,and
empl
oyeesdonothesi
tat
etoquest
ionwhathasal
way
sbeen
consi
der
ed"
sacr
ed"orwhati
stakenf
orgr
ant
edbyot
her
sint
hei
r
gr
oup.I
tisnotuncommon,
forexampl
e,f
orempl
oyeest
othi
nk
wi
thi
nasor
tof"
mobment
ali
ty"agai
nstmanagement
,whi
chof
ten
i
ncl
udesr
out
inel
ygossi
pingt
ooneanot
heraboutmanagement
pr
act
ices,
especi
all
ythosepr
act
icest
hati
mpactt
hem.Those
wi
thi
ntel
l
ect
ualcour
age,
rat
hert
hanpar
ti
cipat
ingi
nsuchgossi
p
i
nami
ndl
essway
,wi
l
lbegi
ntoquest
iont
hesour
ceoft
hegossi
p.
Theywi
l
lquest
ionwhet
hert
her
eisgoodr
easonf
ort
hegr
oupt
o
bedi
sgr
unt
led,
orwhet
hert
hegr
oupi
sir
rat
ionali
nit
s
expect
ati
onsofmanagement
.

Anot
heri
mpor
tantr
easont
oacqui
rei
ntel
l
ect
ualcour
agei
sto
ov
ercomet
hef
earofr
eject
ionbyot
her
sbecauset
heyhol
d
cer
tai
nbel
i
efsandar
eli
kel
ytor
ejectusi
fwechal
l
enget
hose
bel
i
efs.Thi
siswher
ewei
nvestt
hegr
oupwi
tht
hepowert
o
i
nti
midat
eus,
andsuchpoweri
sdest
ruct
ive.Manypeopl
eli
ve
t
hei
rli
vesi
ntheey
esofot
her
sandcannotappr
oveoft
hemsel
ves
unl
essot
her
sappr
oveoft
hem.Fearofr
eject
ioni
sof
tenl
urki
ngi
n
t
hebackoft
hei
rmi
nds.Fewpeopl
echal
l
enget
hei
deol
ogi
esor
bel
i
efsy
stemsoft
hegr
oupst
owhi
cht
heybel
ong.Thi
sist
he
secondf
orm ofi
ntel
l
ect
ualcowar
dice.Bot
hmakei
timpossi
blet
o
bef
airt
othei
deast
hatar
econt
rar
ytoour
,orourgr
oup'
s,i
dent
it
y.

Youmi
ghtnot
einpassi
nganal
ter
nat
ivewayt
ofor
myour
per
sonali
dent
it
y.Thi
sisnoti
nter
msoft
hecont
entofanygi
ven
i
dea(
whaty
ouact
ual
l
ybel
i
eve)but
,inst
ead,
int
ermsoft
he
pr
ocessbywhi
chy
oucamet
oit
.Thi
siswhati
tmeanst
otakeon
t
hei
dent
it
yofacr
it
icalt
hinker
.Consi
dert
hef
oll
owi
ngr
esol
uti
on:

Iwi
l
lnoti
dent
if
ywi
tht
hecont
entofanybel
i
ef.Iwi
l
lident
if
yonl
ywi
tht
he
wayIcomet
omybel
i
efs.Iam acr
it
icalt
hinkerand,
assuch,
am r
eadyt
o
abandonanybel
i
eft
hatcannotbesuppor
tedbyev
idenceandr
ati
onal
consi
der
ati
ons.Iam r
eadyt
ofol
l
owev
idenceandr
easonwher
evert
hey
l
ead.Myt
ruei
dent
it
yist
hatofbei
ngacr
it
icalt
hinker
,al
i
fel
ongl
ear
ner
,and
aper
sonal
way
slooki
ngt
oimpr
ovemyt
hinki
ngbybecomi
ngmor
e
r
easonabl
einmybel
i
efs.

Wi
thsuchani
dent
it
y,i
ntel
l
ect
ualcour
agebecomesmor
e
meani
ngf
ult
ous,
andf
air
-mi
ndednessmor
eessent
ial
.Wear
eno
l
ongeraf
rai
dtoconsi
derbel
i
efst
hatar
econt
rar
ytoourpr
esent
bel
i
efs.Wear
enotaf
rai
dofbei
ngpr
ovenwr
ong.Wef
reel
yadmi
t
t
ohav
ingmademi
stakesi
nthepast
.Wear
ehappyt
ocor
rectany
mi
stakeswear
est
il
lmaki
ng:Tel
lmewhaty
oubel
i
eveandwhy
y
oubel
i
evei
t,andmay
beIcanl
ear
nfr
om y
ourt
hinki
ng.Ihav
e
castof
fmanyear
lybel
i
efs.Iam r
eadyt
oabandonasmanyoft
he
pr
esentbel
i
efsasar
enotconsi
stentwi
tht
hewayt
hingsar
e.

Testt
heI
dea
I
ntel
l
ect
ualCour
ageI

Sel
ectonegr
oupt
owhi
chy
oubel
ong.Compl
etet
he
f
oll
owi
ngst
atement
s:

Onemai
nbel
i
efcommont
omember
soft
hisgr
oupt
hat
mi
ghtbequest
ionedi
s…(
her
eyouwantt
oident
if
yatl
east
onebel
i
eft
hatmayl
eadgr
oupmember
stobehav
e
i
rr
ati
onal
l
y).

Thi
sbel
i
efmi
ghtbequest
ionedbecause…

Iwoul
dorwoul
dnotbeabl
etost
andupt
omygr
oup,
poi
nti
ngoutt
hepr
obl
emswi
tht
hisbel
i
ef,
because…

I
ntel
l
ect
ualCour
ageI
I

Tr
ytot
hinkofaci
rcumst
ancei
nwhi
chei
thery
ouor
someoney
ouknewdef
endedav
iewt
hatwasunpopul
ari
n
agr
oupt
owhi
chy
oubel
onged.Descr
ibet
he
ci
rcumst
ances,
andespeci
all
yhowt
hegr
oupr
esponded.I
f
y
oucan'
tthi
nkofanexampl
e,whati
sthesi
gni
fi
canceof
t
hatr
eal
i
zat
ion?

I
ntel
l
ect
ualEmpat
hy:Ent
ert
aini
ngOpposi
ngVi
ews

Nextl
et'
sconsi
deri
ntel
l
ect
ualempat
hy,
anot
hert
rai
tofmi
nd
necessar
ytof
air
-mi
ndedness:
I
ntel
l
ect
ualempat
hyi
sanawar
enessoft
heneedt
oimagi
nat
ivel
yput
onesel
fint
hepl
aceofot
her
ssoast
ogenui
nel
yunder
standt
hem.Tohav
e
i
ntel
l
ect
ualempat
hyi
stobeabl
etoaccur
atel
yreconst
ructt
hev
iewpoi
nts
andr
easoni
ngofot
her
sandt
oreasonf
rom pr
emi
ses,
assumpt
ions,
and
i
deasot
hert
hanone'
sown.Thi
str
aital
socor
rel
ateswi
tht
hewi
l
li
ngnesst
o
r
ememberoccasi
onswhenonewaswr
ongi
nthepastdespi
teani
ntense
conv
ict
ionofbei
ngr
ight
,andwi
tht
heabi
l
ityt
oimagi
nebei
ngsi
mil
arl
y
decei
vedi
nacaseathand.

Theopposi
teofi
ntel
l
ect
ualempat
hyi
sint
ell
ect
ualsel
f-
cent
eredness.
I
tist
hinki
ngcent
eredonsel
f.Whenwet
hinkf
rom asel
f-
cent
ered
per
spect
ive,
wear
eunabl
etounder
standot
her
s't
hought
s,
f
eel
i
ngs,
andemot
ions.Fr
om t
hisnat
uralper
spect
ive,
wear
ethe
r
eci
pient
sofmostofourat
tent
ion.Ourpai
n,ourdesi
res,
andour
hopesar
emostpr
essi
ng.Theneedsofot
her
spal
eint
o
i
nsi
gni
fi
cancebef
oret
hedomi
nat
ionofourownneedsand
desi
res.Wear
eunabl
etoconsi
deri
ssues,
probl
ems,
and
quest
ionsf
rom av
iewpoi
ntt
hatdi
ff
ersf
rom ourownandt
hat
,
whenconsi
der
ed,
woul
dfor
ceust
ochangeourper
spect
ive.

Howcanwebef
airt
othet
hinki
ngofot
her
sifwehav
enot
l
ear
nedt
oputour
sel
vesi
nthei
rint
ell
ect
ualshoes?Fai
r-
minded
j
udgmentr
equi
resagood-
fai
thef
for
ttoacqui
reaccur
ate
knowl
edge.Humant
hinki
ngemer
gesf
rom t
hecondi
ti
onsof
humanl
i
fe,
from v
erydi
ff
erentcont
ext
sandsi
tuat
ions.I
fwedo
notl
ear
nhowt
otakeont
heper
spect
ivesofot
her
sandt
o
accur
atel
ythi
nkast
heyt
hink,
wewi
l
lnotbeabl
etof
air
lyj
udge
t
hei
rideasandbel
i
efs.Act
ual
l
ytr
yingt
othi
nkwi
thi
nthev
iewpoi
nt
ofot
her
sisnoteasy
,though.I
tisoneoft
hemostdi
ff
icul
tski
l
ls
t
oacqui
re.Theext
entt
owhi
chy
ouhav
eint
ell
ect
ualempat
hyhas
di
recti
mpl
i
cat
ionsf
ort
hequal
i
tyofy
ourl
i
fe.I
fyoucannott
hink
wi
thi
nthev
iewpoi
ntofy
oursuper
visor
,forexampl
e,y
ouwi
l
lhav
e
di
ff
icul
tyf
unct
ioni
ngsuccessf
ull
yiny
ourj
obandy
oumayof
ten
f
eelf
rust
rat
ed.I
fyoucannott
hinkwi
thi
nthev
iewpoi
ntsofy
our
subor
dinat
es,
youwi
l
lhav
edi
ff
icul
tyunder
standi
ngwhyt
hey
behav
east
heydo.I
fyoucannott
hinkwi
thi
nthev
iewpoi
ntofy
our
spouse,
thequal
i
tyofy
ourmar
ri
agewi
l
lbeadv
ersel
yaf
fect
ed.I
f
y
oucannott
hinkwi
thi
nthev
iewpoi
ntsofy
ourchi
l
dren,
theywi
l
l
f
eelmi
sunder
stoodandal
i
enat
edf
rom y
ou.

Testt
heI
dea
I
ntel
l
ect
ualEmpat
hyI

Tr
ytor
econst
ructt
hel
astar
gumenty
ouhadwi
thsomeone
(
asuper
visor
,col
l
eague,
fri
end,
ori
nti
mat
eot
her
).
Reconst
ructt
hear
gumentf
rom y
ourper
spect
iveandt
hat
oft
heot
herper
son.Compl
etet
hest
atement
sbel
ow.As
y
oudo,
wat
cht
haty
oudonotdi
stor
ttheot
her
'sv
iewpoi
nt.
Tr
ytoent
eri
tingoodf
ait
h,ev
eni
fitmeansy
ouhav
eto
admi
tyouwer
ewr
ong.(
Remembert
hatcr
it
icalt
hinker
s
wantt
oseet
het
rut
hint
hesi
tuat
ion.
)Af
tery
ouhav
e
compl
etedt
hisact
ivi
ty,
showi
ttot
heper
sony
ouar
gued
wi
tht
oseei
fyouhav
eaccur
atel
yrepr
esent
edt
hatper
son'
s
v
iew.

Myper
spect
ivewasasf
oll
ows(
stat
eandel
abor
atey
our
v
iew)
:

Theot
herper
son'
svi
ewwasasf
oll
ows(
stat
eand
el
abor
atet
heot
herper
son'
svi
ew)
:

I
ntel
l
ect
ualI
ntegr
it
y:Hol
dingOur
sel
vest
otheSameSt
andar
dst
o
Whi
chWeHol
dOt
her
s

Letusnowconsi
deri
ntel
l
ect
uali
ntegr
it
y:

I
ntel
l
ect
uali
ntegr
it
yisdef
inedasr
ecogni
ti
onoft
heneedt
obet
ruet
oone'
s
ownt
hinki
ngandt
ohol
donesel
ftot
hesamest
andar
dsoneexpect
sot
her
s
t
omeet
.Itmeanst
ohol
donesel
ftot
hesamer
igor
ousst
andar
dsof
ev
idenceandpr
ooft
owhi
chonehol
dsone'
sant
agoni
sts—t
opr
act
icewhat
oneadv
ocat
esf
orot
her
s.I
tal
someanst
ohonest
lyadmi
tdi
scr
epanci
es
andi
nconsi
stenci
esi
none'
sownt
houghtandact
ion,
andt
obeabl
eto
i
dent
if
yinconsi
stenci
esi
none'
sownt
hinki
ng.

Theopposi
teofi
ntel
l
ect
uali
ntegr
it
yisi
ntel
l
ect
ualhy
pocr
isy
,a
st
ateofmi
ndunconcer
nedwi
thgenui
nei
ntegr
it
y.I
tisof
ten
mar
kedbydeep-
seat
edcont
radi
cti
onsandi
nconsi
stenci
es.The
appear
anceofi
ntegr
it
ymeansal
otbecausei
taf
fect
souri
mage
wi
thot
her
s.Ther
efor
e,hy
pocr
isyi
sof
teni
mpl
i
citi
nthet
hinki
ng
andact
ionbehi
ndhumanbehav
iorasaf
unct
ionofnat
ural
egocent
ri
cthi
nki
ng.Ourhy
pocr
isyi
shi
ddenf
rom us.Thoughwe
expectot
her
stoadher
etost
andar
dst
owhi
chwer
efuset
o
adher
e,weseeour
sel
vesasf
air
.Thoughwepr
ofesscer
tai
n
bel
i
efs,
weof
tenf
ailt
obehav
einaccor
dancewi
tht
hosebel
i
efs.

Tot
heext
entt
hatwehav
eint
ell
ect
uali
ntegr
it
y,ourbel
i
efsand
act
ionsar
econsi
stent
.Wepr
act
icewhatwepr
each,
sot
ospeak.
Wedon'
tsayonet
hinganddoanot
her
.

SupposeIwer
etosayt
oyout
hatourr
elat
ionshi
pisr
eal
l
y
i
mpor
tantt
ome,
buty
ouf
indoutt
hatIhav
eli
edt
oyouabout
somet
hingi
mpor
tantt
oyou.Mybehav
iorl
acksi
ntegr
it
y.Ihav
e
act
edhy
pocr
it
ical
l
y.
Cl
ear
ly,
wecannotbef
airt
oot
her
sifwear
ejust
if
iedi
nthi
nki
ng
andact
ingi
ncont
radi
ctor
yway
s.Hy
pocr
isybyi
tsv
erynat
urei
sa
f
orm ofi
njust
ice.I
naddi
ti
on,
ifwear
enotsensi
ti
vet
o
cont
radi
cti
onsandi
nconsi
stenci
esi
nourownt
hinki
ngand
behav
ior
,wecannott
hinkwel
laboutet
hicalquest
ionsi
nvol
vi
ng
our
sel
ves.

Consi
dert
hispol
i
ticalexampl
e.Fr
om t
imet
oti
met
heU.
S.medi
a
di
scl
oseshi
ghl
yquest
ionabl
epr
act
icesbyt
heCI
A.These
pr
act
icesr
unany
wher
efr
om document
ati
onofat
tempt
ed
assassi
nat
ionsoff
orei
gnpol
i
ticall
eader
s(say
,at
tempt
sto
assassi
nat
ePr
esi
dentCast
roofCuba)t
othepr
act
iceoft
eachi
ng
pol
i
ceormi
l
itar
yrepr
esent
ati
vesi
not
hercount
ri
es(
say
,Cent
ral
Amer
icaorSout
hAmer
ica)howt
otor
tur
epr
isoner
stogett
hem
t
odi
scl
osei
nfor
mat
ionaboutt
hei
rassoci
ates.Toappr
eci
atehow
suchdi
scl
osur
esr
evealal
ackofi
ntel
l
ect
uali
ntegr
it
y,weonl
y
hav
etoi
magi
nehowt
heU.
S.gov
ernmentandci
ti
zenr
ywoul
d
r
espondi
fanot
hernat
ionwer
etoat
temptt
oassassi
nat
ethe
pr
esi
dentoft
heU.
Sort
rai
nedU.
S.pol
i
ceormi
l
itar
yinmet
hods
oft
ort
ure.Oncewei
magi
net
his,
wer
ecogni
zeabasi
c
i
nconsi
stencycommoni
nhumanbehav
iorandal
ackof
i
ntel
l
ect
uali
ntegr
it
yont
hepar
toft
hosewhopl
an,
engagei
n,or
appr
oveof
,suchact
ivi
ti
es.
Al
lhumanssomet
imesf
ailt
oactwi
thi
ntel
l
ect
uali
ntegr
it
y.When
wedo,
wer
evealal
ackoff
air
-mi
ndednessonourpar
t,anda
f
ail
uret
othi
nkwel
lenoughast
ogr
aspt
hei
nter
nalcont
radi
cti
ons
i
nourt
houghtorl
i
fe.

Testt
heI
dea
I
ntel
l
ect
ualI
ntegr
it
y

Wr
it
eaboutadi
mensi
onofy
ourl
i
fet
haty
oususpecthol
ds
somei
nconsi
stenci
esorcont
radi
cti
ons(
wher
eyou
pr
obabl
yar
enothol
dingy
our
sel
ftot
hesamest
andar
dto
whi
chy
ouhol
dthosewhom y
oudi
sli
keordi
sagr
eewi
th)
.
Thi
nkofasi
tuat
ionwher
eyourbehav
iorcont
radi
ctswhat
y
ousayy
oubel
i
eve.Thi
smi
ghtbei
nyourr
elat
ionshi
pwi
th
anempl
oyee,
oraspouse,
forexampl
e.Expl
ainwhat
i
nconsi
stenci
esmaybepr
esenti
nyourbehav
ior
.

I
ntel
l
ect
ualPer
sev
erance:Wor
kingThr
oughCompl
exi
tyand
Fr
ust
rat
ion

Letusnowconsi
deri
ntel
l
ect
ualper
sev
erance:

I
ntel
l
ect
ualper
sev
erancecanbedef
inedast
hedi
sposi
ti
ont
owor
kone'
s
wayt
hroughi
ntel
l
ect
ualcompl
exi
ti
esdespi
tet
hef
rust
rat
ioni
nher
enti
nthe
t
ask.Somei
ntel
l
ect
ualpr
obl
emsar
ecompl
exandcannotbeeasi
l
ysol
ved.
Onehasi
ntel
l
ect
ualper
sev
erancewhenonedoesnotgi
veupi
nthef
aceof
i
ntel
l
ect
ualcompl
exi
tyorf
rust
rat
ion.Thei
ntel
l
ect
ual
l
yper
sev
erantper
son
di
spl
aysf
ir
m adher
encet
orat
ionalpr
inci
plesdespi
tet
hei
rr
ati
onal
opposi
ti
onofot
her
s,andhasar
eal
i
sti
csenseoft
heneedt
ost
ruggl
ewi
th
conf
usi
onandunset
tl
edquest
ionsov
eranext
endedt
imet
oachi
eve
under
standi
ngori
nsi
ght
.

Theopposi
teofi
ntel
l
ect
ualper
sev
erancei
sint
ell
ect
uall
azi
ness,
demonst
rat
edi
nthet
endencyt
ogi
veupqui
ckl
ywhenf
acedwi
th
ani
ntel
l
ect
ual
l
ychal
l
engi
ngt
ask.Thei
ntel
l
ect
ual
l
yindol
ent
,or
l
azy
,per
sonhasal
owt
oler
ancef
ori
ntel
l
ect
ualpai
norf
rust
rat
ion.

Howdoesal
ackofi
ntel
l
ect
ualper
sev
erancei
mpedef
air
-
mi
ndedness?Under
standi
ngt
hev
iewsofot
her
srequi
rest
hatwe
dot
hei
ntel
l
ect
ualwor
ktoachi
evet
hatunder
standi
ng.Thatt
akes
i
ntel
l
ect
ualper
sev
erance-
insof
arast
hosev
iewsar
ever
ydi
ff
erent
f
rom our
sorar
ecompl
exi
nnat
ure.Forexampl
e,supposey
ouar
e
aChr
ist
ianwant
ingt
obef
airt
othev
iewsofanat
hei
st.Unl
ess
y
our
eadandunder
standt
her
easoni
ngofi
ntel
l
igentand
i
nsi
ght
fulat
hei
sts,
youar
enotbei
ngf
airt
othosev
iews.Some
i
ntel
l
igentandi
nsi
ght
fulat
hei
stshav
ewr
it
tenbookst
oexpl
ain
howandwhyt
heyt
hinkast
heydo.Someoft
hei
rreasoni
ngi
s
compl
i
cat
edordeal
swi
thi
ssuesofsomecompl
exi
ty.I
tfol
l
ows
t
hatonl
ythoseChr
ist
ianswhohav
ethei
ntel
l
ect
ualper
sev
erance
t
oreadand/
orunder
standat
hei
stscanbef
airt
oat
hei
stv
iews.Of
cour
se,
apar
all
elcasecoul
dbedev
elopedwi
thr
espectt
o
at
hei
sts'
under
standi
ngt
hev
iewsofi
ntel
l
igentandi
nsi
ght
ful
Chr
ist
ians.

Fi
nal
l
y,i
tshoul
dbecl
earhowi
ntel
l
ect
ualper
sev
erancei
s
essent
ialt
oal
lar
easofhi
gher
-l
evelt
hinki
ng.Vi
rt
ual
l
yal
lhi
gher
-
l
evelt
hinki
ngr
equi
ressomei
ntel
l
ect
ualper
sev
erancet
o
ov
ercome.I
ttakesi
ntel
l
ect
ualper
sev
erancet
oreasonwel
l
t
hroughcompl
exquest
ionsont
hej
ob,
towor
kthr
oughcompl
ex
pr
obl
emsi
nint
imat
erel
ati
onshi
ps,
tosol
vepr
obl
emsi
npar
ent
ing.
Manygi
veupdur
ingear
lyst
agesofwor
kingt
hroughapr
obl
em.
Lacki
ngi
ntel
l
ect
ualper
sev
erance,
theycutt
hemsel
vesof
ffr
om
al
lthei
nsi
ght
sthatt
hinki
ngt
hroughani
ssueatadeepl
evel
pr
ovi
des.Theyav
oidi
ntel
l
ect
ualf
rust
rat
ion,
nodoubt
,butt
hey
endupwi
tht
heev
ery
dayf
rust
rat
ionsofnotbei
ngabl
etosol
ve
compl
expr
obl
ems.

Testt
heI
dea
I
ntel
l
ect
ualPer
sev
erance
Mostpeopl
ehav
emor
ephy
sicalper
sev
erancet
han
i
ntel
l
ect
ualper
sev
erance.Mostar
ereadyt
oadmi
t,"
No
pai
n,nogai
n!"whent
alki
ngaboutt
hebody
.Mostgi
veup
qui
ckl
y,ont
heot
herhand,
whenf
acedwi
thaf
rust
rat
ing
i
ntel
l
ect
ualpr
obl
em.Thi
nki
ngofy
ourownr
esponses,
in
y
ourwor
kory
ourper
sonall
i
fe,
howwoul
dyouev
aluat
e
y
ourowni
ntel
l
ect
ualper
sev
erance(
onascal
eof0–10)
?
Wr
it
eoutwhaty
ouar
ebasi
ngy
ourscor
eon.

Conf
idencei
nReason:Recogni
zi
ngt
hatGoodReasoni
ngHas
Pr
ovenI
tsWor
th

Letusnowconsi
dert
het
rai
tofconf
idencei
nreason:

Conf
idencei
nreasoni
sbasedont
hebel
i
eft
hatone'
sownhi
gheri
nter
est
s
andt
hoseofhumanki
ndwi
l
lbebestser
vedbygi
vi
ngt
hef
reestpl
ayt
o
r
eason.Reasonencour
agespeopl
etocomet
othei
rownconcl
usi
onsby
dev
elopi
ngt
hei
rownr
ati
onalf
acul
ti
es.I
tist
hef
ait
hthat
,wi
thpr
oper
encour
agementandcul
ti
vat
ion,
peopl
ecanl
ear
ntot
hinkf
ort
hemsel
ves.
Assuch,
theycanf
ormi
nsi
ght
fulv
iewpoi
nts,
drawr
easonabl
econcl
usi
ons,
anddev
elopcl
ear
,accur
ate,
rel
evant
,andl
ogi
calt
houghtpr
ocesses.
,I
n
t
urn,
theycanper
suadeeachot
herbyappeal
i
ngt
ogoodr
easonandsound
ev
idence,
andbecomer
easonabl
eper
sons,
despi
tet
hedeep-
seat
ed
obst
acl
esi
nhumannat
ureandsoci
all
i
fe.Whenonehasconf
idencei
n
r
eason,
onei
s"mov
ed"byr
easoni
nappr
opr
iat
eway
s.Thev
eryi
deaof
r
easonabi
l
itybecomesoneoft
hemosti
mpor
tantv
aluesandaf
ocalpoi
nt
i
none'
sli
fe.I
nshor
t,t
ohav
econf
idencei
nreasoni
stousegoodr
easoni
ng
ast
hef
undament
alcr
it
eri
onbywhi
cht
ojudgewhet
hert
oacceptorr
eject
anybel
i
eforposi
ti
on.

Theopposi
teofconf
idencei
nreasoni
sint
ell
ect
ualdi
str
ustofr
eason,
gi
venbyt
het
hreatt
hatr
easoni
ngandr
ati
onalanal
ysi
sposet
o
t
heundi
sci
pli
nedt
hinker
.Bei
ngpr
onet
owar
demot
ionalr
eact
ions
t
hatv
ali
dat
epr
esentt
hinki
ng,
egocent
ri
cthi
nker
sof
tenexpr
ess
l
i
ttl
econf
idencei
nreason.Theydonotunder
standwhati
tmeans
t
ohav
efai
thi
nreason.I
nst
ead,
theyhav
econf
idencei
nthet
rut
h
oft
hei
rownbel
i
efsy
stems,
howev
erf
lawedt
hei
rbel
i
efsmi
ghtbe.

I
nmanyway
swel
i
vei
nani
rr
ati
onalwor
ldsur
roundedbymany
f
ormsofi
rr
ati
onalbel
i
efsandbehav
ior
s.Forexampl
e,despi
tet
he
successofsci
encei
npr
ovi
dingpl
ausi
bleexpl
anat
ionsbasedon
car
efulst
udyofev
idencegat
her
edt
hroughdi
sci
pli
ned
obser
vat
ions,
manypeopl
est
il
lbel
i
evei
nunsubst
ant
iat
ed
sy
stemssuchasast
rol
ogy
.Manypeopl
e,whenf
acedwi
tha
pr
obl
em,
fol
l
owt
hei
r"gut
"impul
ses.Manyf
oll
owl
eader
swhose
onl
ycl
aimt
ocr
edi
bil
i
tyi
sthatt
heyar
eski
l
ledi
nmani
pul
ati
nga
cr
owdandwhi
ppi
ngupent
husi
asm.Fewpeopl
eseem t
o
r
ecogni
zet
hepowerofsoundt
hinki
ngi
nhel
pingust
osol
vesour
pr
obl
emsandl
i
veaf
ulf
il
li
ngl
i
fe.Fewpeopl
e,i
nshor
t,hav
e
genui
neconf
idencei
nreason.I
nthepl
aceoff
ait
hinr
eason,
peopl
etendt
ohav
euncr
it
icalor"
bli
nd"f
ait
hinoneormor
eoft
he
f
oll
owi
ng(
oft
enasar
esul
tofi
rr
ati
onaldr
ivesandemot
ions)
:

Fai
thi
nchar
ismat
icnat
ionall
eader
s(t
hinkofl
eader
ssuchas
Hi
tl
er,
abl
etoexci
temi
l
li
onsofpeopl
eandmani
pul
atet
hem i
nto
suppor
ti
nggenoci
deofanent
ir
erel
i
giousgr
oup)
.

Fai
thi
nchar
ismat
iccul
tleader
s.

Fai
thi
nthef
atherast
het
radi
ti
onalheadoft
hef
ami
l
y(asdef
ined
byr
eli
giousorsoci
alt
radi
ti
on)
.

Fai
thi
ninst
it
uti
onalaut
hor
it
ies(
empl
oyer
s,"
thecompany
,"pol
i
ce,
soci
alwor
ker
s,j
udges,
pri
est
s,ev
angel
i
calpr
eacher
s,andso
f
ort
h).

Fai
thi
nspi
ri
tualpower
s(suchasa"
hol
yspi
ri
t,
"orspi
ri
ts(
mizi
mu)
,
‘
j
ini
s’asdef
inedbyv
ari
ousr
eli
giousbel
i
efsy
stems)
.
Fai
thi
nsomesoci
algr
oup,
off
ici
alorunof
fi
cial(
fai
thi
nagang,
in
t
hebusi
nesscommuni
ty,
inachur
ch,
inapol
i
ticalpar
ty,
andso
on)
.

Fai
thi
napol
i
ticali
deol
ogy(
suchascommuni
sm,
capi
tal
i
sm,
Fasci
sm)
.

Fai
thi
nint
uit
ion.

Fai
thi
none'
sunanal
yzedemot
ions.

Fai
thi
none'
sguti
mpul
ses.

Fai
thi
nfat
e(someunnamedf
orcet
hatsupposedl
ygui
dest
he
dest
inyofusal
l
).

Fai
thi
nsoci
ali
nst
it
uti
ons(
thecour
ts,
school
s,char
it
ies,
busi
ness
communi
ti
es,
gov
ernment
s).

Fai
thi
nthef
olkway
sormor
esofasoci
algr
ouporcul
tur
e.

Fai
thi
none'
sownunanal
yzedexper
ience.
Fai
thi
npeopl
ewhohav
esoci
alst
atusorposi
ti
on(
ther
ich,
the
f
amous,
thepower
ful
).

Someoft
heabov
ear
ecompat
ibl
e,undersomecondi
ti
ons,
wit
h
f
ait
hinr
eason.Thekeyf
act
ori
stheext
entt
owhi
chsomef
orm of
f
ait
hisbasedonsoundr
easoni
ngandev
idence.Theaci
dtest
,
t
hen,
is:Ar
ether
egoodgr
oundsf
orhav
ingt
hatf
ait
h?For
exampl
e,i
tmakessenset
ohav
efai
thi
naf
ri
endi
fthatf
ri
endhas
consi
stent
lyact
edasaf
ri
endov
eranext
endedt
ime.Ont
heot
her
hand,
itdoesnotmakesenset
ohav
efai
thi
nanewacquai
ntance,
ev
eni
fonef
indsonesel
femot
ional
l
yat
tract
edt
othati
ndi
vi
dual
andt
hatper
sonpr
ofesseshi
sorherf
ri
endshi
p.

Asy
ouexami
neandev
aluat
eyourownt
hinki
ngont
henat
ureof
di
ff
erentki
ndsoff
ait
h,andt
heext
entt
owhi
chy
ouhav
e
appr
opr
iat
econf
idencei
nreasonandev
idence,
asky
our
sel
fto
whatext
enty
oucanbemov
edbywel
l
-reasonedappeal
s.
Supposey
oumeetsomeonewhoshowssomuchofani
nter
esti
n
y
oursi
gni
fi
cantot
hert
haty
ouf
eeli
ntensel
yjeal
ousandnegat
ive
t
owar
dthatper
son.Woul
dyoushi
fty
ourv
iewi
fyour
ecei
ve
ev
idencebyadependabl
efr
iendt
hatt
heper
sony
ouar
enegat
ive
abouti
sact
ual
l
yexcept
ional
l
yki
nd,
thought
ful
,andgener
ous?Do
y
out
hinky
oucoul
dshi
fty
ourv
iew,
evenwhen,
deepdown,
you
wanty
oursi
gni
fi
cantot
hert
orej
ectt
hisper
soni
nfav
orofy
ou?
Hav
eyouev
ergi
venupabel
i
efy
ouhel
ddearbecause,
thr
ough
y
ourr
eadi
ng,
exper
ience,
andr
efl
ect
ion,
youbecameper
suaded
t
hati
twasnotr
easonabl
etobel
i
eveasy
oudi
d?Ar
eyour
eady
andwi
l
li
ngt
oadmi
tthatsomeofy
ourmostpassi
onat
ebel
i
efs
(
forexampl
e,y
ourr
eli
giousorpol
i
ticalbel
i
efs)mayi
nfactbe
"
wrong?
"

Testt
heI
dea
Fai
thi
nReason

Thi
nkofar
ecentsi
tuat
ioni
nwhi
chy
ouf
elty
our
sel
fbei
ng
def
ensi
veandy
ounowr
eal
i
zet
haty
ouwer
enotabl
eto
l
i
stent
oanar
gumentt
haty
oudi
dnotagr
eewi
th,
though
t
hear
gumenthadmer
it
.Int
hissi
tuat
ion,
youappar
ent
ly
coul
dnotbemov
edbygoodr
easons.Br
ief
lywr
it
ewhat
happenedi
nthesi
tuat
ion.Thenwr
it
ether
easonabl
e
ar
gument
sagai
nsty
ourposi
ti
ont
haty
ouwer
enotwi
l
li
ng
t
oli
stent
o.Whywer
en'
tyouabl
etogi
vecr
edi
ttot
heot
her
per
son'
sar
gument
?Inanswer
ingt
hisquest
ion,
seei
fyou
canuset
hel
i
stofsour
cesoff
ait
hthatpeopl
eusual
l
yrel
y
on.
I
ntel
l
ect
ualAut
onomy
:Bei
nganI
ndependentThi
nker

Thef
inali
ntel
l
ect
ualt
rai
twewi
l
lconsi
derher
eisi
ntel
l
ect
ual
aut
onomy
:

I
ntel
l
ect
ualaut
onomymaybedef
inedasi
nter
nalmot
ivat
ionbasedont
he
i
dealoft
hinki
ngf
oronesel
f;hav
ingr
ati
onalsel
f-
aut
hor
shi
pofone'
sbel
i
efs,
v
alues,
andwayoft
hinki
ng;
notbei
ngdependentonot
her
sfort
hedi
rect
ion
andcont
rolofone'
sthi
nki
ng.

Aut
onomousper
sonsar
eper
sonsi
nchar
geoft
hei
rli
ves.They
ar
enoti
rr
ati
onal
l
ydependentonot
her
sandnotcont
rol
l
edby
i
nfant
il
eemot
ions.Theyhav
esel
f-
cont
rol
.Theyar
ecompet
ent
.
Theycompl
etewhatt
heybegi
n.I
nfor
mingbel
i
efs,
cri
ti
cal
t
hinker
sdonotpassi
vel
yacceptt
hebel
i
efsofot
her
s.Rat
her
,they
t
hinkt
hroughsi
tuat
ionsandi
ssuesf
ort
hemsel
vesandr
eject
unj
ust
if
iedaut
hor
it
ieswhi
l
erecogni
zi
ngt
hecont
ri
but
ionsof
r
easonabl
eaut
hor
it
y.Theymi
ndf
ull
yfor
m pr
inci
plesoft
hought
andact
ionanddonotmi
ndl
essl
yacceptt
hosepr
esent
edt
othem.
Theyar
enotl
i
mit
edbyt
heaccept
edwayofdoi
ngt
hings.They
ev
aluat
ethet
radi
ti
onsandpr
act
icest
hatot
her
sof
tenaccept
unquest
ioni
ngl
y.I
ndependentt
hinker
sst
ri
vet
oincor
por
ate
knowl
edgeandi
nsi
ghti
ntot
hei
rthi
nki
ng,
independentoft
he
soci
alst
atusoft
hesour
ce.Theyar
enotwi
l
lful
,st
ubbor
n,or
unr
esponsi
vet
other
easonabl
esuggest
ionsofot
her
s.Theyar
e
sel
f-
moni
tor
ingt
hinker
swhost
ri
vet
oamendt
hei
rownmi
stakes.
Theyf
unct
ionf
rom v
aluest
heyt
hemsel
veshav
efr
eel
ychosen.

Ofcour
se,
int
ell
ect
ualaut
onomymustbeunder
stoodnotasa
t
hing-
in-
it
sel
f.I
nst
ead,
wemustr
ecogni
zei
tasadi
mensi
onofour
mi
ndswor
kingi
nconj
unct
ionwi
th,
andt
emper
edby
,theot
her
i
ntel
l
ect
ualv
irt
ues.

Theopposi
teofi
ntel
l
ect
ualaut
onomyi
sint
ell
ect
ualconf
ormi
ty,or
i
ntel
l
ect
ualoremot
ionaldependence.I
ntel
l
ect
ualaut
onomyi
s
di
ff
icul
ttodev
elopbecausesoci
ali
nst
it
uti
ons,
ast
heynowst
and,
dependheav
il
yonpassi
veaccept
anceoft
hest
atusquo,
whet
her
i
ntel
l
ect
ual
,pol
i
tical
,oreconomi
c.Thi
nki
ngf
oronesel
fal
most
cer
tai
nlyl
eadst
ounpopul
arconcl
usi
onsnotsanct
ionedby
domi
nantgr
oups.Ther
ear
eal
way
smanyr
ewar
dsf
ort
hosewho
si
mpl
yconf
ormi
nthoughtandact
iont
osoci
alpr
essur
e.

Consequent
ly,
thel
argemassesofpeopl
ear
eunknowi
ng
conf
ormi
stsi
nthoughtanddeed.Theyar
eli
kemi
rr
orsr
efl
ect
ing
t
hebel
i
efsy
stemsandv
aluesoft
hosewhosur
roundt
hem.They
l
ackt
hei
ntel
l
ect
ualski
l
lsandt
hei
ncent
ivet
othi
nkf
or
t
hemsel
ves.Theyar
eint
ell
ect
ual
l
yconf
ormi
ngt
hinker
s(Fi
gur
e
3.
3).

Ev
ent
hosewhospendy
ear
sget
ti
ngaPh.
D.maybei
ntel
l
ect
ual
l
y
dependent
,bot
hacademi
cal
l
yandper
sonal
l
y.Theymay
uncr
it
ical
l
yacceptf
aul
typr
act
icesi
nthedi
sci
pli
neasi
tst
ands,
uncr
it
ical
l
ydef
endi
ngt
hedi
sci
pli
neagai
nstl
egi
ti
mat
ecr
it
ics.The
r
esul
tof
teni
sunwar
rant
edhumanhar
m andsuf
fer
ing.

Onecannotbef
air
-mi
ndedandl
acki
ntel
l
ect
ualaut
onomy
,for
i
ndependentt
hinki
ngi
sapr
erequi
sit
etot
hinki
ngwi
thi
nmul
ti
ple
per
spect
ives.Whenwei
ntel
l
ect
ual
l
yconf
orm,
wear
eonl
yabl
eto
t
hinkwi
thi
n"accept
ed"v
iewpoi
nts.Butt
obef
air
-mi
ndedi
sto
r
efuset
ouncr
it
ical
l
yacceptbel
i
efswi
thoutt
hinki
ngt
hrought
he
mer
it
s(anddemer
it
s)oft
hosebel
i
efsf
oronesel
f.

Testt
heI
dea
I
ntel
l
ect
ualAut
onomy

Br
ief
lyr
evi
ewsomeoft
hev
ari
etyofi
nfl
uencest
owhi
ch
y
ouhav
ebeenexposedi
nyourl
i
fe(
inf
luenceofcul
tur
e,
company
,fami
l
y,r
eli
gion,
peergr
oups,
medi
a,per
sonal
r
elat
ionshi
ps)
.Seei
fyoucandi
scr
imi
nat
ebet
weent
hose
di
mensi
onsofy
ourt
houghtandbehav
iori
nwhi
chy
ouhav
e
donet
hel
eastt
hinki
ngf
ory
our
sel
fandt
hosei
nwhi
chy
ou
hav
edonet
hemost
.Whatmakest
hisact
ivi
tydi
ff
icul
tis
t
hatweof
tenper
cei
veour
sel
vesast
hinki
ngf
orour
sel
ves
whenwear
eact
ual
l
yconf
ormi
ngt
oot
her
s.Whaty
ou
shoul
dlookf
or,
ther
efor
e,ar
einst
ancesofy
ouract
ivel
y
quest
ioni
ngbel
i
efs,
val
ues,
orpr
act
icest
owhi
chot
her
sin
y
our"
group"wer
e,orar
e,conf
ormi
ng.

El
ement
sofThi
nki
ng(
Element
soft
hought
/Par
tsoft
hinki
ng)
.

Whyt
heAnal
ysi
sofThi
nki
ngi
sImpor
tant

Ev
ery
onet
hinks;
iti
sournat
uret
odoso.Butmuchofourt
hinki
ng,
l
eftt
oit
sel
f,i
sbi
ased,
dist
ort
ed,
par
ti
al,
uni
nfor
med,
ordownr
ight
pr
ejudi
ced.I
fwewantt
othi
nkwel
l
,wemustunder
standatl
east
t
her
udi
ment
soft
hought
,themostbasi
cst
ruct
uresoutofwhi
ch
al
lthi
nki
ngi
smade.Wemustl
ear
nhowt
otaket
hinki
ngapar
t.

Al
lThi
nki
ngI
sDef
inedbyt
heEi
ghtEl
ement
sThatMakeI
tUp.
Ei
ghtbasi
cst
ruct
uresar
epr
esenti
nal
lthi
nki
ng:Whenev
erwe
t
hink,
wet
hinkf
orapur
posewi
thi
napoi
ntofv
iewbasedon
assumpt
ionsl
eadi
ngt
oimpl
i
cat
ionsandconsequences.Weuse
concept
s,i
deasandt
heor
iest
oint
erpr
etdat
a,f
act
s,and
exper
iencesi
nor
dert
oanswerquest
ions,
sol
vepr
obl
ems,
and
r
esol
vei
ssues.

Thi
nki
ng,
then:

gener
atespur
poses

r
aisesquest
ions

usesi
nfor
mat
ion

ut
il
izesconcept
s

makesi
nfer
ences

makesassumpt
ions

gener
atesi
mpl
i
cat
ions
embodi
esapoi
ntofv
iew

Adet
ail
eddescr
ipt
ionoft
heei
ghtel
ement
soft
hought

El
ement
:Pur
pose Al
lreasoni
nghasaPURPOSE.

Taket
imet
ost
atey
ourpur
posecl
ear
ly.

Di
sti
ngui
shy
ourpur
posef
rom r
elat
edpur
poses.

Yourpur
posei
syourgoal
,yourobj
ect
ive,
whaty
ouar
etr
yingt
oaccompl
i
sh.Weal
souset
het
ermt
o
i
ncl
udef
unct
ions,
mot
ives,
andi
ntent
ions.

Youshoul
dbecl
earabouty
ourpur
pose,
andy
ourpur
poseshoul
d
bej
ust
if
iabl
e.

Quest
ionswhi
cht
argetpur
pose
 Whati
syour
,my
,thei
rpur
posei
ndoi
ng_
___
___
_?

Whati
stheobj
ect
iveoft
hisassi
gnment(
task,
job,
exper
iment
,
pol
i
cy,
str
ategy
,et
c.)
?

Shoul
dwequest
ion,
ref
ine,
modi
fyourpur
pose(
goal
,obj
ect
ive,
et
c.)
?

Whati
sthepur
poseoft
hismeet
ing(
chapt
er,
rel
ati
onshi
p,
act
ion)
?

Whati
syourcent
ralai
mint
hisl
i
neoft
hought
?

Whati
sthepur
poseofeducat
ion?

Whydi
dyousay
…?

Checkper
iodi
cal
l
ytobesur
eyouar
est
il
lont
arget
.

Choosesi
gni
fi
cantandr
eal
i
sti
cpur
poses.
El
ement
:Quest
ion Al
lreasoni
ngi
sanat
temptt
ofi
gur
e
somet
hingout
,toset
tl
esomeQUESTI
ON,
tosol
vesomepr
obl
em.

St
atet
hequest
ionati
ssuecl
ear
lyandpr
eci
sel
y.

Expr
esst
hequest
ioni
nsev
eralway
stocl
ari
fyi
tsmeani
ng.

Br
eakt
hequest
ioni
ntosub-
quest
ions.

Di
sti
ngui
shquest
ionst
hathav
edef
ini
ti
veanswer
sfr
om t
hose
t
hatar
eamat
terofopi
nionort
hatr
equi
remul
ti
plev
iewpoi
nts.

Thequest
ionl
aysoutt
hepr
obl
em ori
ssueand
gui
desourt
hinki
ng.Whent
hequest
ioni
svague,
ourt
hinki
ngwi
l
l
l
ackcl
ari
tyanddi
sti
nct
ness.
Thequest
ionshoul
dbecl
earandpr
eci
seenought
opr
oduct
ivel
y
gui
deourt
hinki
ng.
Quest
ionswhi
cht
argett
hequest
ion

Whati
sthequest
ionIam t
ryi
ngt
oanswer
?

Whati
mpor
tantquest
ionsar
eembeddedi
nthei
ssue?

I
sther
eabet
terwayt
oputt
hequest
ion?

I
sthi
squest
ioncl
ear
?Isi
tcompl
ex?

Iam notsur
eexact
lywhatquest
iony
ouar
easki
ng.Coul
dyou
expl
aini
t?

Thequest
ioni
nmymi
ndi
sthi
s:Howdoy
ouseet
hequest
ion?

Whatki
ndofquest
ioni
sthi
s?Hi
stor
ical
?Sci
ent
if
ic?Et
hical
?
Pol
i
tical
?Economi
c?Or
…?

Whatwoul
dwehav
etodot
oset
tl
ethi
squest
ion?
El
ement
:Inf
ormat
ion Al
lreasoni
ngi
sbasedonDATA,
I
NFORMATI
ONandEVI
DENCE.

Rest
ri
cty
ourcl
aimst
othosesuppor
tedbyt
hedat
ayouhav
e.

Sear
chf
ori
nfor
mat
iont
hatopposesy
ourposi
ti
onaswel
las
i
nfor
mat
iont
hatsuppor
tsi
t.

Makesur
ethatal
li
nfor
mat
ionusedi
scl
ear
,accur
ateand
r
elev
ant
.

Makesur
eyouhav
egat
her
edsuf
fi
cienti
nfor
mat
ion.

I
nfor
mat
ioni
ncl
udest
hef
act
s,dat
a,ev
idence,
orexper
ienceswe
uset
ofi
gur
ethi
ngsout
.Itdoesnotnecessar
il
yimpl
yaccur
acyor
cor
rect
ness.

Thei
nfor
mat
iony
ouuseshoul
dbeaccur
ateandr
elev
antt
othe
quest
ionori
ssuey
ouar
eaddr
essi
ng.
Quest
ionswhi
cht
argeti
nfor
mat
ion
 Whati
nfor
mat
iondoIneedt
oanswert
hisquest
ion?

Whatdat
aar
erel
evantt
othi
spr
obl
em?

Doweneedt
ogat
hermor
einf
ormat
ion?

I
sthi
sinf
ormat
ionr
elev
antt
oourpur
poseorgoal
?

Onwhati
nfor
mat
ionar
eyoubasi
ngt
hatcomment
?

Whatexper
ienceconv
incedy
ouoft
his?Coul
dyourexper
ience
bedi
stor
ted?

Howdoweknowt
hisi
nfor
mat
ion(
dat
a,t
est
imony
)isaccur
ate?

Hav
ewel
eftoutanyi
mpor
tanti
nfor
mat
iont
hatweneedt
o
consi
der
?

El
ement
:Int
erpr
etat
ionandI
nfer
ence Al
lreasoni
ngcont
ains
I
NFERENCESorI
NTERPRETATI
ONSbywhi
chwedr
aw
CONCLUSI
ONSandgi
vemeani
ngt
odat
a.

I
nferonl
ywhatt
heev
idencei
mpl
i
es.

Checki
nfer
encesf
ort
hei
rconsi
stencywi
theachot
her
.

I
dent
if
yassumpt
ionsunder
lyi
ngy
ouri
nfer
ences

I
nfer
encesar
eint
erpr
etat
ionsorconcl
usi
onsy
oucomet
o.
I
nfer
ri
ngi
swhatt
hemi
nddoesi
nfi
gur
ingsomet
hingout
.
I
nfer
encesshoul
dlogi
cal
l
yfol
l
owf
rom t
heev
idence.I
nferno
mor
eorl
esst
hanwhati
simpl
i
edi
nthesi
tuat
ion.
Quest
ionst
ochecky
ouri
nfer
ences

Whatconcl
usi
onsam Icomi
ngt
o?

I
smyi
nfer
encel
ogi
cal
?

Ar
ether
eot
herconcl
usi
onsIshoul
dconsi
der
?
 Doest
hisi
nter
pret
ati
onmakesense?

Doesoursol
uti
onnecessar
il
yfol
l
owf
rom ourdat
a?

Howdi
dyour
eacht
hatconcl
usi
on?

Whatar
eyoubasi
ngy
ourr
easoni
ngon?

I
sther
eanal
ter
nat
ivepl
ausi
bleconcl
usi
on?

Gi
venal
lthef
act
swhati
sthebestpossi
bleconcl
usi
on?

Howshal
lwei
nter
prett
hesedat
a?

El
ement
:Concept
s Al
lreasoni
ngi
sexpr
essedt
hrough,
and
shapedby
,CONCEPTSandI
DEAS.

I
dent
if
ykeyconcept
sandexpl
aint
hem cl
ear
ly.
 Consi
deral
ter
nat
iveconcept
soral
ter
nat
ivedef
ini
ti
onsof
concept
s.

Makesur
eyouar
eusi
ngconcept
swi
thpr
eci
sion.

Concept
sar
eideas,
theor
ies,
laws,
pri
nci
ples,
orhy
pot
heseswe
usei
nthi
nki
ngt
omakesenseoft
hings.
Becl
earaboutt
heconcept
syouar
eusi
nganduset
hem
j
ust
if
iabl
y.
Quest
ionsy
oucanaskaboutconcept
s

Whati
deaam Iusi
ngi
nmyt
hinki
ng?I
sthi
sideacausi
ng
pr
obl
emsf
ormeorf
orot
her
s?

It
hinkt
hisi
sagoodt
heor
y,butcoul
dyouexpl
aini
tmor
eful
l
y?

Whati
sthemai
nhy
pot
hesi
syouar
eusi
ngi
nyourr
easoni
ng?

Ar
eyouusi
ngt
hist
ermi
nkeepi
ngwi
thest
abl
i
shedusage?

Whatmai
ndi
sti
nct
ionsshoul
dwedr
awi
nreasoni
ngt
hrough
t
hispr
obl
em?
 Whati
deai
sthi
saut
horusi
ngi
nhi
sorhert
hinki
ng?I
sther
ea
pr
obl
em wi
thi
t?

El
ement
:Assumpt
ions
Al
lreasoni
ngi
sbasedonASSUMPTI
ONS.

Cl
ear
lyi
dent
if
yyourassumpt
ionsanddet
ermi
newhet
hert
hey
ar
ejust
if
iabl
e.

Consi
derhowy
ourassumpt
ionsar
eshapi
ngy
ourpoi
ntofv
iew.

Assumpt
ionsar
ebel
i
efsy
out
akef
orgr
ant
ed.Theyusual
l
y
oper
ateatt
hesubconsci
ousorunconsci
ousl
eveloft
hought
.
Makesur
ethaty
ouar
ecl
earabouty
ourassumpt
ionsandt
hey
ar
ejust
if
iedbysoundev
idence.
Quest
ionsy
oucanaskaboutassumpt
ions

Whatam Iassumi
ngort
aki
ngf
orgr
ant
ed?
 Am Iassumi
ngsomet
hingIshoul
dn’
t?

Whatassumpt
ioni
sleadi
ngmet
othi
sconcl
usi
on?

Whati
s…(
thi
spol
i
cy,
str
ategy
,expl
anat
ion)assumi
ng?

Whatexact
lydosoci
ologi
sts(
hist
ori
ans,
mat
hemat
ici
ans,
etc.
)
t
akef
orgr
ant
ed?

Whati
sbei
ngpr
esupposedi
nthi
stheor
y?

Whatar
esomei
mpor
tantassumpt
ionsImakeaboutmy
r
oommat
e,myf
ri
ends,
mypar
ent
s,myi
nst
ruct
ors,
mycount
ry?

El
ement
:Impl
i
cat
ions Al
lreasoni
ngl
eadssomewher
eorhas
I
MPLI
CATI
ONSandCONSEQUENCES.

Tr
acet
hei
mpl
i
cat
ionsandconsequencest
hatf
oll
owf
rom y
our
r
easoni
ng.
 Sear
chf
ornegat
iveaswel
lasposi
ti
vei
mpl
i
cat
ions.

Consi
deral
lpossi
bleconsequences.

I
mpl
i
cat
ionsar
ecl
aimsort
rut
hst
hatl
ogi
cal
l
yfol
l
owf
rom ot
her
cl
aimsort
rut
hs.I
mpl
i
cat
ionsf
oll
owf
rom t
hought
s.
Consequencesf
oll
owf
rom act
ions.
I
mpl
i
cat
ionsar
einher
enti
nyourt
hought
s,whet
hery
ouseet
hem
ornot
.Thebestt
hinker
sthi
nkt
hrought
hel
ogi
cali
mpl
i
cat
ionsi
n
asi
tuat
ionbef
oreact
ing.

Quest
ionsy
oucanaskabouti
mpl
i
cat
ions

I
fIdeci
det
odo“
X”,
whatt
hingsmi
ghthappen?

I
fIdeci
denott
odo“
X”,
whatt
hingsmi
ghthappen?

Whatar
eyoui
mpl
yi
ngwheny
ousayt
hat
?
 Whati
sli
kel
ytohappeni
fwedot
hisv
ersust
hat
?

Ar
eyoui
mpl
yi
ngt
hat
…?

Howsi
gni
fi
cantar
ethei
mpl
i
cat
ionsoft
hisdeci
sion?

What
,ifany
thi
ng,
isi
mpl
i
edbyt
hef
actt
hatamuchhi
gher
per
cent
ageofpoorpeopl
ear
einj
ailt
hanweal
thypeopl
e?

El
ement
:Poi
ntOfVi
ew Al
lreasoni
ngi
sdonef
rom somePOI
NT
OFVI
EW.

I
dent
if
yyourpoi
ntofv
iew.

Seekot
herpoi
ntsofv
iewandi
dent
if
ythei
rst
rengt
hsaswel
las
weaknesses.

St
ri
vet
obef
air
mindedi
nev
aluat
ingal
lpoi
ntsofv
iew.
Poi
ntofv
iewi
sli
ter
all
y“t
hepl
ace”f
rom whi
chy
ou
v
iewsomet
hing.I
tincl
udeswhaty
ouar
elooki
ngatandt
heway
y
ouar
eseei
ngi
t.
Makesur
eyouunder
standt
hel
i
mit
ati
onsofy
ourpoi
ntofv
iew
andt
haty
ouf
ull
yconsi
derot
herr
elev
antv
iewpoi
nts.
Quest
ionst
ochecky
ourpoi
ntofv
iew

Howam Il
ooki
ngatt
hissi
tuat
ion?I
sther
eanot
herwayt
olook
ati
tthatIshoul
dconsi
der
?

Whatexact
lyam If
ocusedon?Andhowam Iseei
ngi
t?

I
smyv
iewt
heonl
yreasonabl
evi
ew?Whatdoesmypoi
ntof
v
iewi
gnor
e?

Hav
eyouev
erconsi
der
edt
heway_
___
(Af
ri
cans,
Musl
i
ms,
Sout
hAmer
icans,
etc.
)vi
ewt
his?

Whi
choft
hesepossi
blev
iewpoi
ntsmakest
hemostsense
gi
vent
hesi
tuat
ion?
 Am Ihav
ingdi
ff
icul
tyl
ooki
ngatt
hissi
tuat
ionf
rom av
iewpoi
nt
wi
thwhi
chIdi
sagr
ee?

Whati
sthepoi
ntofv
iewoft
heaut
horoft
hisst
ory
?

DoIst
udyv
iewpoi
ntst
hatchal
l
engemyper
sonalbel
i
efs?

Bar
ri
erst
oCr
it
icalThi
nki
ng

I
fCr
it
icalThi
nki
ngi
ssoi
mpor
tant
,whyi
sitt
hatuncr
it
icalt
hinki
ng
i
ssocommon?

Whyi
sitt
hatsomanypeopl
eincl
udi
ngmanyhi
ghl
yeducat
edand
i
ntel
l
igentpeopl
efi
ndcr
it
icalt
hinki
ngsodi
ff
icul
t?

Someoft
her
easonsmayi
ncl
udet
hef
oll
owi
ng.

Lackofr
elev
antbackgr
oundi
nfor
mat
ion

Poorr
eadi
ngski
l
ls

Poorl
i
steni
ngski
l
ls
Bi
as

Pr
ejudi
ce

Super
sti
ti
on

Egocent
ri
sm

Soci
o-cent
ri
sm

Peerpr
essur
e

Mi
ndl
essConf
ormi
sm

Mi
ndl
essnon-
conf
ormi
sm

Pr
ovi
nci
ali
sm

Nar
row-
mindedness

Cl
osed-
mindedness
Di
str
ustofr
eason

St
ereot
ypi
ng

Unwar
rant
edassumpt
ionsandst
ereot
ypes

Rel
ati
vi
sti
cthi
nki
ng

Scapegoat
ing

Rat
ional
i
zat
ion

Wi
shf
ult
hinki
ng

Shor
t-
ter
mthi
nki
ng

Sel
ect
iveper
cept
ion/at
tent
ion

Sel
ect
ivememor
y

Ov
erpower
ingemot
ions
Sel
f-
decept
ion

Face-
sav
ing

Fearofchange

SI
XcommonPower
fulBar
ri
erst
oCr
it
icalThi
nki
ng:

Egocent
ri
sm,
Unwar
rant
edAssumpt
ions,
Soci
o-cent
ri
sm,
Rel
ati
vi
sti
cThi
nki
ng,
Wishf
ulThi
nki
ng,
andFearandI
nsecur
it
y.

Cr
it
icalThi
nki
ngDi
sposi
ti
ons/Char
act
eri
sti
cs

Cr
it
icalt
hinker
sar
e:

cur
iousaboutt
hewor
ld.

cr
eat
ivequest
ioner
s.

f
requent
lyaski
ng"
why
?"andseeki
ngr
easonst
odef
enda

posi
ti
on.
i
nter
est
edonl
yincr
edi
blesour
cesofi
nfor
mat
ion.

abl
etot
akei
ntoaccountt
het
otalsi
tuat
ionorcont
extwhen
i
nter
pret
ingsomet
hing.

r
elev
antt
hinker
swhost
ickt
othemai
npoi
nt.

al
way
slooki
ngf
oral
ter
nat
iveexpl
anat
ions,
posi
ti
ons,
or
ar
gument
s.

open-
mindedandwhoser
iousl
yconsi
derpoi
ntsofv
iewot
her
t
hant
hei
rown.

wi
l
li
ngt
ochangeaposi
ti
onwhent
heev
idencei
ssuf
fi
cientt
o
maket
hem doso.

abl
etowi
thhol
djudgementwhent
heev
idencei
sinsuf
fi
cient
.

eagert
oseekpr
eci
sion.

abl
etor
eal
i
zet
hel
i
mit
sofknowi
ng;
hencet
heyl
ookf
or
pr
obabi
l
ityr
athert
hanpr
oof
.
abl
etor
eal
i
zet
her
oleofper
sonalbi
asi
nthepr
ocessofknowi
ng
somet
hing.

abl
etodeali
nanor
der
lymannerwi
tht
hepar
tsofacompl
ex
whol
eandant
ici
pat
ethenextst
epi
napr
ocess.

sensi
ti
vet
othef
eel
i
ngs,
lev
elsofknowl
edge,
anddegr
eeof
sophi
sti
cat
ionofot
her
swhenpr
esent
ingt
hei
rfi
ndi
ngs.

abl
etoappl
ycr
it
icalt
hinki
ngabi
l
iti
est
oawi
dev
ari
etyofsubj
ect
s.

ORputdi
ff
erent
ly,
usi
ngt
hei
ntel
l
ect
ualv
irt
ues

Peopl
ewhoar
enotcr
it
ical
;

Tendt
odespai
rwhent
heyencount
eri
ntel
l
ect
ualobst
acl
esor
di
ff
icul
ti
eswher
easpeopl
ewhoar
ecr
it
icalHav
ethei
ntel
l
ect
ual
per
sev
erancet
opur
suei
nsi
ght
sort
rut
hs,
despi
teobst
acl
esor
di
ff
icul
ti
es.
Ar
eof
tenr
elat
ivel
yindi
ff
erentt
otr
uthandl
ackofcur
iosi
ty,
wher
e
aspeopl
ewhoar
ecr
it
icalLov
etr
uthandar
ecur
iousaboutawi
de
r
angeofi
ssues.

Fearandr
esi
sti
deast
hatchal
l
enget
hei
rbasi
cbel
i
efs,
wher
eas
peopl
ewhoar
ecr
it
icalHav
ethei
ntel
l
ect
ualcour
aget
ofaceand
assessf
air
lyi
deast
hatchal
l
engeev
ent
hei
rmostbasi
cbel
i
efs.

Ar
eeasi
l
ydi
str
act
edandl
ackt
heabi
l
ityt
ozer
oinont
heessence
ofapr
obl
em ori
ssue,
wher
eas,
peopl
ewhoar
ecr
it
icalAr
eabl
e
t
ogett
othehear
tofani
ssueorpr
obl
em ,
wit
houtbei
ng
di
str
act
edbydet
ail
s.

Tendt
oengagei
n‘gr
oupt
hink’
,uncr
it
ical
l
yfol
l
owi
ngt
hebel
i
efs
andv
aluesoft
hecr
owd,
wher
eas,
peopl
ewhoar
ecr
it
icalThi
nk
i
ndependent
lyandar
enotaf
rai
dtodi
sagr
eewi
thgr
oupopi
nion.

Lackawar
enessoft
hei
rownbi
asesandpr
econcept
ions,
wher
e
as,
peopl
ewhoar
ecr
it
icalAr
eawar
eoft
hebi
asesand
pr
econcept
ionst
hatshapet
hewayt
heyper
cei
vet
hewor
ld.

Of
tenbaset
hei
rbel
i
efsonmer
eper
sonalpr
efer
enceorsel
f
i
nter
est
,wher
eas,
peopl
ewhoar
ecr
it
icalBaset
hei
rbel
i
efson
f
act
sandev
idencer
athert
hanonper
sonalpr
efer
enceorsel
f-
i
nter
est.

Ar
ecl
ose-
mindedandr
esi
stcr
it
ici
smsofbel
i
efsand
assumpt
ions,
wher
eas,
peopl
ewhoar
ecr
it
icalLi
stenopen-
mi
ndedl
ytoopposi
ngpoi
ntsofv
iewandwel
comecr
it
ici
smsof
bel
i
efsandassumpt
ions.

Pr
etendt
heyknowmor
ethant
heydoandi
gnor
ethei
rli
mit
ati
ons,
wher
eas,
peopl
ewhoar
ecr
it
icalAr
eint
ell
ect
ual
l
yhonestwi
th
t
hemsel
ves,
acknowl
edgi
ngwhatt
heydon’
tknowandr
ecogni
zi
ng
t
hei
rli
mit
ati
ons.

Of
tenf
allpr
eyt
oegocent
ri
sm,
soci
ocent
ri
sm,
wishf
ult
hinki
ng,
et
c.wher
easpeopl
ewhoar
ecr
it
icalAr
esensi
ti
vet
oway
sin
whi
chcr
it
icalt
hinki
ngcanbeskewedbyegocent
ri
sm,
soci
ocent
ri
sm,
wishf
ult
hinki
ng,
etc.

Of
tent
hinki
nway
sthatar
euncl
ear
,impr
eci
se,
inaccur
ate,
etc.
,
wher
eas,
peopl
ewhoar
ecr
it
icalHav
eapassi
onat
edr
ivef
or
cl
ari
ty,
preci
sion,
accur
acy
,rel
evance,
consi
stency
,logi
cal
ness,
compl
eteness,
andf
air
ness.
Ar
gument
s

Anar
gumenti
saconnect
edser
iesofst
atement
sorpr
oposi
ti
ons,
someofwhi
char
eint
endedt
opr
ovi
desuppor
t,j
ust
if
icat
ionor
ev
idencef
ort
het
rut
hofanot
herst
atementorpr
oposi
ti
on.
Ar
gument
sconsi
stofoneormor
epr sesa
emi ndaconcl on.
usi The
pr
emi
sesar
ethosest
atement
sthatar
etakent
opr
ovi
det
he
suppor
torev
idence;
theconcl
usi
oni
sthatwhi
cht
hepr
emi
ses
al
l
egedl
ysuppor
t.Forexampl
e,t
hef
oll
owi
ngi
sanar
gument
:

Thedeat
hpenal
tyshoul
dbeadopt
edonl
yifi
tdet
ersmur
der
.
Howev
er,
itcoul
donl
ydot
hisi
fmur
der
ersunder
stoodt
he
consequencesoft
hei
ract
ionsbef
oreact
ing,
andsi
ncet
hisi
snot
so,
wemustr
ejectadopt
ingt
hedeat
hpenal
ty.

Theconcl
usi
onoft
hisar
gumenti
sthef
inalst
atement
:“wemust
r
ejectadopt
ingt
hedeat
hpenal
ty.
”Theot
herst
atement
sar
ethe
pr
emi
ses;
theyar
eof
fer
edasr
easonsorj
ust
if
icat
ionf
ort
his
cl
aim.Thepr
emi
sesofanar
gumentar
esomet
imesal
socal
l
ed
t
he“
dat
a,”t
he“
grounds”ort
he“
backup”gi
venf
oraccept
ingt
he
concl
usi
on.
Becausear
gument
sar
eat
tempt
stopr
ovi
deev
idenceorsuppor
t
f
oracer
tai
ncl
aim,
theyof
tencont
ainwor
dssuchas“
ther
efor
e,”
“
thus,
”“hence,
”“consequent
ly,
”or“
so”bef
oret
hei
rconcl
usi
ons.
Si
mil
arl
y,wor
dsorexpr
essi
onssuchas“
because,
”“i
nasmuchas,
”
“
since,
”“f
ort
her
easont
hat
,”et
c.,
areof
tenf
oundaccompany
ing
t
hepr
emi
sesofanar
gument
.Such“
indi
cat
ors”canai
dint
het
ask
ofi
dent
if
yingt
heconcl
usi
onoft
hear
gument
,whi
chof
tencomes
l
asti
ntheser
iesofst
atement
smaki
ngupt
hear
gument
,asi
nthe
exampl
eabov
e,butcanal
socomef
ir
st,
orev
eni
nthemi
ddl
e,
suchasi
ntheseexampl
es:

Ami
naSai
dMr
ishoi
sthebestper
sonf
ort ob.Thi
hej sisbecauseshe
hast
hemostl
egi
slat
iveexper
ienceofal
lthecandi
dat
es,
andshe
wi
l
lnotpl
acet
hei
nter
est
sofcor
por
ati
onsabov
ethoseoft
he
peopl
e.

Cal
l
ist
oor
bit
sJupi
ter
.Hence,
iti
snotapl ,
anetbecausesomet
hing
mustor
bitast
ari
nor
dert
obeapl
anet
.

I
ntheexampl
esabov
e,t
hei
tal
i
cizedst
atement
sar
ethe
concl
usi
ons.Theot
herst
atement
sar
eof
fer
edasr
easonsor
j
ust
if
icat
ionsf
ort
hesecl
aims.
I
nev
ery
dayl
i
fe,
weof
tenuset
hewor
d“ar
gument
”tomeana
v
erbaldi
sput
eordi
sagr
eement
.Thi
sisnott
hewayt
hiswor
dis
usual
l
yusedi
nphi
l
osophy
.Howev
er,
thet
wousesar
erel
ated.
Nor
mal
l
y,whent
wopeopl
ever
bal
l
ydi
sagr
eewi
theachot
her
,
eachper
sonat
tempt
stoconv
incet
heot
hert
hathi
sorher
v
iewpoi
nti
sther
ightone.Unl
essheorshemer
elyr
esul
tst
o
namecal
l
ing(
kut
ukana)ort
hreat
s,heorshet
ypi
cal
l
ypr
esent
s
anar orhi
gumentf sorherposi
ti
on,
int
hesensedescr
ibedabov
e.
I
nphi
l
osophy
,“ar
gument
s”ar
ethosest
atement
saper
sonmakes
i
ntheat
temptt
oconv
incesomeoneofsomet
hing,
orpr
esent
r
easonsf
oraccept
ingagi
venconcl
usi
on.

I
nnor
malconv
ersat
ion,
cer
tai
nimpor
tantel
ement
sofan
ar
gumentmi
ghtbel
efti
mpl
i
citorunst
ated.I
nthel
astexampl
e
gi
venabov
e,t
heper
sonadv
anci
ngt
hear
gumentmostl
i
kel
ytakes
i
tforgr
ant
edt
hathi
sorheraudi
enceunder
standst
hati
f
somet
hingor
bit
sJupi
ter
,theni
tdoesnotor
bitast
ar.Thi
s
supposi
ti
oni
sav
italpar
toft
heev
idenceorsuppor
tthatt
he
aut
hori
ntendst
hest
atedpr
emi
sest
opr
ovi
def
ort
heconcl
usi
on.
Her
e,t
hest
atement“
ifsomet
hingor
bit
sJupi
ter
,theni
tdoesnot
or
bitast
ar”i
soper
ati
ngasani
mpl
i
citorunst
atedpr se.
emi
Ther
efor
e,t
heabov
ear
gumenti
sbestunder
stoodasan
abbr
evi
atedf
orm oft
hef
ullar
gument
:
Cal
l
ist
oor
bit
sJupi
ter
.Somet
hingmustor
bitast
ari
nor
dert
obe
apl
anet
.Ifsomet
hingor
bit
sJupi
ter
,theni
tdoesnotor
bitast
ar.
Ther
efor
e,Cal
l
ist
oisnotapl
anet
.

Ev
ent
heconcl
usi
onofanar
gumentcanbel
eftunst
atedi
fiti
s
obv
iousenoughf
rom cont
extt
hatt
hespeakeri
ntendshi
sorher
wor
dst
opr
ovi
deev
idencef
oracer
tai
npr
oposi
ti
on.Consi
der
,for
i
nst
ance:

Onl
ychi
l
drenar
eal
l
owedont
heswi
ngset
,andMs.Angel
,youar
e
nochi
l
d,ar
eyou?

Her
e,t
hespeakeri
sobv
iousl
yinv
iti
ngMs.Angelt
odr
awt
he
concl
usi
ont
hatshei
snotal
l
owedont
heswi
ngset
.

Nor
mal
l
y,asi
ngl
est
atementi
nisol
ati
ondoesnotconst
it
utean
ar
gument
,butsi
mpl
yadecl
arat
ionorasser
ti
on.Forexampl
e,i
fa
t
eachersi
mpl
yannouncesatt
hebegi
nni
ngofacl
ass“
Il
alaMP,
Zunguv
otedi
nfav
oroft
het
axi
ncr
ease,
”shei
snotar
gui
ngf
ora
gi
venconcl
usi
on;
shesi
mpl
yint
endsherst
udent
stoaccepther
asser
ti
ononi
tsown.Howev
er,
int
her
ightcont
ext
,asi
ngl
e
st
atementcanabbr
evi
ateawhol
ear
gumenti
ftheot
heri
mpl
i
cit
pi
ecesoft
hear
gumentar
ecl
earf
rom t
hecont
ext
.Inadi
scussi
on
amongt
hev
oter
sdi
scussi
ngwhom t
hey
’dl
i
ket
oseeast
henext
candi
dat
eforI
lal
aconst
it
uency
,wher
eiti
sagr
eedbyal
l
par
ti
cipant
sthatnoonewhosuppor
tsi
ncr
easedt
axesi
sa
desi
rabl
ecandi
dat
e,someonemi
ghti
mpl
i
cit
lybear
gui
ngagai
nst
Zungu’
scandi
dacywi
tht
hesi
mpl
est
atement
,“I
lal
aMP,
Zungu,
v
otedi
nfav
oroft
het
axi
ncr
ease.
”Whent
hei
mpl
i
citpr
emi
seand
i
mpl
i
citconcl
usi
onar
efi
l
ledi
n,t
hear
gumenti
nit
sent
ir
etycoul
d
best
atedi
nthi
sway
:

I
lal
aMP,
Zungu,
vot
edi
nfav
oroft
het
axi
ncr
ease.Noonewho
v
otedi
nfav
oroft
het
axi
ncr
easei
sadesi
rabl
ecandi
dat
e.
Ther
efor
e,I
lal
aMP,
Zungu,
isnotadesi
rabl
ecandi
dat
e.

I
nanar
gument
,thepr
emi
sesar
eal
mostal
way
sputf
ort
h
orcl
aimedt
opr
ovi
desuppor
tfort
heconcl
usi
on;
howev
er,
the
pr
emi
sesdonotal
way
sact
ual
l
ypr
ovi
desuppor
t.I
fwet
akeas
ourexampl
ethef
oll
owi
ngar
gument
:

Ther
oul
ett
ewheelhasl
andedonr
edt
hel
astf
ivespi
ns.Ther
efor
e,
si
ncebl
acki
s“due,
”thenextspi
nwi
l
lpr
obabl
ybebl
ack.

Theper
sonst
ati
ngt
hisar
gumentpr
obabl
ythi
nkst
hatt
he
concl
usi
oni
sjust
if
iedbyt
hepr
emi
se,
butheorshewoul
dbe
mi
staken.Ther
easoni
ngher
eisf
all
aci
ous.Thepr
emi
secoul
dbe
t
ruewi
thoutt
heconcl
usi
onbei
ngdef
ini
tel
yorev
enpr
obabl
ytr
ue.
Howev
er,
thi
sisst
il
lanar
gument
,becauset
hepr
emi
sei
satl
east
i
ntendedt
opr
ovi
desuppor
torev
idencef
ort
heconcl
usi
on,
eveni
f
i
tdoesnot
.

Logi
ciansst
udyt
hecr
it
eri
atobeusedi
nev
aluat
ingar
gument
s,
i
.e.
,thecr
it
eri
afordet
ermi
ningunderwhatcondi
ti
onsacer
tai
n
setofpr
emi
sesact
ual
l
yguar
ant
eest
het
rut
horl
i
kel
ytr
uthoft
he
concl
usi
on.

Ar
gument
sar
erel
atedt
oinf
erenceandr
easoni
ng:i
.e.
,the
psy
chol
ogi
calpr
ocesst
hroughwhi
chaper
sonf
ormsanewbel
i
ef
ont
hebasi
sot
herbel
i
efs.Acour
seofr
easoni
ngcanusual
l
ybe
r
ecastorr
econst
ruct
edasanar
gument
.Forexampl
e,i
fsomeone
al
readybel
i
evedt
hatal
lRomancel
anguageswer
eder
ivedf
rom
Lat
in,
andt
henl
ear
nedt
hatRumani
anwasaRomancel
anguage,
sheorhewoul
dli
kel
yfor
mthenewbel
i
eft
hatRumani
anwas
der
ivedf
rom Lat
in.I
fthi
sper
sonwer
etoexpr
essherorhi
str
ain
oft
houghtoutl
oudorwr
it
eitdown,
itwoul
dtaket
hef
orm oft
his
ar
gument
:

Al
lRomanceLanguagesar
eder
ivedf
rom Lat
in.Rumani
ani
sa
RomanceLanguage.Ther
efor
e,Rumani
ani
sder
ivedf
rom Lat
in.

Howev
er,
itshoul
dnotbet
houghtt
hatt
hepsy
chol
ogi
calpr
ocess
ofi
nfer
enceort
henat
ureofcogni
ti
onar
erel
evantt
o
t
heev
aluat
ionofar
gument
s.Regar
dlessofwhet
herornott
he
ar
gumentabov
ecor
respondst
oany
one’
spsy
chol
ogi
calpr
ocess
orcogni
ti
vebehav
ior
,itcanbeanal
yzededbyl
ogi
ciansasv
ali
d,
becauset
hepr
emi
sesdopr
ovi
desuppor
tfort
heconcl
usi
on.

Ar
gument
smustbesepar
atedof
ffr
om ot
herusesofl
anguage,
suchast
oexpl
ainsomet
hing,
giv
eanexampl
e,ort
ellast
ory
.In
t
hesecases,
onemi
ghtf
indaconnect
edser
iesofst
atement
s,but
t
heaut
hororspeakerdoesnoti
ntendi
ttobet
hecaset
hatsome
oft
hem pr
ovi
desuppor
torev
idencei
nfav
orofoneoft
heot
her
s.
Sot
heyar
enotar
gument
s.Consequent
ly,
onemustdi
sti
ngui
sh
ar
gument
sfr
omr
epor
tsofar
gument
s.I
fanewspaperj
our
nal
i
st
i
ncl
udesi
nherar
ti
cleadescr
ipt
ionofanar
gumentgi
venbya
pol
i
tici
ani
nfav
orofconst
it
uti
onalr
efor
m,t
her
epor
teri
s
nother
sel
far
gui
ngi
nfav
orofconst
it
uti
onalr
efor
m norany
thi
ng
el
se.Shei
smer
elymaki
ngar
epor
t.

Ther
ear
eot
herusesofl
anguaget
hatmayappearatf
ir
stbl
usht
o
bear
gument
s,butar
enot
.Suchi
sthecasewi
thexpl
anat
ions.
Somet
imesi
tisagr
eedbypar
ti
cipant
sinaconv
ersat
iont
hata
cer
tai
nev
enthast
akenpl
ace,
ort
hatacer
tai
nthi
ngi
str
ue.
Suppose,
forexampl
e,i
tisagr
eedt
hatAl
exi
slat
eforhi
sjob.
Someonemi
ghtexpl
aint
hisf
actasf
oll
ows:

Al
ex’
scarbr
okedowny
est
erday
,andwi
thouti
thecannotgett
o
wor
kont
ime.Ther
efor
e,hei
slat
eforwor
ktoday
.

Theabov
emayappeart
obeanar
gument
.Inf
act
,ithast
hesame
st
ruct
ureasanar
gument
,andev
eni
ncl
udest
hei
ndi
cat
or
“
ther
efor
e.”Howev
er,
not
icet
hatt
heper
sonspeaki
ngt
hese
wor
dsi
snotat
tempt
ingt
opr
ovi
desuppor
torev
idencef
ort
he
t
rut
hoft
hecl
aimt
hat“
Alexi
slat
eforwor
ktoday
:”t
hati
sal
ready
accept
edast
ruei
nthi
scont
extbyev
ery
onei
nvol
ved.Pr
oper
ly
speaki
ng,
theabov
eexampl
eisanexpl
anat
ion,
notanar
gument
.
Howev
er,
inanot
hercont
ext
,inwhi
chi
twasnotgener
all
yknown
t
hatAl
exi
slat
eforwor
ktoday
,thesev
erywor
dscoul
dbeusedas
anar
gument
.Consequent
ly,
iti
simpossi
blet
oascer
tai
nwhet
her
ornotacer
tai
nut
ter
ancei
sanar
gumentwi
thoutascer
tai
ningt
he
speaker
’si
ntent
ionswi
thi
nthegi
vencont
ext
.Muchofphi
l
osophy
consi
stsi
ntheev
aluat
ionofpar
ti
cul
arar
gument
s,somesi
mpl
e,
somecompl
i
cat
ed.Descar
tes’
sfamoust
hreewor
dsay
ing,
“
cogi
toer
gosum”(
Ithi
nk,
ther
efor
eIam)r
epr
esent
san
ext
remel
ycompactar
gument
,wi
thasi
ngl
epr
emi
se,
thathei
s
t
hinki
ng,
tot
heconcl
usi
ont
hatheexi
sts.Ot
herphi
l
osophi
cal
ar
gument
sar
emor
ecompl
i
cat
edandel
abor
ate.Consi
dert
he
f
oll
owi
ngar
gumentf
rom Pl
ato’
sApol
ogy
:

Letusr
efl
ecti
nanot
herway
,andweshal
lseet
hatt
her
eisgr
eat
r
easont
ohopet
hatdeat
hisagood,
foroneoft
wot
hings:—
ei
therdeat
hisast
ateofnot
hingnessandut
terunconsci
ousness,
or
,asmensay
,ther
eisachangeandmi
grat
ionoft
hesoulf
rom
t
hiswor
ldt
oanot
her
.Nowi
fyousupposet
hatt
her
eisno
consci
ousness,
butasl
eepl
i
ket
hesl
eepofhi
m whoi
s
undi
stur
bedev
enbyt
hesi
ghtofdr
eams,
deat
hwi
l
lbean
unspeakabl
egai
n.Fori
faper
sonwer
etosel
ectt
heni
ghti
nwhi
ch
hi
ssl
eepwasundi
stur
bedev
enbydr
eams,
andwer
etocompar
e
wi
tht
hist
heot
herday
sandni
ght
sofhi
sli
fe,
andt
henwer
etot
ell
ushowmanyday
sandni
ght
shehadpassedi
nthecour
seofhi
s
l
i
febet
terandmor
epl
easant
lyt
hant
hisone,
Ithi
nkt
hatanyman,
Iwi
l
lnotsayapr
ivat
eman,
butev
ent
hegr
eatki
ng,
wil
lnotf
ind
manysuchday
sorni
ght
s,whencompar
edwi
tht
heot
her
s.Nowi
f
deat
hisl
i
ket
his,
Isayt
hatt
odi
eisgai
n;f
oret
erni
tyi
sthenonl
ya
si
ngl
eni
ght
.Buti
fdeat
hist
hej
our
neyt
oanot
herpl
ace,
andt
her
e,
asmensay
,al
lthedeadar
e,whatgood,
Omyf
ri
endsandj
udges,
canbegr
eat
ert
hant
his?I
findeedwhent
hepi
l
gri
m ar
ri
vesi
nthe
wor
ldbel
ow,
hei
sdel
i
ver
edf
rom t
hepr
ofessor
sofj
ust
icei
nthi
s
wor
ld,
andf
indst
het
ruej
udgeswhoar
esai
dtogi
vej
udgment
t
her
e,Mi
nosandRhadamant
husandAeacusandTr
ipt
olemus,
andot
hersonsofGodwhower
eri
ght
eousi
nthei
rownl
i
fe,
that
pi
l
gri
magewi
l
lbewor
thmaki
ng.Whatwoul
dnotamangi
vei
fhe
mi
ghtconv
ersewi
thOr
pheusandMusaeusandHesi
odand
Homer
?Nay
,ift
hisbet
rue,
letmedi
eagai
nandagai
n.

Her
ethechar
act
erSocr
atesar
guesf
ort
heconcl
usi
ont
hatdeat
h
i
sagood.Thej
ust
if
icat
ionheof
fer
sfort
heconcl
usi
on,
howev
er,
i
srat
herel
abor
ate;
heof
fer
squi
teaf
ewpr
emi
ses,
whi
ch,
taken
t
oget
her
,ar
ethoughtt
opr
ovi
desuppor
tfort
heconcl
usi
on.

Deduct
iveandI
nduct
iveAr
gument
s

Adeduct
ivear
gumenti
sanar
gumenti
nwhi
chi
tist
houghtt
hat
t
hepr
emi
sespr
ovi
deaguar
ant
eeoft
het
rut
hoft
heconcl
usi
on.
I
nadeduct
ivear
gument
,thepr
emi
sesar
eint
endedt
opr
ovi
de
suppor
tfort
heconcl
usi
ont
hati
ssost
rongt
hat
,ift
hepr
emi
ses
ar
etr
ue,
itwoul
dbei
mpossi
blef
ort
heconcl
usi
ont
obef
alse.

Ani
nduct
ivear
gumenti
sanar
gumenti
nwhi
chi
tist
houghtt
hat
t
hepr
emi
sespr
ovi
der
easonssuppor
ti
ngt
hepr
obabl
etr
uthoft
he
concl
usi
on.I
nani
nduct
ivear
gument
,thepr
emi
sesar
eint
ended
onl
ytobesost
rongt
hat
,ift
heyar
etr
ue,
theni
tisunl
i
kel
ythatt
he
concl
usi
oni
sfal
se.

Thedi
ff
erencebet
weent
het
wocomesf
rom t
hesor
tofr
elat
ion
t
heaut
hororexposi
toroft
hear
gumentt
akest
her
etobebet
ween
t
hepr
emi
sesandt
heconcl
usi
on.I
ftheaut
horoft
hear
gument
bel
i
evest
hatt
het
rut
hoft
hepr
emi
sesdef
ini
tel
yest
abl
i
shest
he
t
rut
hoft
heconcl
usi
onduet
odef
ini
ti
on,
logi
calent
ail
mentor
mat
hemat
icalnecessi
ty,
thent
hear
gumenti
sdeduct
ive.I
fthe
aut
horoft
hear
gumentdoesnott
hinkt
hatt
het
rut
hoft
he
pr
emi
sesdef
ini
tel
yest
abl
i
shest
het
rut
hoft
heconcl
usi
on,
but
nonet
hel
essbel
i
evest
hatt
hei
rtr
uthpr
ovi
desgoodr
easont
o
bel
i
evet
heconcl
usi
ont
rue,
thent
hear
gumenti
sinduct
ive.

Thenoun“
deduct
ion”r
efer
stot
hepr
ocessofadv
anci
nga
deduct
ivear
gument
,orgoi
ngt
hroughapr
ocessofr
easoni
ngt
hat
canber
econst
ruct
edasadeduct
ivear
gument
.“I
nduct
ion”r
efer
s
t
othepr
ocessofadv
anci
ngani
nduct
ivear
gument
,ormaki
nguse
ofr
easoni
ngt
hatcanber
econst
ruct
edasani
nduct
ivear
gument
.

Becausededuct
ivear
gument
sar
ethosei
nwhi
cht
het
rut
hoft
he
concl
usi
oni
sthoughtt
obecompl
etel
yguar
ant
eedandnot
j
ustmadepr
obabl
ebyt
het
rut
hoft
hepr
emi
ses,
ift
hear
gument
i
sasoundone,
thet
rut
hoft
heconcl
usi
oni
s“cont
ainedwi
thi
n”
t
het
rut
hoft
hepr
emi
ses;
i.
e.,
theconcl
usi
ondoesnotgobey
ond
whatt
het
rut
hoft
hepr
emi
sesi
mpl
i
cit
lyr
equi
res.Fort
hisr
eason,
deduct
ivear
gument
sar
eusual
l
yli
mit
edt
oinf
erencest
hatf
oll
ow
f
rom def
ini
ti
ons,
mat
hemat
icsandr
ulesoff
ormall
ogi
c.For
exampl
e,t
hef
oll
owi
ngar
ededuct
ivear
gument
s:

Ther
ear
e32booksont
het
op-
shel
foft
hebookcase,
and12on
t
hel
owershel
foft
hebookcase.Ther
ear
enobooksany
wher
e
el
sei
nmybookcase.Ther
efor
e,t
her
ear
e44booksi
nthe
bookcase.
Ber
geni
sei
theri
nNor
wayorSweden.I
fBer
geni
sin
Nor
way
,thenBer
geni
sinScandi
nav
ia.I
fBer
geni
sinSweden,
t
henBer
geni
sinScandi
nav
ia.Ther
efor
e,Ber
geni
sinScandi
nav
ia.

I
nduct
ivear
gument
s,ont
heot
herhand,
canappealt
oany
consi
der
ati
ont
hatmi
ghtbet
houghtr
elev
antt
othepr
obabi
l
ityof
t
het
rut
hoft
heconcl
usi
on.I
nduct
ivear
gument
s,t
her
efor
e,can
t
akev
erywi
der
angi
ngf
orms,
incl
udi
ngar
gument
sdeal
i
ngwi
th
st
ati
sti
caldat
a,gener
ali
zat
ionsf
rom pastexper
ience,
appeal
sto
si
gns,
evi
denceoraut
hor
it
y,andcausalr
elat
ionshi
ps.

Somedi
cti
onar
iesdef
ine“
deduct
ion”asr
easoni
ngf
rom t
he
gener
alt
ospeci
fi
cand“
induct
ion”asr
easoni
ngf
rom t
hespeci
fi
c
t
othegener
al.Whi
l
ethi
susagei
sst
il
lsomet
imesf
oundev
eni
n
phi
l
osophi
calandmat
hemat
icalcont
ext
s,f
ort
hemostpar
t,i
tis
out
dat
ed.Forexampl
e,accor
dingt
othemor
emoder
ndef
ini
ti
ons
gi
venabov
e,t
hef
oll
owi
ngar
gument
,ev
ent
houghi
treasonsf
rom
t
hespeci
fi
ctogener
al,
isdeduct
ive,
becauset
het
rut
hoft
he
pr
emi
sesguar
ant
eest
het
rut
hoft
heconcl
usi
on:

Themember
soft
heWi
l
li
amsf
ami
l
yar
eSusan,
Nat
hanand
Al
exander
.
Susanwear
sgl
asses.
Nat
hanwear
sgl
asses.
Al
exanderwear
sgl
asses.
Ther
efor
e,al
lmember
soft
heWi
l
li
amsf
ami
l
yweargl
asses.

Mor
eov
er,
thef
oll
owi
ngar
gument
,ev
ent
houghi
treasonsf
rom
t
hegener
alt
ospeci
fi
c,i
sinduct
ive:

I
thassnowedi
nMassachuset
tsev
eryDecemberi
nrecor
ded
hi
stor
y.
Ther
efor
e,i
twi
l
lsnowi
nMassachuset
tst
hiscomi
ngDecember
.

I
tiswor
thnot
ing,
ther
efor
e,t
hatt
hepr
ooft
echni
queusedi
n
mat
hemat
icscal
l
ed“
mat
hemat
icali
nduct
ion”
,is,
accor
dingt
othe
cont
empor
arydef
ini
ti
ongi
venabov
e,act
ual
l
yaf
orm ofdeduct
ion.
Pr
oof
sthatmakeuseofmat
hemat
icali
nduct
iont
ypi
cal
l
ytaket
he
f
oll
owi
ngf
orm:

Pr
oper
tyPi
str
ueoft
henumber0.
Foral
lnat
uralnumber
sn,
ifPhol
dsofnt
henPal
sohol
dsofn+1.
Ther
efor
e,Pi
str
ueofal
lnat
uralnumber
s.

Whensuchapr
oofi
sgi
venbyamat
hemat
ici
an,
iti
sthoughtt
hat
i
fthepr
emi
sesar
etr
ue,
thent
heconcl
usi
onf
oll
owsnecessar
il
y.
Ther
efor
e,suchanar
gumenti
sdeduct
ivebycont
empor
ary
st
andar
ds.

Becauset
hedi
ff
erencebet
weeni
nduct
iveanddeduct
ive
ar
gument
sinv
olv
est
hest
rengt
hofev
idencewhi
cht
he
aut
horbel
i
evest
hepr
emi
sest
opr
ovi
def
ort
heconcl
usi
on,
i
nduct
iveanddeduct
ivear
gument
sdi
ff
erwi
thr
egar
dtot
he
st
andar
dsofev
aluat
iont
hatar
eappl
i
cabl
etot
hem.The
di
ff
erencedoesnothav
etodowi
tht
hecont
entorsubj
ectmat
ter
oft
hear
gument
.Indeed,
thesameut
ter
ancemaybeusedt
o
pr
esentei
theradeduct
iveorani
nduct
ivear
gument
,depeni
ngon
t
hei
ntent
ionsoft
heper
sonadv
anci
ngi
t.Consi
derasanexampl
e.
Dom Per
ignoni
sachampagne,
soi
tmustbemadei
nFr
ance.

I
tmi
ghtbecl
earf
rom cont
extt
hatt
hespeakerbel
i
evest
hat
hav
ingbeenmadei
ntheChampagnear
eaofFr
ancei
spar
toft
he
def
ini
ngf
eat
ureof“
champagne”pr
operandt
hatt
her
efor
e,t
he
concl
usi
onf
oll
owsf
rom t
hepr
emi
sebydef
ini
ti
on.I
fiti
sthe
i
ntent
ionoft
hespeakert
hatt
heev
idencei
soft
hissor
t,t
hent
he
ar
gumenti
sdeduct
ive.Howev
er,
itmaybet
hatnosucht
houghti
s
i
nthespeaker
’smi
nd.Heorshemaymer
elybel
i
evet
hatmost
champagnei
smadei
nFr
ance,
andmayber
easoni
ng
pr
obabi
l
ist
ical
l
y.I
fthi
sishi
sorheri
ntent
ion,
thent
hear
gumenti
s
i
nduct
ive.

I
tisal
sowor
thnot
ingt
hat
,ati
tscor
e,t
hedi
sti
nct
ionhast
odo
wi
tht
hest
rengt
hoft
hej
ust
if
icat
iont
hatt
heaut
hororexposi
tor
oft
hear
gumenti
ntendst
hatt
hepr
emi
sespr
ovi
def
ort
he
concl
usi
on.I
fthear
gumenti
slogi
cal
l
yfal
l
aci
ous,
itmaybet
hat
t
hepr
emi
sesact
ual
l
ydonotpr
ovi
dej
ust
if
icat
ionoft
hatst
rengt
h,
orev
enanyj
ust
if
icat
ionatal
l
.Consi
der
,thef
oll
owi
ngar
gument
:

Al
loddnumber
sar
eint
eger
s.
Al
lev
ennumber
sar
eint
eger
s.
Ther
efor
e,al
loddnumber
sar
eev
ennumber
s.
Thi
sar
gumenti
slogi
cal
l
yinv
ali
d.I
nact
ual
i
ty,
thepr
emi
ses
pr
ovi
denosuppor
twhat
everf
ort
heconcl
usi
on.Howev
er,
ift
his
ar
gumentwer
eev
erser
iousl
yadv
anced,
wemustassumet
hat
t
heaut
horwoul
dbel
i
evet
hatt
het
rut
hoft
hepr
emi
ses
guar
ant
eest
het
rut
hoft
heconcl
usi
on.Ther
efor
e,t
hisar
gument
i
sst
il
ldeduct
ive.Abaddeduct
ivear
gumenti
snotani
nduct
ive
ar
gument
.

Val
i
dit
yandSoundness

Adeduct
ivear
gumenti
ssai
dtobev
ali
difandonl
yifi
ttakesa
f
ormt
hatmakesi
timpossi
blef
ort
hepr
emi
sest
obet
rueandt
he
concl
usi
onnev
ert
hel
esst
obef
alse.Ot
her
wise,
adeduct
ive
ar
gumenti
ssai
dtobei
nval
i
d.

Adeduct
ivear
gumenti
ssoundi
fandonl
yifi
tisbot
hval
i
d,andal
l
ofi
tspr
emi
sesar
eact
ual
l
ytr
ue.Ot
her
wise,
adeduct
ivear
gument
i
sunsound.

Accor
dingt
othedef
ini
ti
onofadeduct
ivear
gument(
seet
he
Deduct
ionandI
nduct
ion)
,theaut
horofadeduct
ivear
gument
al
way
sint
endst
hatt
hepr
emi
sespr
ovi
det
hesor
tofj
ust
if
icat
ion
f
ort
heconcl
usi
onwher
ebyi
fthepr
emi
sesar
etr
ue,
the
concl
usi
oni
sguar
ant
eedt
obet
rueaswel
l
.Loosel
yspeaki
ng,
if
t
heaut
hor
’spr
ocessofr
easoni
ngi
sagoodone,
ift
hepr
emi
ses
act
ual
l
ydopr
ovi
det
hissor
tofj
ust
if
icat
ionf
ort
heconcl
usi
on,
t
hent
hear
gumenti
sval
i
d.

I
nef
fect
,anar
gumenti
sval
i
dift
het
rut
hoft
hepr
emi
sesl
ogi
cal
l
y
guar
ant
eest
het
rut
hoft
heconcl
usi
on.Thef
oll
owi
ngar
gumenti
s
v
ali
d,becausei
tisi
mpossi
blef
ort
hepr
emi
sest
obet
rueandt
he
concl
usi
ont
onev
ert
hel
essbef
alse:

Ei
therEl
i
zabet
hownsaHondaorsheownsaSat
urn.
El
i
zabet
hdoesnotownaHonda.
Ther
efor
e,El
i
zabet
hownsaSat
urn.

I
tisi
mpor
tantt
ost
resst
hatt
hepr
emi
sesofanar
gumentdonot
hav
eact
ual
l
ytobet
ruei
nor
derf
ort
hear
gumentt
obev
ali
d.An
ar
gumenti
sval
i
dift
hepr
emi
sesandconcl
usi
onar
erel
atedt
o
eachot
heri
nther
ightwaysot
hati
fthepr
emi
seswer
etr
ue,
then
t
heconcl
usi
onwoul
dhav
etobet
rueaswel
l
.Wecanr
ecogni
zei
n
t
heabov
ecaset
hatev
eni
foneoft
hepr
emi
sesi
sact
ual
l
yfal
se,
t
hati
ftheyhadbeent
ruet
heconcl
usi
onwoul
dhav
ebeent
rueas
wel
l
.Consi
der
,thenanar
gumentsuchast
hef
oll
owi
ng:
Al
ltoast
ersar
eit
emsmadeofgol
d.
Al
li
temsmadeofgol
dar
eti
me-
tr
aveldev
ices.
Ther
efor
e,al
ltoast
ersar
eti
me-
tr
aveldev
ices.

Obv
iousl
y,t
hepr
emi
sesi
nthi
sar
gumentar
enott
rue.I
tmaybe
har
dtoi
magi
net
hesepr
emi
sesbei
ngt
rue,
buti
tisnothar
dto
seet
hati
ftheywer
etr
ue,
thei
rtr
uthwoul
dlogi
cal
l
yguar
ant
eet
he
concl
usi
on’
str
uth.

I
tiseasyt
oseet
hatt
hepr
evi
ousexampl
eisnotanexampl
eofa
compl
etel
ygoodar
gument
.Av
ali
dar
gumentmayst
il
lhav
ea
f
alseconcl
usi
on.Whenweconst
ructourar
gument
s,wemust
ai
mtoconst
ructonet
hati
snotonl
yval
i
d,butsound.Asound
ar
gumenti
sonet
hati
snotonl
yval
i
d,butbegi
nswi
thpr
emi
ses
t
hatar
eact
ual
l
ytr
ue.Theexampl
egi
venaboutt
oast
ersi
sval
i
d,
butnotsound.Howev
er,
thef
oll
owi
ngar
gumenti
sbot
hval
i
dand
sound:

Nof
elonsar
eel
i
gibl
evot
ers.
Somepr
ofessi
onalat
hlet
esar
efel
ons.
Ther
efor
e,somepr
ofessi
onalat
hlet
esar
enotel
i
gibl
evot
ers.

Her
e,notonl
ydot
hepr
emi
sespr
ovi
det
her
ightsor
tofsuppor
t
f
ort
heconcl
usi
on,
butt
hepr
emi
sesar
eact
ual
l
ytr
ue.Ther
efor
e,
soi
stheconcl
usi
on.Al
thoughi
tisnotpar
toft
hedef
ini
ti
onofa
soundar
gument
,becausesoundar
gument
sbot
hst
artoutwi
th
t
ruepr
emi
sesandhav
eaf
ormt
hatguar
ant
eest
hatt
he
concl
usi
onmustbet
ruei
fthepr
emi
sesar
e,soundar
gument
s
al
way
sendwi
tht
rueconcl
usi
ons.

I
tshoul
dbenot
edt
hatbot
hinv
ali
d,aswel
lasv
ali
dbutunsound,
ar
gument
scannev
ert
hel
esshav
etr
ueconcl
usi
ons.Onecannot
r
ejectt
heconcl
usi
onofanar
gumentsi
mpl
ybydi
scov
eri
nga
gi
venar
gumentf
ort
hatconcl
usi
ont
obef
lawed.

Whet
herornott
hepr
emi
sesofanar
gumentar
etr
uedependson
t
hei
rspeci
fi
ccont
ent
.Howev
er,
accor
dingt
othedomi
nant
under
standi
ngamongl
ogi
cians,
thev
ali
dit
yori
nval
i
dit
yofan
ar
gumenti
sdet
ermi
nedent
ir
elybyi
tsl
ogi
calf
orm.Thel
ogi
cal
f
orm ofanar
gumenti
sthatwhi
chr
emai
nsofi
twhenone
abst
ract
sawayf
rom t
hespeci
fi
ccont
entoft
hepr
emi
sesandt
he
concl
usi
on,
i.
e.,
wor
dsnami
ngt
hings,
thei
rpr
oper
ti
esand
r
elat
ions,
leav
ingonl
ythoseel
ement
sthatar
ecommont
o
di
scour
seandr
easoni
ngaboutanysubj
ectmat
ter
,i.
e.,
wor
ds
suchas“
all
”,“
and”
,“not
”,“
some”
,et
c.Onecanr
epr
esentt
he
l
ogi
calf
orm ofanar
gumentbyr
epl
aci
ngt
hespeci
fi
ccont
ent
wor
dswi
thl
ett
ersusedaspl
ace-
hol
der
sorv
ari
abl
es.

Forexampl
e,consi
dert
heset
woar
gument
s:

Al
lti
ger
sar
emammal
s.
Nomammal
sar
ecr
eat
ureswi
thscal
es.
Ther
efor
e,not
iger
sar
ecr
eat
ureswi
thscal
es.

Al
lspi
dermonkey
sar
eel
ephant
s.
Noel
ephant
sar
eani
mal
s.
Ther
efor
e,nospi
dermonkey
sar
eani
mal
s.

Thesear
gument
sshar
ethesamef
orm:

Al
lAar
eB;
NoBar
eC;
Ther
efor
e,NoAar
eC.

Al
lar
gument
swi
tht
hisf
orm ar
eval
i
d.Becauset
heyhav
ethi
s
f
orm,
theexampl
esabov
ear
eval
i
d.Howev
er,
thef
ir
stexampl
eis
soundwhi
l
ethesecondi
sunsound,
becausei
tspr
emi
sesar
e
f
alse.Nowconsi
der
:
Al
lbasket
bal
l
sar
eround.
TheEar
thi
sround.
Ther
efor
e,t
heEar
thi
sabasket
bal
l
.

Al
lpopesr
esi
deatt
heVat
ican.
JohnPaulI
Iresi
desatt
heVat
ican.
Ther
efor
e,JohnPaulI
Iisapope.

Thesear
gument
sal
sohav
ethesamef
orm:

Al
lA’
sar
eF;
Xi
sF;
Ther
efor
e,Xi
sanA.

Ar
gument
swi
tht
hisf
orm ar
einv
ali
d.Thi
siseasyt
oseewi
tht
he
f
ir
stexampl
e.Thesecondexampl
emayseem l
i
keagood
ar
gumentbecauset
hepr
emi
sesandt
heconcl
usi
onar
eal
ltr
ue,
butnot
ethatt
heconcl
usi
on’
str
uthi
sn’
tguar
ant
eedbyt
he
pr
emi
ses’
trut
h.I
tcoul
dhav
ebeenpossi
blef
ort
hepr
emi
sest
o
bet
rueandt
heconcl
usi
onf
alse.Thi
sar
gumenti
sinv
ali
d,andal
l
i
nval
i
dar
gument
sar
eunsound.

Whi
l
eiti
saccept
edbymostcont
empor
aryl
ogi
cianst
hatl
ogi
cal
v
ali
dit
yandi
nval
i
dit
yisdet
ermi
nedent
ir
elybyf
orm,
ther
eissome
di
ssent
.Consi
der
,forexampl
e,t
hef
oll
owi
ngar
gument
s:

Myt
abl
eisci
rcul
ar.Ther
efor
e,i
tisnotsquar
eshaped.

Juani
sbachel
or.Ther
efor
e,hei
snotmar
ri
ed.

Thesear
gument
s,atl
eastont
hesur
face,
hav
ethef
orm:

Xi
sF;
Ther
efor
e,xi
snotG.

Ar
gument
soft
hisf
orm ar
enotv
ali
dasar
ule.Howev
er,
itseems
cl
eari
nthesepar
ti
cul
arcasest
hati
tis,
insomest
rongsense,
i
mpossi
blef
ort
hepr
emi
sest
obet
ruewhi
l
etheconcl
usi
oni
s
f
alse.Howev
er,
manyl
ogi
cianswoul
drespondt
othese
compl
i
cat
ionsi
nvar
iousway
s.Somemi
ghti
nsi
st–al
thought
his
i
scont
rov
eri
sal
–thatt
hesear
gument
sact
ual
l
ycont
aini
mpl
i
cit
pr
emi
sessuchas“
Not
hingi
sbot
hci
rcul
arandsquar
eshaped”or
“
Allbachel
orsar
eunmar
ri
ed,
”whi
ch,
whi
l
ethemsel
vesnecessar
y
t
rut
hs,
nev
ert
hel
esspl
ayar
olei
nthef
orm oft
hesear
gument
s.I
t
mi
ghtal
sobesuggest
ed,
especi
all
ywi
tht
hef
ir
star
gument
,that
whi
l
e(ev
enwi
thoutt
headdi
ti
onalpr
emi
se)t
her
eisanecessar
y
connect
ionbet
weent
hepr
emi
seandt
heconcl
usi
on,
thesor
tof
necessi
tyi
nvol
vedi
ssomet
hingot
hert
han“
logi
cal
”necessi
ty,
andhencet
hatt
hisar
gument(
int
hesi
mpl
efor
m)shoul
dnotbe
r
egar
dedasl
ogi
cal
l
yval
i
d.Last
ly,
especi
all
ywi
thr
egar
dtot
he
secondexampl
e,i
tmi
ghtbesuggest
edt
hatbecause“
bachel
or”i
s
def
inedas“
adul
tunmar
ri
edmal
e”,
thatt
het
ruel
ogi
calf
orm of
t
hear
gumenti
sthef
oll
owi
nguni
ver
sal
l
yval
i
dfor
m:

xi
sFandnotGandH;
Ther
efor
e,xi
snotG.

Thel
ogi
calf
orm ofast
atementi
snotal
way
saseasyt
odi
scer
n
asonemi
ghtexpect
.Forexampl
e,st
atement
sthatseem t
ohav
e
t
hesamesur
facegr
ammarcannev
ert
hel
essdi
ff
eri
nlogi
calf
orm.
Takef
orexampl
ethet
wost
atement
s:

(
1)Tonyi
saf
eroci
oust
iger
.
(
2)Cl
i
ntoni
sal
ameduck.

Despi
tet
hei
rappar
entsi
mil
ari
ty,
onl
y(1)hast
hef
orm“
xisaA
t
hati
sF”
.Fr
om i
tonecanv
ali
dlyi
nfert
hatTonyi
sat
iger
.One
cannotv
ali
dlyi
nferf
rom (
2)t
hatCl
i
ntoni
saduck.I
ndeed,
one
andt
hesamesent
encecanbeusedi
ndi
ff
erentway
sindi
ff
erent
cont
ext
s.Consi
dert
hest
atement
:

(
3)TheKi
ngandQueenar
evi
sit
ingdi
gni
tar
ies.

I
tisnotcl
earwhatt
hel
ogi
calf
orm oft
hisst
atementi
s.Ei
ther
t
her
ear
edi
gni
tar
iest
hatt
heKi
ngandQueenar
evi
sit
ing,
inwhi
ch
caset
hesent
ence(
3)hast
hesamel
ogi
calf
orm as“
TheKi
ngand
Queenar
epl
ayi
ngv
iol
i
ns,
”ort
heKi
ngandQueenar
ethemsel
ves
t
hedi
gni
tar
ieswhoar
evi
sit
ingf
rom somewher
eel
se,
inwhi
ch
caset
hesent
encehast
hesamel
ogi
calf
orm as“
TheKi
ngand
Queenar
esni
vel
i
ngcowar
ds.
”Dependi
ngonwhi
chl
ogi
calf
orm
t
hest
atementhas,
inf
erencesmaybev
ali
dori
nval
i
d.Consi
der
:

TheKi
ngandQueenar
evi
sit
ingdi
gni
tar
ies.Vi
sit
ingdi
gni
tar
iesi
s
al
way
sbor
ing.Ther
efor
e,t
heKi
ngandQueenar
edoi
ng
somet
hingbor
ing.

Onl
yift
hest
atementi
sgi
vent
hef
ir
str
eadi
ngcant
hisar
gument
beconsi
der
edt
obev
ali
d.

Becauseoft
hedi
ff
icul
tyi
nident
if
yingt
hel
ogi
calf
orm ofan
ar
gument
,andt
hepot
ent
ialdev
iat
ionofl
ogi
calf
ormf
rom
gr
ammat
icalf
ormi
nor
dinar
ylanguage,
cont
empor
aryl
ogi
cians
t
ypi
cal
l
ymakeuseofar
ti
fi
ciall
ogi
call
anguagesi
nwhi
chl
ogi
cal
f
orm andgr
ammat
icalf
orm coi
nci
de.I
nthesear
ti
fi
ciall
anguages,
cer
tai
nsy
mbol
s,si
mil
art
othoseusedi
nmat
hemat
ics,
areused
t
orepr
esentt
hoseel
ement
soff
orm anal
ogoust
oor
dinar
y
Engl
i
shwor
dssuchas“
all
”,“
not
”,“
or”
,“and”
,et
c.Theuseofan
ar
ti
fi
cial
l
yconst
ruct
edl
anguagemakesi
teasi
ert
ospeci
fyaset
ofr
ulest
hatdet
ermi
newhet
herornotagi
venar
gumenti
sval
i
dor
i
nval
i
d.Hence,
thest
udyofwhi
chdeduct
ivear
gumentf
ormsar
e
v
ali
dandwhi
char
einv
ali
disof
tencal
l
ed“
for
mall
ogi
c”or
“
symbol
i
clogi
c”.

I
nshor
t,adeduct
ivear
gumentmustbeev
aluat
edi
ntwoway
s.
Fi
rst
,onemustaski
fthepr
emi
sespr
ovi
desuppor
tfort
he
concl
usi
onbyexami
ngt
hef
orm oft
hear
gument
.Ift
heydo,
then
t
hear
gumenti
sval
i
d.Then,
onemustaskwhet
hert
hepr
emi
ses
ar
etr
ueorf
alsei
nact
ual
i
ty.Onl
yifanar
gumentpassesbot
h
t
heset
est
sisi
tsound.Howev
er,
ifanar
gumentdoesnotpass
t
heset
est
s,i
tsconcl
usi
onmayst
il
lbet
rue,
despi
tet
hatno
suppor
tfori
tst
rut
hisgi
venbyt
hear
gument
.

Ev
aluat
ingI
nduct
iveAr
gument
s
Wi
thi
nduct
ivear
gument
s,ont
heot
herhand,
theyar
econsi
der
ed
st
rongi
ftheconcl
usi
onf
oll
owspr
obabl
yfr
om t
hepr
emi
sesand
weaki
fitf
oll
owsonl
yimpr
obabl
yfr
om t
hepr
emi
ses,
despi
te
whati
scl
aimedabouti
t.I
fthei
nduct
ivear
gumenti
snotonl
y
st
rongbutal
sohasal
ltr
uepr
emi
ses,
theni
tiscal
l
edcogent
.
Weaki
nduct
ivear
gument
sar
eal
way
suncogent
.Her
eisan
exampl
e:

St
rol
l
ingt
hrought
hewoodsi
susual
l
yfun.Thesuni
sout
,the
t
emper
atur
eiscool
,ther
eisnor
aini
nthef
orecast
,thef
lower
s
ar
einbl
oom,
andt
hebi
rdsar
esi
ngi
ng.Ther
efor
e,i
tshoul
dbef
un
t
otakeawal
kthr
ought
hewoodsnow.

Assumi
ngt
hatwecar
eaboutt
hosepr
emi
ses,
thent
hear
gument
i
sst
rong.Assumi
ngt
hatt
hepr
emi
sesar
eal
ltr
ue,
thent
hisi
s
al
soacogentar
gument
.Ifwedi
dn’
tcar
eaboutt
hef
act
ors
ment
ioned(
per
hapsy
ousuf
ferf
rom al
l
ergi
esanddon’
tli
kei
t
whent
hef
lower
sar
einbl
oom)
,itwoul
dbeaweakar
gument
.If
anyoft
hepr
emi
sest
urnedoutt
obef
alse(
forexampl
e,i
fiti
s
act
ual
l
yrai
ning)
,thent
hear
gumentwoul
dbeuncogent
.If
addi
ti
onalpr
emi
sest
urnedup,
li
ket
hatt
her
ehav
erepor
tsofa
beari
nthear
ea,
thent
hatwoul
dal
somaket
hear
gument
uncogent
.

Tocr
it
iqueanar
gumentandshowt
hati
tisi
nval
i
dorpossi
bly
unsoundoruncogent
,iti
snecessar
ytoat
tackei
thert
hepr
emi
ses
ort
hei
nfer
ences.I
tmustber
emember
ed,
howev
er,
thatev
eni
fit
canbedemonst
rat
edt
hatbot
hthepr
emi
sesandt
hei
nter
medi
ate
i
nfer
encesar
eincor
rect
,thatdoesnotmeant
hatt
hef
inal
concl
usi
oni
sal
sof
alse.Al
lthathasbeendemonst
rat
edi
sthat
t
hear
gumenti
tsel
fcannotbeusedt
oest
abl
i
sht
het
rut
hoft
he
concl
usi
on.

I
nanar
gument
,thepr
emi
sesof
fer
edar
eassumedt
obet
rueand
noef
for
tismadet
osuppor
tthem.But
,justbecauset
heyar
e
assumedt
obet
rue,
thi
sdoesnotmeant
hatt
heyar
e.I
fyout
hink
t
hatt
heyar
e(ormaybe)f
alse,
youcanchal
l
enget
hem andask
f
orsuppor
t.Thi
swoul
drequi
ret
heot
herper
sont
ocr
eat
eanew
ar
gumenti
nwhi
cht
heol
dpr
emi
sesbecomet
heconcl
usi
ons.

I
fthei
nfer
encesandr
easoni
ngpr
ocessi
nanar
gumentar
efal
se,
t
hatwi
l
lusual
l
ybebecausesomef
all
acyhasbeencommi
tt
ed.A
f
all
acyi
saner
rori
nther
easoni
ngpr
ocesswher
ebyt
he
connect
ionbet
weent
hepr
emi
sesandt
heconcl
usi
oni
snotwhat
hasbeencl
aimed.

Ev
aluat
ion:Assessi
ngt
heSt
rengt
hofI
nduct
iveAr
gument
s
Theul
ti
mat
egoalofcr
it
icalt
hinki
ngi
slear
ninghowt
oassessan
ar
gumentsot
hatwecanaccepti
tsconcl
usi
onasei
thert
rueor
f
alse.Ev
aluat
inganar
gumenti
sawayofdet
ermi
ningt
het
rut
h.
Deduct
ivear
gument
sest
abl
i
shconcl
usi
onswi
thcer
tai
nty
,whi
l
e
i
nduct
ivear
gument
sest
abl
i
shconcl
usi
onswi
thv
ary
ing
pr
obabi
l
ity
.

Anar
gumenti
scogent(
hav
ingt
hepr
obabi
l
ityoft
rut
h)wheni
t
obser
vest
hef
oll
owi
ngr
ules:t
hepr
emi
sesar
etr
ue,
theyar
e
r
elev
antt
otheconcl
usi
on,
andt
hepr
emi
sesgi
vegoodr
easont
o
acceptt
heconcl
usi
onast
rue.Af
all
acyi
scommi
tt
edwhenan
ar
gumentbr
eaksoneoft
heset
hreer
ules,
sot
hatt
hepr
emi
ses
f
ailt
osuppor
ttheconcl
usi
on.

Thef
oursect
ionsbel
owpr
ovi
deexer
cisest
ohel
pexpl
orehowt
o
ev
aluat
ethecogencyoft
hef
ourdi
ff
erentt
ypesofi
nduct
ive
ar
gument
s.

Fal
l
aci
esofUnqual
i
fiedAut
hor
it
y

I
Tisi
mpor
tantt
odet
ermi
net
her
eli
abi
l
ityofoursour
cesof
i
nfor
mat
ion,
ouraut
hor
it
ies.Ani
nduct
ivear
gumentf
rom aut
hor
it
y
i
scogentwhent
hear
guerci
tesar
eli
abl
eaut
hor
it
y.Thef
all
acyof
unqual
i
fiedaut
hor
it
yiscommi
tt
edwhenanar
guerper
suadesus
t
oacceptt
het
rut
hofaconcl
usi
onbasedonanunr
eli
abl
e
aut
hor
it
y.

EXERCI
SE1:I
nthear
gument
sbel
ow,
1)i
dent
if
ytheconcl
usi
onof
eachar
gument
,2)i
dent
if
ytheaut
hor
it
iest
owhom t
heaut
hor
appeal
s,and3)usi
ngt
hecr
it
eri
asuggest
edi
nthechapt
er,
det
ermi
newhi
choft
hear
gument
scommi
tthef
all
acyof
unqual
i
fiedaut
hor
it
y.

Manymember
sofcongr
essandt
hepr
essat
tendedar
ecent
NASApr
essconf
erencet
odet
ermi
net
hef
ateoft
heMar
slander
andwhet
herf
urt
herf
undsshoul
dbeal
l
ocat
edf
ori
tsr
etr
iev
al.
Manyopi
nionswer
event
ured,
butwhenDr
.KentPhi
l
pot
,not
ed
ast
rophy
sici
stoft
hir
tyy
ear
sandf
ormerheadofaj
etpr
opul
sion
l
abor
ator
y,decl
aredt
hatt
hel
anderwoul
dnev
erbef
ound,
the
pr
oposalf
ormor
efundswast
urneddown.Answer
.

I
nthemi
dstofamur
dert
ri
al,
thepr
osecut
ioncal
l
stot
hest
anda
r
enownedDNAspeci
ali
stwhohol
dsaPh.
D.i
nbi
ochemi
str
y,who
hast
eny
ear
sexper
iencei
nthemedi
calexami
ner
’sof
fi
ce,
and
whohast
est
if
iedatal
argenumberoft
ri
als.At
eny
earol
dchi
l
d
hasbeenmur
der
edandt
hespeci
ali
star
guesemot
ional
l
yfort
he
gui
l
toft
hedef
endantandt
hej
uryi
smov
ed.Oncr
oss
exami
nat
ion,
iti
srev
eal
edt
hatt
hespeci
ali
st’
sni
ney
earol
dson
wasr
ecent
lymur
der
edandshehasbeenunder
goi
ngr
egul
ar
psy
chi
atr
ict
reat
ment
.Answer

Thet
elev
isi
onper
sonal
i
tyandt
alk-
showhost
,Sal
l
yJesseRaphael
,
appear
sinapubl
i
cser
vicead.Theweal
thyMs.Raphaelmakesa
pl
eaf
oranawar
enessoft
hel
argenumber
soft
hehomel
essand
ci
tesst
ati
sti
csont
hehi
ghermor
tal
i
tyr
atesofi
ndi
vi
dual
swho
hav
enopl
acet
oli
ve.Att
heendoft
headshest
ates,
"…andI
shoul
dknow.Longbef
oreIbecamesuccessf
ul,
Iwassopoormy
ki
dsandIl
i
vedoutofmycar
."Answer
.

Dur
ingt
he1996pr
esi
dent
ialcampai
gn,
Vice-
Presi
dentGor
e
spokeatt
heDemocr
ati
cNat
ionalconv
ent
ionqui
tef
orcef
ull
y
aboutt
hedanger
sofsmoki
ngandt
heagonyofi
tsconsequences
f
orf
ami
l
ies.Heconcl
udedhi
sremar
ksv
eryemot
ional
l
yby
descr
ibi
nghi
ssi
ster
,whowasaheav
ysmoker
,andherdeat
h
f
rom l
ungcancer
.Answer
.

Mi
chaelJor
danoneoft
hemostr
enownedat
hlet
esofourt
ime,
cer
tai
nlyal
ong-
ti
meexper
tinbasketbal
l
,isof
tenseenon
t
elev
isi
onespousi
ngt
hemer
it
sofacer
tai
nlongdi
stance
t
elephonecompany
.Answer
.

Fal
l
acyofHast
yGener
ali
zat
ion

Ani
nduct
ivear
gumentt
hatusesgener
ali
zat
ioni
nfer
sa
concl
usi
onaboutagr
oupbasedoni
nfor
mat
ionf
rom asampl
eof
t
hatgr
oup.Thest
rongert
hesampl
e,t
hemor
ecogentt
he
ar
gument
.Thef
all
acyofhast
ygener
ali
zat
ioni
scommi
tt
edwhen
anar
gumentdr
awsaconcl
usi
onf
rom ani
nadequat
esampl
e.
Rev
iew whatmakesasampl
est
rongandt
hencompl
etet
he
exer
cisesbel
ow.

EXERCI
SE2:I
nthear
gument
sbel
ow,
1)i
dent
if
ytheconcl
usi
onof
eachar
gument
,2)ev
aluat
eeachar
gumentf
orsi
ze,
randomness
andbi
as,
and3)usi
ngt
hecr
it
eras
i uggest
edi
nthechapt
er,
det
ermi
newhi
choft
hear
gument
scommi
tthef
all
acyof
gener
ali
zat
ion.Expl
ainwhy
.

Thecol
orpi
nkcont
ainsr
edpi
gment
.Thecol
orsor
ange,
pur
ple
andmagent
acont
ainr
edpi
gment
.Al
lcol
orscont
ainr
edpi
gment
.
.
Answer
Har
ri
etdecl
aredher
sel
fint
her
unni
ngf
orpr
esi
dentoft
hest
udent
counci
l
.Shepol
l
edal
lofherf
ri
endswhosai
dthatt
heywoul
dvot
e
f
orher
.Conf
identoft
hewi
n,sher
anal
i
ghtcampai
gn.Answer
.

I
nresear
chi
ngLeChatBl
ancf
orar
evi
ewshewasaboutt
owr
it
e,
af
oodcr
it
icdi
nedatt
her
est
aur
antoneni
ghtandf
oundt
hest
aff
di
sor
gani
zedandr
ude,
thef
oodt
ast
elessandov
ercooked,
and
t
hel
i
ght
inghar
shandunev
en.Needl
esst
osay
,thenextdayshe
wr
oteascat
hingr
evi
ewoft
heest
abl
i
shment
.Answer
.

Apol
l
stersel
ect
edatr
andom al
argenumberoft
wo-
par
ent
househol
dsi
nabi
guppermi
ddl
e-cl
assnei
ghbor
hoodi
nPhoeni
x.
Theyt
henwentt
oeachhome,
door
-t
o-door
,oneaf
ter
noonand
askedt
her
esi
dent
siff
ami
l
ieswer
ehar
medwhenbot
hpar
ent
s
wor
kout
sidet
hehome.82%oft
her
espondent
sbel
i
evedaf
ami
l
y
washar
medwhenbot
hpar
ent
swor
k.Af
terr
ecor
dingal
lthe
r
esponses,
thepol
l
sterconcl
udedt
hatmostpeopl
ebel
i
evei
tis
har
mfult
oaf
ami
l
yforbot
hpar
ent
stowor
k.Answer
.

Thesenat
etookav
oteal
phabet
ical
l
ybyst
ateonaguncont
rol
measur
e.Thef
ir
stf
ivesenat
orswhocastav
ote,
vot
edagai
nst
t
hebi
l
l.Sev
eralmember
soft
hepr
essr
anf
rom t
hesenat
e
chambert
ophonei
nthest
oryt
hatt
hebi
l
lwoul
dbedef
eat
ed.
Answer

Fal
l
acyofFaul
tyAnal
ogy

Ar
gument
sfr
om anal
ogyar
ecogentwhen1)t
heanal
ogues(
that
whi
chi
scompar
edt
osomet
hingel
se)ar
eal
i
ke,
and2)whenal
l
i
nst
ancesoft
heanal
oguepossesst
hef
eat
uresbei
ngcompar
ed.
Whent
heset
wocondi
ti
onsar
emetaf
undament
algener
ali
zat
ion
i
spossi
ble.Thef
all
acyoff
aul
tyanal
ogyi
scommi
tt
edwhent
he
anal
oguesar
eei
ther1)r
eal
l
ynotsi
mil
ar,
or2)t
heanal
oguesdo
notpossesst
hecompar
edf
eat
uresi
nev
erycase.Compl
etet
he
exer
cisebel
ow.

EXERCI
SE3:Foreachoft
hef
oll
owi
ngar
gument
s1)i
dent
if
ythe
concl
usi
on,
2)i
dent
if
ytheanal
ogues,
3)i
dent
if
ythe
gener
ali
zat
ioncov
eri
ngt
heanal
ogue,
and4)det
ermi
nei
faf
all
acy
off
aul
tyanal
ogyhasbeencommi
tt
ed.

Heat
heri
sav
eget
ari
anandi
str
yingt
oper
suadeherf
ri
end,
Jor
dant
ost
opeat
ingmeat
.Hear
gueswi
thher
,say
ingt
hati
f
Heat
herwoul
djustl
ookatnat
ure,
shewoul
dseet
hatani
mal
s
suchasl
i
ons,
eagl
es,
fox,
evendogs,
kil
lpr
eyf
ormeatandeati
t,
sowhyshoul
dn’
thumans?I
t’
sonl
ynat
ural
.Answer
.
Mr
.Hav
il
landi
sthepr
esi
dentofamul
ti
-mi
l
li
ondol
l
arf
urni
tur
e
company
.Hest
art
edi
tfr
om not
hingandbui
l
titov
ert
hey
ear
s
i
ntoagr
eatsuccess.Hi
swi
feandt
wochi
l
drencompl
ainal
lthe
t
imet
hathedoesn’
tspendenought
imewi
tht
hem andt
hathei
s
v
eryunr
eal
i
sti
cinest
imat
inghousehol
dexpenses,
oft
enset
ti
ng
asi
def
art
ool
i
ttl
eforessent
ial
ssuchasgr
ocer
iesandut
il
it
ybi
l
ls.
Mr
.Hav
il
landr
epl
i
est
hataf
ami
l
yisnodi
ff
erentf
rom acompany
.
I
tmustber
unwi
thaut
hor
it
y,aust
eri
tyandor
der
.Heconcl
udes
t
hathei
stheheadoft
hehouse,
justashei
stheheadofhi
s
company
,andi
fhi
sst
ylehaswor
kedf
ort
hecompany
,itshoul
d
begoodenoughf
ort
hef
ami
l
y.Answer
.

Ani
malr
esear
cher
shav
elongcont
endedt
hatt
est
ingdr
ugson
ani
mal
swi
l
lpr
otecthumansf
rom t
hedanger
sofnewdr
ugs.
.
Answer

Sel
enai
sasi
xteeny
ear
-ol
dwhol
i
vesi
napov
ert
y-st
ri
ckenar
eaof
LosAngel
es.Shet
ell
sherpar
ent
soneev
eni
ngt
hatshei
s
pr
egnantandt
hatherboy
fri
endf
rom hi
ghschooli
sthef
ather
.
Herpar
ent
sar
eunder
standabl
yupsetandr
eactnegat
ivel
y.
Sel
enai
ssur
pri
sedandar
guest
hatMadonna,
herf
avor
it
e
r
ecor
dingar
ti
st,
hadachi
l
doutofwedl
ockandi
fMadonnadi
dit
,
i
tmustbeokay
.Answer
.
Onhert
elev
isi
onshow,
enor
mousl
ypopul
arOpr
ahWi
nfr
ey,
descr
ibeshowshel
ostwei
ghtwi
thaper
sonalt
rai
nerandchef
t
rai
nedt
opr
epar
elow-
fatmeal
s.Sheur
gesal
lofherov
erwei
ght
l
i
stener
stot
akehear
tfr
om herexper
ienceandt
ell
sthem t
hat
t
heyt
oocanl
osewei
ght
.Answer
.

Fal
l
acyofFal
seCause

Whatwehy
pot
hesi
zet
obet
hecauseofanev
ent
,isnotal
way
s
i
tscause.I
nacausalar
gument
,weconcl
udet
hatt
wot
hingsar
e
causal
l
yrel
ated—i
not
herwor
ds,
onecausest
heot
her
.Thef
all
acy
off
alsecausei
scommi
tt
edwhenoneconcl
udest
woev
ent
sar
e
causal
l
yrel
atedwhent
hey1)ar
eonl
ycor
rel
ated(
twoev
ent
sar
e
r
elat
edbutonedoesnotcauset
heot
her
),or2)t
heyar
eunr
elat
ed
exceptf
ort
empor
alsequence.Theset
wot
ypesoff
all
acyoff
alse
causear
eal
socal
l
ed:1)
conf
usi
ngcor
rel
ati
onwi
thcausat
ion,
and
2)posthoc,
ergopr
opt
erhoc.Revi
ew t
het
woki
ndsoff
all
acyof
f
alsecauseandt
hencompl
etet
heexer
cisebel
ow.

EXERCI
SE4:I
nthef
oll
owi
ngar
gument
s,1)i
dent
if
ythe
concl
usi
on(
eff
ect
s)andt
hecausalhy
pot
hesi
s,and2)det
ermi
ne
i
fyout
hinkt
hef
all
acyoff
alsecausehasbeencommi
tt
ed.
Expl
ainwhy
.

I
nthemont
hofAugustev
eryy
ear
,thenumberofi
cecr
eam sal
es
r
isesdr
amat
ical
l
y,asdoest
henumberofdeat
hsi
nthecount
ryof
I
ndi
a.Thesal
eofi
cecr
eam mustcausedeat
hsi
nIndi
a.Answer
.

Tom st
udi
esev
ery
dayi
nthel
i
brar
ybet
ween2and4p.
m.Jul
i
a
hasacl
assat2:
15andi
susual
l
yleav
ingt
hel
i
brar
ycl
oset
o2p.
m.
Whenev
erTom wal
ksi
ntot
her
eadi
ngr
oom,
Jul
i
apacksupher
booksandl
eav
es.Tom concl
udest
hatJul
i
adi
sli
keshi
m somuch
shel
eav
eswhenev
erhewal
ksi
ntot
her
oom.Answer
.

Ar
esear
chpsy
chol
ogi
stt
ri
est
odet
ermi
nei
fyogawi
l
lhel
p
anxi
ouspeopl
erel
ax.Her
ecr
uit
s100peopl
ewi
thanxi
ety
pr
obl
emsandr
andoml
yassi
gns50oft
hem t
oaser
iesof10
act
ualy
ogacl
asses.Theot
her50ar
egi
ven10l
ect
uresont
he
t
echni
quesoft
eachi
ngr
atst
onav
igat
eamaze.Att
heendoft
he
exper
iment
,hemeasur
est
heanxi
etyl
evel
sofeachgr
oupand
f
indst
hey
ogagr
oupr
epor
tsagr
eat
lydi
mini
shedl
evelofanxi
ety
,
wher
east
hel
ect
uregr
oupwasunchangedi
nthei
ranxi
ety
.He
concl
udest
haty
ogahel
psanxi
ouspeopl
erel
ax.Answer
.
Amani
sar
rest
edf
orst
alki
ngandsev
erel
ybeat
inghi
sex-
gi
rl
fr
iend.Ashei
stakenawaybyt
hepol
i
ce,
hei
sscr
eami
ng,
"she
want
edt
obr
eakupwi
thme.Howdar
eshebr
eakupwi
thme.I
hadt
odoi
t.Nooneget
sawaywi
thr
eject
ingme.Shemademe
doi
t.
"Answer
.

St
ati
sti
csshowt
hatmosthear
t-
att
ackdeat
hsoccurv
eryear
lyi
n
t
hemor
ning,
around4a.
m.Ear
lymor
ningi
sdanger
ousandcan
ki
l
lyou.Answer
.

Cr
it
eri
afordet
ermi
ningt
her
eli
abl
eaut
hor
it
yofasour
ce:

1.I
stheaut
hor
it
yqual
i
fied?

2.I
stheaut
hor
it
ywi
thi
nhi
sorherar
eaofexper
ti
se?

3.I
stheaut
hor
it
yanunbi
asedi
npr
ovi
dinganopi
nion?

4.Hast
heaut
hor
it
yper
for
medcompet
ent
lyf
orot
her
s?

5.Howl
onghast
hebeenpr
act
ici
ngi
nhi
sorherar
eaofexper
ti
se.
6.Whathast
heaut
hor
it
yaccompl
i
shedi
nhi
sorherf
iel
d?

Cr
it
eri
aforast
ronggener
ali
zat
ion:

Thesampl
emustbeofadequat
esi
ze.

Eachmemberoft
hepopul
ati
onst
udi
edmusthav
eanequal
chanceofbei
ngsampl
ed.Thesampl
emustber
andom.

Wast
hemet
hodol
ogyusedi
nthesampl
eunbi
ased?

Twoki
ndsoff
all
acyoff
alsecause:

1.
conf
usi
ngcor
rel
ati
onwi
thcausat
ion:al
thought
woev
ent
sar
e
r
elat
ed,
onedoesnotcauset
heot
her
.

2.posthoc,
ergopr
opt
erhoc:t
wot
hingsar
enotr
elat
edsav
eby
t
het
imedi
mensi
ont
hatt
heybot
hshar
e

Cat
egor
icalPr
oposi
ti
ons
1.Acat
egor
icalpr
oposi
ti
oni
sdef
inedas
anypr
oposi
ti
on/
stat
ementt
hatcanbe
i
nter
pret
edasasser
ti
ngar
elat
ionof
i
ncl
usi
onorexcl
usi
on,
compl
eteor
par
ti
al,
bet
weent
wocl
asses.

2.Acl
assi
sdef
inedasacol
l
ect
ionofal
lobj
ect
s
whi
chhav
esomespeci
fi
edchar
act
eri
sti
cincommon.
Thi
sisnomor
ecompl
i
cat
edt
hanobser
vingt
hatt
he
cl
assof"
li
ght
bul
bs"al
lhav
ethecommon
char
act
eri
sti
cof"
bei
ngal
i
ght
bul
b."

Thus,
wecanhav
efourcl
assr
elat
ionsi
nthe
v
ari
ouski
ndsofcat
egor
icalpr
oposi
ti
ons:

Ut
il
izi
ngt
hecl
asses,
"peopl
e"and"
goodbei
ngs"
:

a.compl
etei
ncl
usi
on>>>"
Allpeopl
ear
egood
bei
ngs.
"
b.compl
eteexcl
usi
on>>>"
Nopeopl
ear
egood
bei
ngs.
"

c.par
ti
ali
ncl
usi
on>>>"
Somepeopl
ear
egood
bei
ngs.
"

d.par
ti
alexcl
usi
on>>>"
Somepeopl
ear
enot
goodbei
ngs.
"

Wecanal
sodescr
ibet
hesef
ourki
ndof
st
atement
srespect
ivel
yas

a.uni
ver
salaf
fi
rmat
ive

b.uni
ver
salnegat
ive

c.par
ti
cul
araf
fi
rmat
ive

d.par
ti
cul
arnegat
ive
3.Of
ten,
iti
sconv
eni
entt
olookatt
hegener
alf
orm of
t
hest
atement
sgi
venabov
e.Tot
hesef
orms,
speci
al
namesar
egi
ven:A,
E,I
,andO.

A:Al
lSi
sP.

E:NoSi
sP.

I
:SomeSi
sP.

O:SomeSi
snotP.

.
..
wher
eSandPst
andf
ort
hel
ogi
calsubj
ectand
t
hel
ogi
calpr
edi
cat
eoft
hest
atement
r
espect
ivel
y.

4.Amnemoni
cdev
icef
ort
hef
ourki
ndsofst
atement
s
i
stor
ememberAf
fi
rmoandNego.
 5.Not
e,her
e,t
hel
ogi
calsubj
ectdi
ff
ersf
rom t
he
gr
ammat
icalsubj
ectofast
atement
.

Forexampl
e,i
nthest
atement
,"Al
l(unf
ledged
f
loi
thoi
ster
s)ar
e(t
hingsaptt
obecome
unf
laggl
ed)
,"t
hel
ogi
calsubj
ecti
sev
ery
thi
ng
bet
weent
he"
all
"andt
he"
are,
"andt
hel
ogi
cal
pr
edi
cat
eisev
ery
thi
ngaf
tert
he"
are.
"

6.Al
sonot
ethatt
hewor
d"some"i
stakent
omean"
at
l
eastone.
"Thi
smeani
ngdi
ff
erssomewhatf
rom
or
dinar
ylanguage.

7.Amodelst
atement
,then,
canber
epr
esent
edas

Quant
if
ier[
subj
ectt
erm]copul
a[pr
edi
cat
eter
m].

I
I.Anal
ysi
soft
heCat
egor
icalPr
oposi
ti
on:Qual
i
ty,
Quant
it
y,and
Di
str
ibut
ion
A.Thequant
it
yofacat
egor
icalpr
oposi
ti
oni
sdet
ermi
ned
bywhet
herornoti
tref
erst
oal
lmember
sofi
tssubj
ect
cl
ass(
i.
e.,
uni
ver
salorpar
ti
cul
ar)
.Thequest
ion"
How
many
?"i
saski
ngf
orquant
it
y.

B.Thequal
i
tyofacat
egor
icalpr
oposi
ti
oni
sdet
ermi
nedby
whet
hert
heasser
tedcl
assr
elat
ioni
soneofexcl
usi
onor
i
ncl
usi
on(
i.
e.,
aff
ir
mat
iveornegat
ive)
.

C.I
ndi
cat
orsof"
howmuch"ar
ecal
l
edquant
it
yindi
cat
ors
(
quant
if
ier
s)andspeci
fi
cal
l
yar
e"al
l
,""
no,
"and"
some.
"

D.I
ndi
cat
orsofaf
fi
rmat
iveandnegat
ivear
equal
i
ty
i
ndi
cat
ors(
qual
i
fier
s)andspeci
fi
cal
l
yar
e"ar
e,""
arenot
,"
"
is,
""i
snot
,"and"
no,
"

Not
ethat"
no"i
sbot
haquant
if
ierandaqual
i
fier
.

E.Memor
izet
hef
oll
owi
ngt
abl
e:
 Di
str
ibut
ion
Nam
For
m Quant
it
yQual
i
ty
e
Subj
ect Pr
edi
cat
e

A Al
lSi
sP uni
ver
s Af
fi
rmat
iDi
str
ibut
ed undi
str
ibut
al v
e ed

E NoSi
sP uni
ver
s Negat
ive Di
str
ibut
ed di
str
ibut
ed
al

I SomeSi
sP par
ti
cul Af
fi
rmat
iundi
str
ibut undi
str
ibut
ar v
e ed ed

O SomeSi
snot par
ti
cul Negat
ive undi
str
ibut di
str
ibut
ed
P ar ed
 F.Di
str
ibut
ionofat
erm.

1.Adi
str
ibut
edt
ermi
sat
erm ofacat
egor
ical
pr
oposi
ti
ont
hati
susedwi
thr
efer
encet
oev
ery
memberofacl
ass.I
fthet
ermi
snotbei
ngusedt
o
r
efert
oeachandev
erymemberoft
hecl
ass,
iti
ssai
d
t
obeundi
str
ibut
ed.

2.Consi
dert
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
oposi
ti
ons:

A:Al
lbi
rdsar
ewi
ngedcr
eat
ures.

E:Nobi
rdsar
ewi
ngl
esscr
eat
ures.

I
:Somebi
rdsar
ebl
ackt
hings.

O:Somebi
rdsar
enotbl
ackt
hings.

Readt
heabov
est
atement
sandseehowt
hef
oll
owi
ngchar
t
r
epr
esent
sdi
str
ibut
ion.

Subj
ect Pr
edi
cat
e

A:r
efer
stoal
lbi
rds doesnotr
efert
o
ev
erymember
,e.
g.,
bat
s,f
lyi
ngf
ish.

E:r
efer
stoal
lbi
rdsby r
efer
stoal
lwi
ngl
ess
i
ndi
cat
ingt
hatt
heyar
e cr
eat
uresby
notpar
toft
he i
ndi
cat
ingt
hatt
hey
pr
edi
cat
ecl
ass ar
enotpar
toft
he
subj
ectcl
ass

I
:ref
ersonl
ytosome r
efer
sonl
ytosome
bi
rds bl
ackt
hings,
viz.
,
t
hosewhi
char
ebi
rds

O:r
efer
sonl
ytosome r
efer
stoal
lmember
s
bi
rds,
notal
loft
hem oft
hecl
ass!Vi
z.,
not
oneoft
hem i
sint
he
 cl
assr
efer
redt
oby
"
somebi
rds"

3.Fort
hepr
edi
cat
eoft
heOpr
oposi
ti
on,
consi
dert
he
f
oll
owi
nganal
ogy
.Ifweknowt
hatt
her
eisabooknot
i
nabookcase,
thenweknowsomet
hingabouteach
andev
eryshel
fint
hatbookcase-
-thebooki
snoton
t
hatshel
f.

4.Ther
ear
ethr
eeway
stor
emembert
hedi
str
ibut
ion
st
atusofsubj
ectandpr
edi
cat
eforst
andar
dfor
m
cat
egor
icalpr
oposi
ti
ons:

a.Memor
izei
t.

b.Fi
gur
eitoutf
rom anexampl
e(aswasdone
abov
e).

c.Remembert
hef
oll
owi
ngr
ule:

Thequant
it
yofast
andar
dfor
m cat
egor
ical
 pr
oposi
ti
ondet
ermi
nest
hedi
str
ibut
ionof
t
hesubj
ect(
sucht
hati
fthequant
it
yis
uni
ver
sal
,thesubj
ecti
sdi
str
ibut
edandi
fthe
quant
it
yispar
ti
cul
ar,
thesubj
ecti
s
undi
str
ibut
ed)
,and.
..

t
hequal
i
tyofast
andar
dfor
m cat
egor
ical
pr
oposi
ti
ondet
ermi
nest
hedi
str
ibut
ion
st
atusoft
hepr
edi
cat
e(sucht
hati
fthe
qual
i
tyi
saf
fi
rmat
ive,
thepr
edi
cat
eis
undi
str
ibut
ed,
andi
fthequal
i
tyi
snegat
ive,
t
hepr
edi
cat
eisdi
str
ibut
ed)
.

Conv
ersi
on,
Cont
raposi
ti
onandObv
ersi
on

conv
ErsI
on(
val
i
dforE-andI
-cl
aims)

Howi
t'
sdone:

Swi
tchposi
ti
onsofsubj
ectandpr
edi
cat
e.
NoXar
eY-
->NoYar
eX(
val
i
d)
Al
lVar
eC-
->Al
lCar
eV(
inv
ali
d)

cont
rApOsi
ti
on(
val
i
dforA-andO-
clai
ms)

Howi
t'
sdone:

Swi
tchposi
ti
onsofsubj
ectandpr
edi
cat
e.
Repl
acebot
hter
mswi
tht
hei
rcompl
ement
s.

SomeDar
enotS-
->Somenon-
Sar
enotnon-
D(v
ali
d)
SomeFar
eB-
->Somenon-
Bar
enon-
F(i
nval
i
d)

obv
ersi
on(
val
i
dforal
lfourcl
aimt
ypes)

Howi
t'
sdone:

Changeposi
ti
vet
onegat
iveornegat
ivet
oposi
ti
ve.
Repl
acet
hepr
edi
cat
eter
m wi
thi
tscompl
ement
.
Al
lZar
eQ-
->NoZar
enon-
Q(v
ali
d)
SomeGar
eP-
->SomeGar
enotnon-
P(v
ali
d)

Conv
ersi
on

Conv
ersi
oni
sonl
yval
i
dforE-andI
-cl
aims.I
t'
snotanespeci
all
y
i
nter
est
ingoper
ati
onwheni
t'
sdoner
ight
.Conv
ersi
oni
s
somet
imesmi
sappl
i
edt
ouni
ver
salaf
fi
rmat
ive(
A-)cl
aims.Her
e
ar
eaf
ewoft
hepossi
bil
i
tiesofv
ali
dconv
ersi
onst
hatmeant
he
samet
hingast
hei
ror
igi
nal
s:

Or
igi
nal
:Nowor
ksofRussi
anl
i
ter
atur
ear
ecar
ri
edbyt
hisst
ore.
Conv
erse:Noneoft
hewor
kscar
ri
edbyt
hisst
orei
sRussi
an
l
i
ter
atur
e.

Or
igi
nal
:Ther
ear
ebassi
nthi
slake.
Conv
erse:Someoft
hef
ishi
nthi
slakear
ebass.

I
nunf
ami
l
iarsi
tuat
ions,
peopl
esomet
imesmaket
hemi
stakeof
assumi
ngt
hati
fast
atementi
str
ue,
itsconv
ersei
sal
sot
rue.Thi
s
i
s,ofcour
se,
aser
iousov
erest
imat
ionoft
her
eli
abi
l
ityof
conv
ersi
oni
nthecasesofA-andO-
clai
ms.

Cont
raposi
ti
on

Cont
raposi
ti
oni
sval
i
donl
yforA-andO-
clai
ms.Theappl
i
cat
ions
ofcont
raposi
ti
onar
esi
gni
fi
cant
lymor
ecompl
exi
npr
act
icet
han
t
hoseofconv
ersi
on.Her
ear
eaf
ewcont
raposi
ti
ons:

Or
igi
nal
:Al
lcur
rentcust
omer
swi
l
lrecei
veal
oyal
tydi
scount
.
Cont
raposi
ti
ve:Peopl
ewhodon'
trecei
veal
oyal
tydi
scountar
e
notcur
rentcust
omer
s.

Or
igi
nal
:Ify
ougoont
heGer
mySt
ri
ngerShow,
you'
l
limmedi
atel
y
geti
nvol
vedi
nanugl
ysi
tuat
ion.
Cont
raposi
ti
ve:I
fyouhav
en'
tbeeni
nvol
vedanugl
ysi
tuat
ion,
you
hav
en'
tbeenont
heGer
mySt
ri
ngerShow.

Or
igi
nal
:Ther
ear
esomenon-
per
manentwor
ker
sher
ewhoar
en'
t
unr
eli
abl
e.
Cont
raposi
ti
ve:Somer
eli
abl
epeopl
ear
en'
tper
manentwor
ker
s
her
e.
Obv
ersi
on

Obv
ersi
onal
way
swor
ksi
fit
'sdoner
ight
.Ther
esul
tsobt
ainedby
t
heoper
ati
onofobv
ersi
onar
ethel
easti
ntui
ti
veoft
het
hreet
ypes
ofi
mmedi
atei
nfer
ence.

Or
igi
nal
:Onl
yCDswi
thgoodv
ideossel
lreal
l
ywel
l
.
Obv
erse:Noneoft
heCDst
hatsel
lreal
l
ywel
ldon'
thav
egood
v
ideos.

Or
igi
nal
:Noonehasent
eredt
heFor
biddenTempl
eandr
etur
ned.
Obv
erse:Ev
ery
onewhohasr
etur
nedhasnotent
eredt
he
For
biddenTempl
e.

CATEGORI
CALSYLLOGI
SMS

St
andar
d-For
m Cat
egor
icalSy
ll
ogi
sm

Consi
dert
hef
oll
owi
ngar
gument
:Exampl
e1.
Nol
ogi
cst
udent
sar
eir
rat
ionalpeopl
e.

Somepol
i
tici
ansar
eir
rat
ionalpeopl
e.

Ther
efor
esomepol
i
tici
ansar
enotl
ogi
cst
udent
s.

Thi
sar
gumenti
sanexampl
eofast
andar
d-f
orm cat
egor
ical
sy
ll
ogi
sm.Asy
ll
ogi
sm i
sadeduct
ivear
gumenti
nwhi
cha
concl
usi
oni
sinf
err
edf
rom t
wopr
emi
sses.Acat
egor
ical
sy
ll
ogi
sm consi
stsoft
hreecat
egor
icalpr
oposi
ti
onst
hatt
oget
her
cont
ainexact
lyt
hreet
erms,
eachofwhi
choccur
sinexact
lyt
wo
oft
heconst
it
uentpr
oposi
ti
ons.Acat
egor
icalsy
ll
ogi
sm i
sin
st
andar
dfor
m wheni
tspr
emi
ssesandconcl
usi
onar
eal
l
st
andar
d-f
orm cat
egor
icalpr
oposi
ti
ons(
A,E,
I,orO)
,andar
e
ar
rangedi
naspeci
fi
edst
andar
dor
der
.

AMaj
or,
Minor
,andMi
ddl
eTer
ms

Theconcl
usi
onofast
andar
d-f
orm cat
egor
icalsy
ll
ogi
sm i
sthe
keyt
odef
ini
ngi
tsel
ement
s:

Thepr
edi
cat
eter
m oft
heconcl
usi
oni
scal
l
edt
hemaj
ort
erm.
Thesubj
ectt
erm oft
heconcl
usi
oni
scal
l
edt
hemi
nort
erm.

Thet
hir
dter
m,t
heonet
hatoccur
sint
het
wopr
emi
ssesbutnot
i
ntheconcl
usi
on,
iscal
l
edt
hemi
ddl
eter
m.

Thepr
emi
sst
hatcont
ainst
hemaj
ort
ermi
scal
l
edt
hemaj
or
pr
emi
ss.

Thepr
emi
sst
hatcont
ainst
hemi
nort
ermi
scal
l
edt
hemi
nor
pr
emi
ss.

I
nast
andar
d-f
orm cat
egor
icalsy
ll
ogi
sm,
themaj
orpr
emi
ssi
s
st
atedf
ir
st,
themi
norpr
emi
sssecond,
andt
heconcl
usi
onl
ast
.

I
ntheexampl
ethatopenedt
hischapt
er,
theconcl
usi
oni
s"Some
pol
i
tici
ansar
enotl
ogi
cst
udent
s,"so"
logi
cst
udent
s"i
sthemaj
or
t
erm and"
pol
i
tici
ans"i
sthemi
nort
erm."
Ir
rat
ionalpeopl
e,
"whi
ch
appear
sint
hepr
emi
ssesbutnott
heconcl
usi
on,
ist
hemi
ddl
e
t
erm.Themaj
orpr
emi
ssi
s"Nol
ogi
cst
udent
sar
eir
rat
ional
peopl
e."Themi
norpr
emi
ssi
s"Somepol
i
tici
ansar
eir
rat
ional
peopl
e."
Summar
yTabl
e:

Thepar
tsofast
andar
d-f
orm cat
egor
icalsy
ll
ogi
sm

Def
ini
ti
on

Maj
ort
erm Thepr
edi
cat
eter
m Exampl
e
oft
heconcl
usi
on.

Mi
nort
erm Thesubj
ectt
erm Exampl
e
oft
heconcl
usi
on.

Mi
ddl
eter
m Thet
ermt
hat Exampl
e
appear
sinbot
h
pr
emi
ssesbutnot
i
ntheconcl
usi
on.

Maj
orpr
emi
ss Thepr
emi
ss Exampl
e
cont
aini
ngt
he
maj
ort
erm.I
n
st
andar
dfor
m,t
he
 maj
orpr
emi
ssi
s
al
way
sst
atedf
ir
st.

Mi
norpr
emi
ss Thepr
emi
ss Exampl
e.1]
]
cont
aini
ngt
he
mi
nort
erm.
Iti
s
st
atedbet
ween
maj
orpr
emi
seand
concl
usi
on

Mood

Cat
egor
icalsy
ll
ogi
smscanbedef
inedi
nter
msoft
het
ypeoft
he
cat
egor
icalpr
oposi
ti
onst
hatcomposet
hem.I
ntheexampl
ethat
openst
hischapt
er[
[EXAMPLE1]
],
themaj
orpr
emi
ssi
sanE
pr
oposi
ti
on(
uni
ver
salnegat
ive)
,themi
norpr
emi
ssi
sanI
pr
oposi
ti
on(
par
ti
cul
araf
fi
rmat
ive)
,andt
heconcl
usi
oni
sanO
pr
oposi
ti
on(
par
ti
cul
arnegat
ive)
.Theset
hree
l
ett
ers—EI
O—r
epr
esentt
hemoodoft
hesy
ll
ogi
sm.Al
lcat
egor
ical
sy
ll
ogi
smscanbecl
assi
fi
edi
nter
msofsuchat
hree-
let
termood.
Fi
gur
e

Anot
herv
ari
abl
edef
ini
ngt
hest
ruct
ureofacat
egor
icalsy
ll
ogi
sm
i
sit
sfi
gur
e,ort
heposi
ti
onoft
hemi
ddl
eter
mint
het
wo
pr
emi
sses.Becauset
hemi
ddl
eter
m canoccupyoneoft
wo
posi
ti
ons—subj
ectorpr
edi
cat
e—i
neachpr
emi
ss,
ther
ear
efour
possi
bledi
ff
erentf
igur
es.Thesear
econv
ent
ional
l
ylabel
edone
t
hroughf
our
.

I
nthef
ir
stf
igur
e,t
hemi
ddl
eter
mist
hesubj
ectoft
hemaj
or
pr
emi
ssandt
hepr
edi
cat
eoft
hemi
norpr
emi
ss.

I
nthesecondf
igur
e,t
hemi
ddl
eter
mist
hepr
edi
cat
eofbot
h
maj
orandmi
norpr
emi
sses.

I
nthet
hir
dfi
gur
e,t
hemi
ddl
eter
mist
hesubj
ectofbot
hthemaj
or
andmi
norpr
emi
sses.

I
nthef
our
thf
igur
e,t
hemi
ddl
eter
mist
hepr
edi
cat
eoft
hemaj
or
pr
emi
ssandt
hesubj
ectoft
hemi
norpr
emi
ss.
Summar
yTabl
e

TheFourFi
gur
es

Fi
rst Second Thi
rdFi
gur
e Four
th
Fi
gur
e Fi
gur
e Fi
gur
e

Schemat
ic MP PM MP PM
r
epr
esent
ati
on
SM SM MS MS

Descr
ipt
ion The Themi
ddl
e Themi
ddl
e The
mi
ddl
e t
ermi
sthe t
ermi
sthe mi
ddl
e
t
ermi
s pr
edi
cat
e subj
ectof t
ermi
s
t
he ofbot
h bot
hthe t
he
subj
ectof maj
orand maj
orand pr
edi
cat
e
t
hemaj
or mi
nor mi
nor oft
he
pr
emi
ss pr
emi
sses. pr
emi
sses. maj
or
andt
he pr
emi
ss
pr
edi
cat
e andt
he
oft
he subj
ectof
mi
nor t
hemi
nor
 pr
emi
ss. pr
emi
ss.

Exampl
e

Takent
oget
her
,moodandf
igur
ecompl
etel
ydescr
ibet
hef
orm of
anyst
andar
d-f
orm cat
egor
icalsy
ll
ogi
sm.Thef
orm oft
he
exampl
ethatopenst
hischapt
er[
[EXAMPLE1]
,fori
nst
ance,
is
EI
O-2.Theexpr
essi
onEI
Oindi
cat
est
hemoodoft
hesy
ll
ogi
sm
andt
henumber2i
ndi
cat
est
hatt
hesy
ll
ogi
sm i
sint
hesecond
f
igur
e.Becauset
her
ear
e64possi
blemoodsand4di
ff
erent
f
igur
es,
ther
ear
e256di
sti
nctf
ormst
hatst
andar
d-f
orm
sy
ll
ogi
smsmayassume.Aswewi
l
lsee,
howev
er,
onl
yaf
ewof
t
hesef
ormsr
epr
esentv
ali
ddeduct
ivear
gument
s.

6.
2.TheFor
malNat
ureofSy
ll
ogi
sti
cAr
gument
s

Themoodandf
igur
eofasy
ll
ogi
sm uni
quel
ydet
ermi
nei
tsf
orm
andt
hef
orm ofasy
ll
ogi
sm det
ermi
neswhet
hert
hesy
ll
ogi
sm i
s
v
ali
dori
nval
i
d.Thusanysy
ll
ogi
sm oft
hef
orm AAA-
1

Al
lM i
sP.

Al
lSi
sM.

?Al
lSi
sP.

i
sav
ali
dar
gument
,nomat
terwhatt
ermswesubst
it
utef
ort
he
l
ett
ersS,
P,andM.I
not
herwor
ds,
insy
ll
ogi
smsoft
hisandot
her
v
ali
dfor
ms,
ift
hepr
emi
ssesar
etr
ue,
thent
heconcl
usi
onmust
al
sobet
rue.Theconcl
usi
oncoul
dbef
alseonl
yifoneorbot
h
pr
emi
sseswer
efal
se.

Conv
ersel
y,anyar
gumenti
nani
nval
i
dsy
ll
ogi
sti
cfor
misi
nval
i
d,
ev
eni
fbot
hit
spr
emi
ssesandi
tsconcl
usi
onhappent
obet
rue.

Asy
ll
ogi
sti
cfor
misi
nval
i
difi
tispossi
blet
oconst
ructan
ar
gumenti
nthatf
orm wi
tht
ruepr
emi
ssesandaf
alseconcl
usi
on.
Thusapower
fulwayt
oref
uteanar
gumenti
nani
nval
i
dfor
mist
o
count
eri
twi
thananal
ogousar
gument
—anar
gumenti
nthesame
f
orm—wi
thobv
iousl
ytr
uepr
emi
ssesandanobv
iousl
yfal
se
concl
usi
on.
Al
thought
hismet
hodofl
ogi
calanal
ogycandemonst
rat
ethata
sy
ll
ogi
sti
cfor
misi
nval
i
d,i
tisacumber
somet
oolf
ori
dent
if
ying
whi
choft
he256possi
blef
ormsi
sinv
ali
d.What
’smor
e,t
he
i
nabi
l
ityt
ofi
ndar
efut
inganal
ogydoesnotconcl
usi
vel
y
demonst
rat
ethatav
ali
dfor
misv
ali
d.Ther
estoft
hechapt
eri
s
dev
otedt
oanexpl
anat
ionofmor
eef
fect
ivemet
hodsf
ort
est
ing
sy
ll
ogi
sms.

6.
3.VennDi
agr
am Techni
quef
orTest
ingSy
ll
ogi
sms

I
nthepr
evi
oussect
ionswewer
eabl
etoseet
hatt
wo-
cir
cleVenn
Di
agr
amsr
epr
esentt
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
hecl
asses
desi
gnat
edbyt
hesubj
ectandpr
edi
cat
eter
msi
nst
andar
d-f
orm
cat
egor
icalpr
oposi
ti
ons.I
fweaddat
hir
dci
rcl
e,wecanr
epr
esent
t
her
elat
ionshi
pamongt
hecl
assesdesi
gnat
edbyt
het
hreet
erms
ofacat
egor
icalsy
ll
ogi
sm.Weuset
hel
abelSt
odesi
gnat
ethe
ci
rcl
efort
hemi
nort
erm(
thesubj
ectoft
heconcl
usi
on)
,thel
abel
Pt
odesi
gnat
etheci
rcl
efort
hemaj
ort
erm(
thepr
edi
cat
eoft
he
concl
usi
on)
,andt
hel
abelM t
odesi
gnat
etheci
rcl
efort
hemi
ddl
e
t
erm.Ther
esul
tisadi
agr
am ofei
ghtcl
assest
hatr
epr
esentt
he
possi
blecombi
nat
ionsofS,
P,andM.

Thet
echni
queofVenndi
agr
amsf
orcat
egor
icalsy
ll
ogi
smsi
s
basedont
hef
actt
hati
nav
ali
dsy
ll
ogi
sm,
theconcl
usi
onasser
ts
nomor
ethanwhati
sal
readycont
ained,
impl
i
cit
ly,
int
hepr
emi
ses.
I
ftheconcl
usi
onasser
tsmor
ethant
hat
,itdoesnotf
oll
owf
rom
t
hepr
emi
ses,
andt
hesy
ll
ogi
sm i
sinv
ali
d.Thet
echni
quei
sto
di
agr
am t
hepr
emi
ses,
andt
henseewhet
herany
thi
ngwoul
dhav
e
t
obeaddedi
nor
dert
odi
agr
am whatt
heconcl
usi
onasser
ts.I
fso,
t
hesy
ll
ogi
sm i
sinv
ali
d;i
fnot
,iti
sval
i
d.

Exampl
e:

NoM i
sP Nohor
nedani
mali
sacar
niv
ore

Al
lSi
sM Al
lmoosear
ehor
nedani
mal
s
NoSi
sP Nomoosei
sacar
niv
ore

Thef
ir
stst
epi
stodi
agr
am t
hemaj
orpr
emi
se,
usi
ngt
heci
rcl
es
r
epr
esent
ingM (
hor
nedani
mal
s)andP(
car
niv
ores)
.Soweshade
outt
hear
eaofov
erl
apbet
weenM andP.

Thesecondst
epi
stoaddt
hemi
norpr
emi
set
oourdi
agr
am,
usi
ngt
heci
rcl
esr
epr
esent
ingSandM.Si
ncet
hisi
sanA
pr
oposi
ti
on,
weshadeoutt
her
egi
onofSout
sideM.
Thef
inalst
epi
stoexami
net
hecompl
eteddi
agr
am oft
he
pr
emi
sesanddet
ermi
newhet
heri
tcont
ainst
hei
nfor
mat
ion
asser
tedbyt
heconcl
usi
on.Theconcl
usi
onasser
tst
hatnoSi
sP.
Thusi
trequi
rest
hatt
heov
erl
apbet
weenSandPbeshadedout
,
andt
hepr
emi
sest
akent
oget
herdoshadeoutt
hatr
egi
on.Sot
he
sy
ll
ogi
sm i
sval
i
d.

Forasy
ll
ogi
sm t
obev
ali
d,t
hecombi
neddi
agr
am mustcont
ain
al
lthei
nfor
mat
ionasser
tedbyt
heconcl
usi
on.I
tmaycont
ain
mor
einf
ormat
ion,
buti
tcannotomi
tany
thi
ng.

Nowl
et'
str
yasy
ll
ogi
sm wi
thapar
ti
cul
arpr
emi
se.

Exampl
e:

NoM i
sP
SomeM ar
eS
_
___
___
___
_
SomeSar
enotP

Fi
rstwedi
agr
am t
hemaj
orpr
emi
se.
Secondwedi
agr
am t
hemi
norpr
emi
se.

Not
icet
hatwedi
agr
ammedt
hemaj
orpr
emi
se
f
ir
st.Thi
sisnotr
equi
redl
ogi
cal
l
y,butwhenev
ert
her
eisa
par
ti
cul
arandauni
ver
salpr
emi
se,
iti
sbestt
odi
agr
am t
he
uni
ver
salonef
ir
st.Bydi
agr
ammi
ngt
heuni
ver
salpr
emi
sef
ir
st,
we
hav
eshadedoutoneoft
hesubr
egi
ons,
sonowweknowt
hatt
he
Xf
ort
heot
herpr
emi
semustgoout
sidet
hePci
rcl
e.Andt
hat
's
usef
uli
nfor
mat
ion,
itmeanst
hatatl
eastoneSi
snotP.Si
nce
t
hati
swhatt
heconcl
usi
onasser
ts,
thear
gumenti
sval
i
d.

I
fasy
ll
ogi
sm i
sinv
ali
d,aVenndi
agr
am wi
l
lrev
ealt
hatf
acti
none
oft
woway
s.Thecombi
neddi
agr
am f
ort
hepr
emi
seswi
l
lei
ther
f
ailt
oshadeoutanar
eaexcl
udedbyt
heconcl
usi
on,
ori
twi
l
lfai
l
t
oputanXwher
etheconcl
usi
onr
equi
resone.

Exampl
e:

Al
lPar
eM
Al
lSar
eM

Al
lSar
eP

TheVenndi
agr
am r
eveal
sthei
nval
i
dit
ybyf
ail
i
ngt
oshadeoutt
he
r
ightar
eas.

I
nthecombi
neddi
agr
am,
thear
eaofPout
sideM hasbeen
shadedt
orepr
esentt
hemaj
orpr
emi
se,
andt
hear
eaofSout
side
M hasbeenshadedt
orepr
esentt
hemi
nor
.Butonear
eai
nthe
r
egi
onofSout
sideP-
-t
heonei
ndi
cat
edbyt
hear
row-
-hasnot
beenshaded.Thus,
thepr
emi
sesl
eav
eopent
hepossi
bil
i
tyt
hat
someSar
enotP;
theydonotguar
ant
eet
hatal
lSar
eP.Sot
he
concl
usi
ondoesnotf
oll
ow;
thesy
ll
ogi
sm i
sinv
ali
d.

Nowl
et'
sexami
neanot
hercasei
nwhi
cht
hei
nval
i
dit
yisr
eveal
ed
byt
hepl
acementofXs.

Al
lPar
eM
SomeSar
eM

SomeSar
eP
Not
icet
hatt
heXi
sont
hel
i
nebet
weent
wosubr
egi
onsoft
he
ov
erl
apbet
weenSandM.Locat
ingt
heXont
hel
i
nemeans:I
knowsomet
hingi
sbot
hanSandanM,
butIdon'
tknowwhet
her
i
tisal
soaPornot
.Butt
heconcl
usi
ondoesasser
tthatsomeS
ar
eP.Fort
hepr
emi
sest
ojust
if
ythi
sasser
ti
on,
theywoul
dhav
e
t
ogi
veusanXi
nthear
eaofov
erl
apbet
weenSandP.Butal
lthey
t
ellusi
s:t
her
e'sanSt
hatmayormaynotbeaP.Theconcl
usi
on
doesn'
tfol
l
ow.

Compr
ehensi
onQuest
ions

1.Thet
echni
queofVenndi
agr
amsi
sbased
ont
hef
actt
hati
nav
ali
dsy
ll
ogi
sm t
he
concl
usi
on

asser
tsnomor
ethanwhati
sal
ready
a) cont
ained,
impl
i
cit
ly,
int
hepr
emi
ses
 asser
tsmor
ethanwhati
scont
ained
b) i
nthepr
emi
ses

2.Forasy
ll
ogi
sm t
obev
ali
d,t
hecombi
ned
di
agr
am must

cont
ainal
li
nfor
mat
ionasser
tedby
a) t
heconcl
usi
on

ei
therf
ailt
oshadeoutanar
ea
excl
udedbyt
heconcl
usi
on,
orf
ailt
o
b) putanxwher
etheconcl
usi
on
r
equi
resone.
3.Forasy
ll
ogi
sm t
obei
nval
i
d,t
he
combi
neddi
agr
am must

cont
ainal
li
nfor
mat
ionasser
tedby
a) t
heconcl
usi
on

ei
therf
ailt
oshadeoutanar
ea
excl
udedbyt
heconcl
usi
on,
orf
ailt
o
b) putanxwher
etheconcl
usi
on
r
equi
resone.