State and Prove Cauchy’s Intergral Formula.

1. Introduction
Cauchy’s Integral Formula (CIF) is a central result in complex analysis, expressing the value of an analytic
function at a point inside a closed contour in terms of a line integral around that contour. Introduced by
Augustin-Louis Cauchy in the 19th century, this formula plays a fundamental role in the theory of analytic
functions. It connects integration, analyticity, and differentiation in a powerful and elegant way.

2. Statement of the Formula

Let f be analytic on a simply connected domain D, and let C be a positively oriented, simple closed
contour in D. If a ∈ int(C), then: I
1 f (z)
f (a) = dz.
2πi C z − a
More generally, for any n ≥ 1, I
(n) n! f (z)
f (a) = dz.
2πi C (z − a)n+1

3. Preliminaries

Analytic Function
A function f is analytic on an open set D ⊂ C if it is complex differentiable at every point in D.

Cauchy’s Theorem
If f is analytic in a simply connected domain D and C ⊂ D is a simple closed contour, then
I
f (z) dz = 0.
C

4. Proof of Cauchy’s Integral Formula

Let f be analytic in a simply connected domain D and let C be a positively oriented simple closed contour
inside D, with a ∈ int(C).

Step 1: Define Auxiliary Function

Define: (
f (z)−f (a)
z−a , z≠ a,
g(z) =
f ′ (a), z = a.
Since f is analytic, g is also analytic in D (removable singularity at z = a).

1
Step 2: Apply Cauchy’s Theorem
By Cauchy’s Theorem:
f (z) − f (a)
I I
g(z) dz = dz = 0.
C C z−a

Step 3: Rearranging
I I
f (z) 1
dz − f (a) dz = 0.
C z−a C z−a
I I
f (z) 1
⇒ dz = f (a) dz.
C z−a C z−a

Step 4: Evaluate
Since a ∈ int(C), we know: I
1
dz = 2πi.
C z−a
Thus, I
1 f (z)
f (a) = dz.
2πi C z−a

5. Extended Derivative Formula

We can derive higher-order derivatives using:
I
(n) n! f (z)
f (a) = dz.
2πi C (z − a)n+1
This confirms that f is infinitely differentiable and all derivatives can be computed via contour integrals.

6. Examples

Example 1
1
Let f (z) = z+1 , and let C be the circle |z| = 2, positively oriented. Then f is analytic inside and on C,
and 0 ∈ int(C). By CIF:
I I
1 f (z) 1 1
f (0) = dz = dz = 1.
2πi C z 2πi C z(z + 1)

Example 2
Let f (z) = ez , C be the circle |z| = 1, and a = 0. Then:
I z
(4) 4! e
f (0) = dz.
2πi C z 5
2πi
Since f (4) (0) = e0 = 1, the integral evaluates to 24 .

7. Applications
• Analytic Continuation: Allows extension of function definition beyond original domain.
• Harmonic Functions: Real and imaginary parts of analytic functions are harmonic (satisfy Laplace’s
equation).
• Evaluation of Real Integrals: Many improper real integrals can be computed via complex contour
integrals using CIF.

2
 State and Prove Cauchy-Riemann Equations.
1. Introduction
Complex analysis is a fundamental branch of mathematics that deals with functions of complex vari-
ables. A cornerstone of this subject is the concept of analyticity. A function f (z), where z ∈ C, is
analytic at a point if it is differentiable in some neighborhood of that point. The conditions for com-
plex differentiability are much stricter than in real analysis and are governed by the Cauchy-Riemann
equations. These equations form a necessary condition for a function to be complex differentiable and
hence analytic.

2. Preliminaries
Let f (z) be a complex-valued function defined on a subset of the complex plane C. Suppose

f (z) = f (x + iy) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y),

where u and v are real-valued functions of the real variables x and y, and z = x + iy. Then the function
f is said to be differentiable at z0 = x0 + iy0 if the limit
f (z0 + ∆z) − f (z0 )
f ′ (z0 ) = lim
∆z→0 ∆z
exists and is independent of the path along which ∆z → 0.

3. Statement of Cauchy-Riemann Equations

Let f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) be defined in a neighborhood of a point z0 = x0 + iy0 , where u and v
have continuous first-order partial derivatives. Then f is differentiable at z0 if and only if the partial
derivatives of u and v satisfy the following equations at (x0 , y0 ):
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= , =− .
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
These are the Cauchy-Riemann equations.

4. Proof of the Cauchy-Riemann Equations

Suppose f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is differentiable at z0 = x + iy. Then the derivative is defined by the
limit
f (z + ∆z) − f (z)
f ′ (z) = lim .
∆z→0 ∆z
We examine the limit along two paths: along the real axis (∆z = ∆x) and the imaginary axis (∆z =
i∆y).

Case 1: ∆z = ∆x
We have:
f (z + ∆x) − f (z) u(x + ∆x, y) + iv(x + ∆x, y) − [u(x, y) + iv(x, y)]
=
∆x ∆x
u(x + ∆x, y) − u(x, y) v(x + ∆x, y) − v(x, y)
= +i .
∆x ∆x
Taking the limit as ∆x → 0:
f (z + ∆x) − f (z) ∂u ∂v
lim = +i .
∆x→0 ∆x ∂x ∂x

3
Case 2: ∆z = i∆y
Then:
f (z + i∆y) − f (z) u(x, y + ∆y) + iv(x, y + ∆y) − [u(x, y) + iv(x, y)]
=
i∆y i∆y
u(x, y + ∆y) − u(x, y) v(x, y + ∆y) − v(x, y)
= +i .
i∆y i∆y
1
Using i = −i, we simplify:

f (z + i∆y) − f (z) ∂u ∂v
= −i + .
i∆y ∂y ∂y
Since the limit must be the same in both directions:
∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u
+i = −i .
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
Equating real and imaginary parts:
∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u
= , =− .
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
Thus, the Cauchy-Riemann equations hold.

5. Geometric Interpretation
The Cauchy-Riemann equations ensure that f preserves angles and local shapes at a point where it is
analytic. That is, f is conformal at points where the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied. This
property makes analytic functions useful in physics, especially in fluid flow and electromagnetic theory.

6. Converse of the Theorem

The converse also holds: if u(x, y) and v(x, y) have continuous first-order partial derivatives and satisfy
the Cauchy-Riemann equations in a neighborhood of a point z0 , then f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is
differentiable at z0 . This implies analyticity in the region.

7. Example

Let f (z) = z 2 = (x + iy)2 = x2 − y 2 + 2ixy. Here,

u(x, y) = x2 − y 2 , v(x, y) = 2xy.

Then,
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= 2x, = 2x, = −2y, = 2y.
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
These satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations:
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= , =− .
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x

Thus, f (z) = z 2 is analytic.

8. Applications
Cauchy-Riemann equations are vital in various fields:
• Complex integration: Used in verifying the analyticity of functions before applying Cauchy’s
Integral Theorem.

4
 State and Prove Cauchy’s Theorem.

1. Introduction
Cauchy’s Theorem is a fundamental result in complex analysis that asserts the vanishing of integrals of
holomorphic functions over closed curves within a simply connected domain. This theorem forms the
backbone of many deep results in complex function theory, including Cauchy’s Integral Formula, Morera’s
Theorem, and the development of Taylor and Laurent series.

2. Preliminaries and Notations

Let f : D → C be a function where D ⊆ C is an open and simply connected region. A function f is said
to be analytic or holomorphic in D if it is complex differentiable at every point in D.
A path
R γ : [a, b] → C is said to be closed if γ(a) = γ(b). The contour integral of f along γ is denoted
by γ f (z) dz.

3. Statement of Cauchy’s Theorem

Cauchy’s Theorem: Let D ⊂ C be a simply connected domain and let f : D → C be an analytic function.
If γ is a closed, piecewise smooth curve in D, then
Z
f (z) dz = 0.
γ

4. Intuition Behind the Theorem

Cauchy’s Theorem is a complex analogue of Green’s Theorem from vector calculus. It essentially states
that the integral of a holomorphic function around a closed curve vanishes, provided that the function is
analytic inside the region bounded by the curve.

5. Proof of Cauchy’s Theorem (Using Green’s Theorem)

We assume f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y), where z = x + iy, and that f is analytic on a simply connected domain
D. Then both u and v have continuous first partial derivatives and satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations:
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= , =− .
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Let γ be a positively oriented, piecewise smooth, simple closed curve in D. Then
Z Z
f (z) dz = [u(x, y) + iv(x, y)] (dx + i dy) .
γ γ

Expanding: Z Z Z
f (z) dz = (u dx − v dy) + i (v dx + u dy) .
γ γ γ

Now applying Green’s Theorem to both real and imaginary parts:

Z ZZ  
∂v ∂u
u dx − v dy = − − dx dy,
γ R ∂x ∂y
Z ZZ  
∂u ∂v
v dx + u dy = − dx dy.
γ R ∂x ∂y

5
By Cauchy-Riemann equations:
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= , =− .
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Hence: Z ZZ
f (z) dz = (0 + i · 0) dx dy = 0.
γ R

6. Key Conditions and Remarks

1. Analyticity: The function f must be analytic throughout the region enclosed by the curve.
2. Simply Connected Domain: The domain D must be simply connected, meaning every closed curve
in D can be continuously contracted to a point within D without leaving the domain.
3. Piecewise Smoothness: The curve γ must be piecewise smooth to apply Green’s theorem.

7. Consequences of Cauchy’s Theorem

a. Path Independence
If f is analytic in a simply connected domain D, then for any two curves γ1 and γ2 from point a to b in
D, we have: Z Z
f (z) dz = f (z) dz.
γ1 γ2

b. Existence of Antiderivatives
If f is analytic in D, then there exists a function F such that F ′ (z) = f (z). This function F is defined by:
Z z
F (z) = f (ζ) dζ,
z0

where the integral is path-independent.

c. Foundation for Integral Formula

Cauchy’s Integral Formula directly follows from this theorem and provides the value of a function inside a
disk in terms of its values on the boundary.

8. Examples Illustrating Cauchy’s Theorem

Example 1:
Evaluate |z|=1 z n dz where n ∈ Z.
R

Solution: Since z n is analytic everywhere for n ̸= −1,

Z
z n dz = 0 for n ̸= −1.
|z|=1

For n = −1, f (z) = 1/z has a singularity at z = 0, so the theorem does not apply. Indeed,
Z
1
dz = 2πi.
|z|=1 z

6
 State and Prove Laurent’s Theorem

Introduction
Laurent’s Theorem is a fundamental result in complex analysis that extends Taylor’s Theorem to include
functions with isolated singularities. It allows a complex-valued function that is analytic in an annular
region to be represented as a power series including both non-negative and negative powers of (z − a),
where a is the center of the annulus. This expansion is known as the Laurent Series, and it plays a crucial
role in residue theory and the classification of singularities.

Statement of Laurent’s Theorem

Let f (z) be analytic in the annular region A = {z ∈ C : r < |z − a| < R}, where 0 ≤ r < R ≤ ∞. Then
for every z ∈ A, f (z) can be expressed as a Laurent series:
∞
f (z) = cn (z − a)n ,
X

n=−∞

where the coefficients cn are given by:

1 f (w)
Z
cn = dw,
2πi γ (w − a)n+1
and γ is a positively oriented simple closed contour contained in the annulus and enclosing the point a.

Proof of Laurent’s Theorem

Let f be analytic in an annular region A centered at a, that is, r < |z − a| < R. Fix a point z ∈ A. Since
f is analytic in this region, there exists a contour γ lying entirely in A and enclosing the point z, such that
Cauchy’s integral formula can be applied.
We construct two concentric circles centered at a, say C1 with radius r1 and C2 with radius r2 such that
r < r1 < |z − a| < r2 < R. Let the annular region between these two circles be denoted by A1 , which is a
compact subset of A. The function f is analytic in the closure of A1 , hence analytic on and inside C2 and
outside C1 .
Now define the function f in A1 using Cauchy’s integral formula over both contours C2 and C1 , traversed
in opposite directions. Let us consider:
1 f (w) 1 f (w)
Z Z
f (z) = dw − dw.
2πi C2 w−z 2πi C1 w−z

This is possible because the net integral over a closed contour around an annulus results in the function
value at z. Let us expand each kernel w−z
1
appropriately.

Expansion for the Outer Contour C2

For |z − a| < |w − a|, we can write:
∞
1 1 1 1 (z − a)n
= = =
X
· .
w−z (w − a) − (z − a) w − a 1 − w−a
z−a
n=0
(w − a)n+1

7
Substitute this into the integral over C2 , we get:
∞
1 f (w) 1 f (w)
Z  Z 
dw = dw (z − a)n .
X
2πi C2 w−z n=0
2πi C2 (w − a)n+1

Expansion for the Inner Contour C1

For |w − a| < |z − a|, we write:
∞
1 1 1 (w − a)n
=− =
X
· − .
w−z z − a 1 − w−a
z−a n=0
(z − a)n+1

Substituting into the integral over C1 , we get:

∞
1 f (w) 1
Z  Z 
dw = f (w)(w − a)n−1 dw (z − a)−n .
X
−
2πi C1 w−z n=1
2πi C1

Combining Both Expansions

Combining the two parts, we get the Laurent series:
∞ ∞
f (z) = an (z − a)n + bn (z − a)−n ,
X X

n=0 n=1

where:
1 f (w) 1
Z Z
an = dw, bn = f (w)(w − a)n−1 dw.
2πi C2 (w − a)n+1 2πi C1

Let us now define cn as:

1 f (w)
Z
cn = dw,
2πi γ (w − a)n+1
where γ is any positively oriented contour in the annulus A. Thus,
∞
f (z) = cn (z − a)n .
X

n=−∞

1. Uniqueness and Convergence

Uniqueness: The Laurent series representation of a function in an annulus is unique. That is, if f (z) =
an (z − z0 )n , then an is uniquely determined by the contour integral formula.
P

Convergence: The series converges absolutely and uniformly on any compact subset of the annulus.
Hence, term-by-term integration and differentiation are valid.

2. Significance and Applications

Laurent’s Theorem is essential for:
• Analyzing singularities and classifying them as removable, poles, or essential.
• Calculating residues for complex integrals via the Residue Theorem.
• Understanding the local behavior of meromorphic functions.
• Expanding functions not analytic at a point but analytic in an annular region.

8
 State and Prove Liouville’s Theorem

Introduction
Liouville’s Theorem is a fundamental result in complex analysis, especially regarding the nature of bounded
entire functions. It not only serves as an elegant example of how the analytic properties of complex functions
severely restrict their behavior, but also plays a central role in proving the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
and other advanced theorems.

Statement of Liouville’s Theorem

Liouville’s Theorem: Let f : C → C be an entire function (i.e., analytic everywhere on the complex
plane). If f is bounded on C, then f is constant.

Preliminaries and Assumptions

Let us unpack the meaning of the theorem:
• A function f is entire if it is analytic at every point in the complex plane C.
• The function f is bounded if there exists some M > 0 such that |f (z)| ≤ M for all z ∈ C.
We aim to show that such a function f must be constant. We will use the powerful tool of Cauchy’s
integral formula for derivatives as the central technique.

Cauchy’s Integral Formula for Derivatives

If f is analytic in an open set containing a closed disk D(a, R), then for any n ∈ N, the nth derivative of
f at a is given by:
n! f (z)
Z
f (a) =
(n)
dz
2πi |z−a|=R (z − a)n+1

Proof of Liouville’s Theorem

Let f be entire and bounded; i.e., there exists M > 0 such that |f (z)| ≤ M for all z ∈ C. We will show
that for any a ∈ C, the derivative of f of every order vanishes, thereby proving that f is constant.

Step 1: Apply Cauchy’s Integral Formula

For any R > 0, consider the circle CR defined by |z − a| = R. Since f is entire, it is analytic in and on this
circle for all R > 0. Hence, by Cauchy’s formula for the nth derivative:
n! f (z)
Z
f (n) (a) = dz
2πi |z−a|=R (z − a)n+1

Step 2: Estimate the Integral

We estimate the modulus of the above expression using the estimation lemma:
n! f (z)
Z
|f (n) (a)| ≤ · |dz|
2π |z−a|=R (z − a)n+1

Since |f (z)| ≤ M and on the circle |z − a| = R, we have |(z − a)n+1 | = Rn+1 and |dz| = R dθ:
Z 2π
n! M n! M n! · M
|f (n) (a)| ≤ · · R dθ = · n · 2π =
2π 0 R n+1 2π R Rn

9
Step 3: Let R → ∞
Now, observe that this bound holds for any R > 0. Letting R → ∞, we get:
n! · M
|f (n) (a)| ≤ →0 as R→∞
Rn
Therefore, f (n) (a) = 0 for all n ≥ 1. This implies that the Taylor series of f about the point a has only
the constant term, i.e., f (z) = f (a) for all z.

Conclusion
Since the point a was arbitrary in C, we conclude that f is constant throughout the complex plane. Hence,
any bounded entire function is constant.
■

Remarks and Applications

1. Converse is Not True

The converse of Liouville’s Theorem does not hold: constant functions are bounded and entire, but not all
bounded functions are entire. For example, f (z) = 1+|z|
1
is bounded but not analytic.

2. Application: Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Liouville’s Theorem is a critical component in proving the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra. If a non-
constant polynomial had no roots, then 1/p(z) would be entire and bounded, contradicting Liouville’s
Theorem.

3. Growth Conditions
Liouville’s Theorem can be extended: if f is entire and satisfies |f (z)| ≤ A|z|k for some k ∈ N and A > 0,
then f is a polynomial of degree at most k.

4. Geometric Interpretation
In the context of conformal mappings, Liouville’s Theorem tells us that global analytic maps from C into
a bounded subset must be constant, severely restricting possible transformations of the plane.

Summary
Liouville’s Theorem emphasizes the rigidity of complex analytic functions. Unlike real differentiable func-
tions, analytic functions on the complex plane cannot be both non-constant and globally bounded. This
property distinguishes complex analysis with profound consequences in algebra, geometry, and number
theory.

10
 State and Prove Taylor’s Theorem

1. Introduction
Taylor’s Theorem is a fundamental result in complex analysis that provides a powerful representation
of analytic functions as power series within a disk of convergence. This theorem not only enables the
approximation of analytic functions by polynomials but also establishes the deep connection between
analyticity and infinite differentiability in the complex plane.

2. Statement of the Theorem

Let f (z) be a function that is analytic in an open disk D(a, R) = {z ∈ C | |z − a| < R}. Then for all
z ∈ D(a, R), the function f can be expressed as a power series centered at a given by:
∞
X f (n) (a)
f (z) = (z − a)n
n!
n=0

Moreover, this series converges absolutely and uniformly on every closed disk D(a, r) with r < R.

3. Proof of Taylor’s Theorem

We begin by assuming that f (z) is analytic in the open disk D(a, R), and therefore, by Cauchy’s integral
formula, for any z ∈ D(a, R) and any positively oriented simple closed contour γ within D(a, R) enclosing
z, we have: Z
1 f (ζ)
f (z) = dζ
2πi γ ζ − z
Now choose a circle C(a, r) centered at a with radius r such that |z − a| < r < R. On this circle, let
ζ ∈ C(a, r). We can rewrite the integrand as:
1 1 1
= =  
ζ −z ζ − a − (z − a) (ζ − a) 1 − z−a
ζ−a

Let w = z−a
ζ−a . Since |z − a| < r = |ζ − a|, we have |w| < 1, and we can expand the denominator as a
geometric series:
∞ ∞ 
z−a n

1 X
n
X
= w =
1−w ζ −a
n=0 n=0
Therefore,
∞ n ∞
(z − a)n

1 1 X z−a X
= =
ζ −z ζ −a ζ −a (ζ − a)n+1
n=0 n=0
Substituting back into Cauchy’s integral formula:
∞
" #
(z − a)n
Z
1 X
f (z) = f (ζ) dζ
2πi C(a,r) (ζ − a)n+1
n=0

11
We interchange summation and integration (justified by uniform convergence on the compact contour),
obtaining:
∞
!
(z − a)n
Z
X f (ζ)
f (z) = n+1
dζ
n=0
2πi C(a,r) (ζ − a)

From the Cauchy integral formula for derivatives, we know:

Z
(n) n! f (ζ)
f (a) = dζ
2πi C(a,r) (ζ − a)n+1

Substituting into the previous expression, we obtain:

∞
X f (n) (a)
f (z) = (z − a)n
n!
n=0

This series converges absolutely and uniformly on closed disks D(a, r) for any r < R, due to the analyticity
of f and the uniform boundedness of the integrals. Hence, the representation is valid throughout the disk
D(a, R).

4. Discussion
Taylor’s Theorem is remarkable in complex analysis because it tells us that analyticity is equivalent to
possessing a convergent power series expansion. This is stronger than in real analysis, where infinitely
differentiable functions may not be expressible as Taylor series. In complex analysis, the analyticity ensures
convergence of the series not only pointwise but uniformly on compact subsets of the disk of convergence.
Moreover, the coefficients of the Taylor series are uniquely determined by the derivatives at the center
a, which are themselves computed via Cauchy’s formula. Thus, Taylor’s Theorem builds a bridge between
integral representations and power series.

5. Example
Let us consider the function f (z) = ez , which is entire (analytic everywhere in C). The derivatives at any
point a ∈ C are f (n) (a) = ea , so the Taylor series about a is:
∞ a
z
X e
e = (z − a)n
n!
n=0

In particular, for a = 0, this reduces to the well-known Maclaurin series:

∞
z
X zn
e =
n!
n=0

which converges absolutely and uniformly on every compact subset of C, reflecting the function’s entire
nature.

6. Conclusion
Taylor’s Theorem in complex analysis is a central result that connects the concepts of analyticity, dif-
ferentiability, and infinite series representation. The theorem’s reliance on the Cauchy integral formula
highlights the integral foundation of complex analysis, and its consequences extend into areas such as
analytic continuation, residue theory, and Laurent expansions. The theorem is not only a powerful tool
for computation and approximation but also a cornerstone of the theoretical framework of the subject.

12
 State and Prove Rouche’s Theorem.

Statement: Let f (z) and g(z) be analytic functions on an open set containing a simple closed positively oriented
contour C and its interior. Suppose that

|g(z)| < |f (z)| for all z ∈ C.

Then f (z) and f (z) + g(z) have the same number of zeros (counting multiplicities) inside C.

Background and Intuition

Rouche’s Theorem is a powerful result in complex analysis used for locating zeros of analytic functions. The key
idea is that if one function dominates another on a boundary, then adding the smaller function does not change the
number of zeros inside the region. This forms a crucial foundation for many results including the Fundamental
Theorem of Algebra.

Preliminaries and Notation

Let D denote the domain enclosed by the simple closed contour C, and assume f and g are analytic on D. Define:

h(z) = f (z) + g(z).

We will use the Argument Principle, which states that if f is analytic and has no zeros on C, then:

f ′ (z)
Z
1
dz = N,
2πi C f (z)
where N is the number of zeros of f inside C, counted with multiplicities.

Proof of Rouche’s Theorem

Let us suppose f and g are analytic on and inside C, and |g(z)| < |f (z)| for all z ∈ C. Define h(z) = f (z) + g(z).
The goal is to show that f (z) and h(z) have the same number of zeros inside C.

Step 1: Define a Homotopy

Define a homotopy of functions:
Ft (z) = f (z) + tg(z), t ∈ [0, 1].
Note that F0 (z) = f (z), and F1 (z) = f (z) + g(z) = h(z). For each fixed t, Ft is analytic on and inside C since f
and g are.

Step 2: Verify Nonvanishing on C

We aim to show that Ft (z) ̸= 0 for all z ∈ C and all t ∈ [0, 1]. Suppose for contradiction that for some t0 ∈ [0, 1],
there exists z0 ∈ C such that:
Ft0 (z0 ) = f (z0 ) + t0 g(z0 ) = 0.
Then we rearrange to obtain:
|f (z0 )| = |t0 g(z0 )| ≤ |g(z0 )| < |f (z0 )|,
which is a contradiction. Hence, Ft (z) ̸= 0 on C for all t ∈ [0, 1].

13
Step 3: Apply the Argument Principle
Because Ft (z) is analytic on and inside C, and has no zeros on C, the Argument Principle applies. Define:

Ft′ (z)
Z
1
Nt = dz,
2πi C Ft (z)
where Nt is the number of zeros of Ft inside C, counting multiplicities.
Since Ft (z) depends continuously on t, and has no zeros on C, the function t 7→ Nt is constant as it must take
integer values and vary continuously. Hence:
N0 = N1 ,
i.e., the number of zeros of f and h = f + g inside C are equal.

Conclusion
This completes the proof. Under the assumption that |g(z)| < |f (z)| on the boundary of a domain, the function
f (z) + g(z) has the same number of zeros (counted with multiplicities) inside the domain as f (z).

Applications and Importance

• Fundamental Theorem of Algebra: Rouche’s Theorem is instrumental in proving that any non-constant complex
polynomial has at least one root in C, and hence exactly n roots for a degree n polynomial.
• Zero Localization: It aids in locating zeros of difficult functions by comparing them to simpler functions.
• Topology and Continuity: The use of homotopy and argument principle in Rouche’s Theorem is foundational in
complex analysis.

Example

Let f (z) = z 5 and g(z) = 10z + 1. On the circle |z| = 2, we have:

|f (z)| = |z 5 | = 32, |g(z)| ≤ |10z + 1| ≤ 10|z| + 1 = 21.

Since |g(z)| < |f (z)| on |z| = 2, by Rouche’s Theorem, f (z) + g(z) has the same number of zeros as f (z) inside
the disk. Thus, it has 5 zeros inside |z| < 2.

14
 Derive the Polar Form of Cauchy-Riemann Equations

Introduction
The Cauchy-Riemann equations play a central role in complex analysis, offering necessary and sufficient
conditions for a function to be holomorphic (analytic). While typically expressed in Cartesian coordinates,
a polar form is also essential—particularly for problems with radial symmetry or involving circular regions.
This document derives the Cauchy-Riemann equations in polar coordinates and highlights their significance
in analyzing complex-valued functions.

Review: Cauchy-Riemann Equations in Cartesian Form

Let f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) be a complex function, where z = x + iy. If f is differentiable at a point z,
then the following partial differential equations must hold:
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= , =−
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
These are the classical Cauchy-Riemann equations in Cartesian form, necessary (and under mild con-
ditions, sufficient) for f to be analytic at a point.

Transition to Polar Coordinates

In polar coordinates, a complex number z can be expressed as:

z = reiθ , where r = |z|, θ = arg(z)

We rewrite f (z) = u(r, θ) + iv(r, θ) assuming u and v are now functions of r and θ.
Using the relationships between Cartesian and polar coordinates:

x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ

Partial Derivatives in Polar Coordinates

To derive the polar form of the Cauchy-Riemann equations, we first compute partial derivatives with
respect to r and θ. Using the chain rule:
∂u ∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u ∂u
= + = cos θ + sin θ
∂r ∂x ∂r ∂y ∂r ∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u ∂u
= + = − r sin θ + r cos θ
∂θ ∂x ∂θ ∂y ∂θ ∂x ∂y
Similarly, for v:
∂v ∂v ∂v
= cos θ + sin θ
∂r ∂x ∂y
∂v ∂v ∂v
= − r sin θ + r cos θ
∂θ ∂x ∂y
Now, substitute the Cartesian Cauchy-Riemann equations into these derivatives.

15
Using Cauchy-Riemann Conditions
Recall:
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= , =−
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Substitute these into the expressions:
∂u ∂v ∂v
= cos θ − sin θ
∂r ∂y ∂x
1 ∂u −∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
= sin θ + cos θ = − sin θ − cos θ
r ∂θ ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Similarly, we find:
∂v ∂v ∂v
= cos θ + sin θ
∂r ∂x ∂y
1 ∂v ∂v ∂v
=− sin θ + cos θ
r ∂θ ∂x ∂y
∂v 1 ∂v ∂u ∂u
Now express ∂r and r ∂θ in terms of ∂x and ∂y using the CR equations again.

Final Polar Form

We obtain the Cauchy-Riemann equations in polar form:

∂u 1 ∂v ∂v 1 ∂u
= , =−
∂r r ∂θ ∂r r ∂θ
These are the **Cauchy-Riemann equations in polar coordinates**.

Geometric Interpretation
The polar form adapts the analytic condition to situations where the geometry of the problem is radial,
such as circular domains or annuli. It clarifies how the real and imaginary components of an analytic
function interact in terms of rotation and scaling.
For example, the function f (z) = z n = rn einθ has:

u(r, θ) = rn cos(nθ), v(r, θ) = rn sin(nθ)

We can verify that:
∂u 1 ∂v
= nrn−1 cos(nθ), = nrn−1 cos(nθ)
∂r r ∂θ
∂v 1 ∂u
= nrn−1 sin(nθ), − = nrn−1 sin(nθ)
∂r r ∂θ
Hence, the polar CR equations are satisfied.

Significance and Applications

The polar form of the Cauchy-Riemann equations is especially useful in:
• Analyzing functions defined over circular or annular regions
• Problems involving conformal mappings with radial symmetry

16
 Prove that Differentiability Implies Continuity, but Converse may
not be True. Give an Example in Support of your Answer.

Statement
Let f : R → R (or more generally f : C → C). If f is differentiable at a point a, then f is continuous
at a. However, the converse is not necessarily true: a function may be continuous at a point but not
differentiable at that point.

Proof that Differentiability Implies Continuity

Let f be a function defined on an open interval I ⊆ R containing a point a. Suppose f is differentiable
at a. That is,
f (a + h) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim
h→0 h
exists and is finite.
We want to prove that f is continuous at a, i.e.,

lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

Step-by-step Justification
Let us consider:
f (a + h) − f (a)
 
lim f (a + h) = lim f (a) + ·h .
h→0 h→0 h
Since f is differentiable at a, the limit of the difference quotient exists and is equal to f ′ (a).
Thus, we can write:

lim f (a + h) = f (a) + f ′ (a) · lim h = f (a) + f ′ (a) · 0 = f (a).

h→0 h→0

Hence,
lim f (x) = f (a),
x→a
which shows that f is continuous at a.

Conclusion
Therefore, if a function is differentiable at a point, it must also be continuous at that point.

Converse is Not True: Continuity Does Not Imply Differentiability

We now present a counterexample to show that the converse is not true: a function may be continuous
at a point but not differentiable there.

Example
Consider the function (
x, if x ≥ 0,
f (x) = |x| =
−x, if x < 0.

Continuity at x = 0
We check continuity of f at x = 0:

lim f (x) = lim (−x) = 0, lim f (x) = lim x = 0.

x→0− x→0− x→0+ x→0+

So,
lim f (x) = 0 = f (0).
x→0

17
Hence, f is continuous at x = 0.

Differentiability at x = 0
Now we check the derivative at x = 0:
f (0 + h) − f (0) |h|
f ′ (0) = lim = lim .
h→0 h h→0 h

Note:
|h| |h|
If h > 0, = 1; if h < 0, = −1.
h h
So the left-hand and right-hand limits are:
|h| |h|
lim = −1, lim = 1.
h→0− h h→0+ h
Since the left and right limits are not equal, the overall limit does not exist. Thus, f ′ (0) does not exist,
and f is not differentiable at x = 0.

Geometric Interpretation
Geometrically, the function f (x) = |x| has a sharp corner or cusp at x = 0. While the function does
not break or jump at x = 0 (hence it is continuous), the slope of the tangent line changes abruptly
from −1 to 1. Therefore, there is no well-defined unique tangent (or derivative) at that point.

More Examples of Continuity Without Differentiability

Example 2: f (x) = x1/3

This function is continuous everywhere and also differentiable everywhere except possibly at x = 0.
1
f ′ (x) = x−2/3 .
3
At x = 0, the derivative becomes infinite:

lim f ′ (x) = ∞, lim f ′ (x) = −∞.

x→0+ x→0−

Hence, f (x) = x1/3 is continuous at x = 0 but not differentiable at x = 0 due to an infinite slope.

Example 3: f (x) = x sin(1/x) for x ̸= 0, and f (0) = 0

(
x sin(1/x), x ̸= 0,
f (x) =
0, x = 0.
Let us examine the continuity at x = 0:

lim x sin(1/x) = 0 = f (0),

x→0

so the function is continuous at x = 0.

Now for differentiability:
f (h) − f (0) h sin(1/h)
f ′ (0) = lim = lim = lim sin(1/h).
h→0 h h→0 h h→0

Since sin(1/h) does not have a limit as h → 0 (it oscillates), f ′ (0) does not exist. Hence, again, f is
continuous at 0 but not differentiable.

• Differentiability at a point implies continuity at that point.

• Continuity at a point does not necessarily imply differentiability.

18
 r r
Show that f (z) = |xy| or f (x + iy) = |xy| is not Analytic at
Origin But C-R-Equations are Satisfied at That Point.

Problem Statement
p
Let f (z) = |xy|, where z = x + iy. We aim to show that this function is not analytic at the origin
(0, 0), although the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied there.

Step 1: Expressing the Function in Terms of x and y

Let f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y). For the given function:
q
f (z) = |xy|,

this is a real-valued function, so the imaginary part is zero:

q
u(x, y) = |xy|, v(x, y) = 0.

Step 2: Checking Continuity at the Origin

To test for analyticity at the origin, the function must first be continuous there.
As (x, y) → (0, 0), |xy| → 0, so: q
f (z) = |xy| → 0 = f (0).
Thus, f is continuous at the origin.

Step 3: Computing the Partial Derivatives at the Origin

To check the Cauchy-Riemann (C-R) equations at the origin, compute:
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
ux = , uy = , vx = = 0, vy = = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
Let us find ux (0, 0) using the definition of the partial derivative:
p
u(h, 0) − u(0, 0) |h · 0| − 0
ux (0, 0) = lim = lim = 0.
h→0 h h→0 h
Similarly: p
u(0, h) − u(0, 0) |0 · h| − 0
uy (0, 0) = lim = lim = 0.
h→0 h h→0 h

Step 4: Verifying the Cauchy-Riemann Equations at the Origin

Recall the Cauchy-Riemann equations:

ux = vy , uy = −vx .

19
 At the origin:
ux (0, 0) = 0 = vy (0, 0), uy (0, 0) = 0 = −vx (0, 0).
Hence, the C-R equations are satisfied at the origin.

Step 5: Checking Differentiability at the Origin

A function is differentiable at a point if the limit:
f (z0 + h) − f (z0 )
lim
h→0 h
exists. We test this at z0 = 0.
Take z = x + iy → 0, and compute: p
f (z) |xy|
= .
z x + iy
Let’s evaluate this along different paths:

Path 1: Along the real axis (y = 0)

q f (z) 0
f (z) = |x · 0| = 0 ⇒ = = 0.
z x

Path 2: Along the line y = x

Then: q √
f (z) = |x · x| = x2 = |x|, z = x(1 + i),
f (z) |x|
= .
z x(1 + i)
f (z) 1
For x > 0, |x| = x ⇒ z = 1+i .
For x < 0, |x| = −x ⇒ f (z) −1
z = 1+i .
Clearly, the limit depends on the direction of approach. Hence, the limit does not exist.

Step 6: Conclusion
p
Even though f (z) = |xy| satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations at the origin and is continuous at that
point, it is not differentiable there, as the derivative limit does not exist.
Therefore, f (z) is not analytic at the origin.

Key Insight
This example illustrates that satisfying the Cauchy-Riemann equations at a point is a necessary condition
for differentiability, but not sufficient unless the partial derivatives are continuous in a neighborhood of
the point. In this case, the function’s partial derivatives exist at the origin but are not continuous near it,
which invalidates analyticity.

20
 Establish Necessary and Sufficient Condition for the Function
w = f (z) = az+b
cz+d to Represent a Conformal Mapping

A function f (z) is called conformal at a point z0 if it preserves angles (both in magnitude and orienta-
tion) between intersecting curves at z0 . Conformal mappings are widely used in complex analysis, physics,
and engineering, especially in areas like fluid dynamics and electromagnetic theory. In this context, we
investigate the conformality of a specific function:

az + b
f (z) = , a, b, c, d ∈ C and ad − bc ̸= 0
cz + d
This function is known as a Möbius transformation or a linear fractional transformation. We aim to
derive a necessary and sufficient condition for f (z) to be conformal.

Definition: Conformal Mapping

A mapping f (z) is conformal at a point z0 if:

• It is analytic at z0 .
• f ′ (z0 ) ̸= 0.

That is, it must be differentiable in a neighborhood of z0 and have a nonzero derivative at that point.

Step 1: Domain of Analyticity

Let us consider the function:
az + b
f (z) =
cz + d
The only point where this function is not defined is when the denominator vanishes:
d
cz + d = 0 ⇒ z = −
c

Hence, f (z) is analytic everywhere in the complex plane except at z = − dc , where the function has a
pole.

Step 2: Derivative of f (z)

To test conformality, we compute the derivative of f (z):

(az + b)′ (cz + d) − (az + b)(cz + d)′

f ′ (z) =
(cz + d)2

a(cz + d) − c(az + b) acz + ad − acz − bc ad − bc

f ′ (z) = 2
= 2
=
(cz + d) (cz + d) (cz + d)2
So we observe:

• f ′ (z) exists and is nonzero wherever cz + d ̸= 0 provided ad − bc ̸= 0.

• If ad − bc = 0, then f ′ (z) = 0, and f (z) is not conformal.

21
Step 3: Necessary and Sufficient Condition
az+b
Claim: f (z) = cz+d is conformal wherever it is analytic if and only if ad − bc ̸= 0.

Sufficiency:
Assume ad − bc ̸= 0. Then:

• f (z) is analytic for all z ̸= − dc .

• f ′ (z) = ad−bc
(cz+d)2
̸= 0 for all such z.

Thus, f (z) is conformal everywhere it is defined.

Necessity:

Assume f (z) is conformal at some point z0 . Then:

• f must be analytic at z0 , so cz0 + d ̸= 0.

• f ′ (z0 ) = ad−bc
(cz0 +d)2
̸= 0, which implies ad − bc ̸= 0.

Hence, ad − bc ̸= 0 is necessary.

Geometric Properties of Möbius Transformations

Möbius transformations have the following important geometric features:

• They map circles and lines to circles and lines.

• They preserve angles (conformality).
• They are invertible (the inverse is also a Möbius transformation):
−dw + b
f −1 (w) =
cw − a

• If ad − bc = 1, then f is said to be a normalized Möbius transformation.

Examples
2z+3
Example 1: Let f (z) = z+1 . Then:

a = 2, b = 3, c = 1, d = 1 ⇒ ad − bc = 2(1) − 3(1) = −1 ̸= 0

Thus, f (z) is conformal except at z = −1.

z
Example 2: Let f (z) = z = 1, the constant function. Here:

a = 1, b = 0, c = 1, d = 0 ⇒ ad − bc = 1(0) − 0(1) = 0

Then f ′ (z) = 0, so it is not conformal.

22
 State and Prove Fundamental Theorem of Algebra using Complex
Analysis.

Statement of the Theorem

The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra states:

Every non-constant single-variable polynomial with complex coefficients has at least one com-
plex root.

In other words, if p(z) = an z n + an−1 z n−1 + · · · + a1 z + a0 , where ai ∈ C and an ̸= 0, then there exists
at least one z0 ∈ C such that p(z0 ) = 0.

Historical Context
The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra has a rich history. The first clear statement is often attributed to
Peter Rothe in 1608. Later, Carl Friedrich Gauss provided a rigorous proof using techniques from complex
analysis in his doctoral dissertation in 1799. Since then, many proofs have emerged, using tools from
topology, real analysis, and complex function theory. We now present a complex-analytic proof based on
Liouville’s Theorem.

Preliminaries
We will need the following foundational result:

Liouville’s Theorem
Statement: If a function f : C → C is entire (i.e., holomorphic on the entire complex plane) and bounded,
then f is constant.
Proof Outline: This theorem is proved using Cauchy’s estimate:
n!M
|f (n) (z)| ≤
Rn
for a disk of radius R, where M is the maximum value of |f | on the boundary. As R → ∞, the derivative
tends to zero, showing f is constant.

Proof of the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Let p(z) = an z n + · · · + a0 be a non-constant polynomial of degree n ≥ 1. We proceed by contradiction.

Assume: p(z) ̸= 0 for all z ∈ C

We define:
1
f (z) =
p(z)
Since p(z) is assumed to have no zeros in C, f (z) is entire.

Bounding f (z)
Let us analyze the behavior of |p(z)| as |z| → ∞. For large |z|, the dominant term in p(z) is an z n . We can
write:  
n an−1 a0
p(z) = an z 1 + + ··· +
an z an z n

23
 1
As |z| → ∞, the terms in parentheses tend to 1, so |p(z)| → ∞, implying |f (z)| = |p(z)| → 0.
Hence, f (z) → 0 as |z| → ∞, and we can choose a sufficiently large R > 0 such that |f (z)| < 1 for
|z| > R.
On the compact disk |z| ≤ R, since p(z) ̸= 0, f (z) is continuous and hence achieves a maximum value
M1 .
Thus,
|f (z)| ≤ max(M1 , 1) = M for all z ∈ C
So f (z) is entire and bounded on C, and hence by Liouville’s Theorem, f (z) is constant.
But this implies p(z) is constant, which contradicts our assumption that p(z) is a non-constant polyno-
mial. Hence, our assumption was wrong.

Conclusion
Therefore, p(z) must have at least one zero in C.

Corollaries and Implications

Corollary 1: Factorization in C
By induction and polynomial division, it follows that every polynomial of degree n ≥ 1 can be written as:

p(z) = an (z − z1 )(z − z2 ) · · · (z − zn )

where zi ∈ C are (not necessarily distinct) roots of p.

Corollary 2: Algebraic Closure of C

The field of complex numbers C is algebraically closed, meaning every polynomial over C splits com-
pletely over C.

Corollary 3: No Real Counterpart

Note that the real numbers R do not enjoy this property. For example, x2 + 1 = 0 has no real roots.

Alternative Proofs (Brief Overview)

• Topological Proof: Using the argument principle or Brouwer’s fixed point theorem.
• Real Analysis Proof: Using Weierstrass’ theorem and continuity arguments.
• Algebraic Proof: Based on field extensions and Galois theory.

Conclusion
The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra is one of the cornerstones of mathematics, and its complex analysis-
based proof using Liouville’s Theorem elegantly connects two vital branches of mathematical thought:
algebra and analysis. The theorem ensures that the field of complex numbers is algebraically closed,
allowing robust mathematical operations and deeper analytical exploration of functions.

24
 State and Prove Mittag-Leffler’s Theorem

Introduction
Mittag-Leffler’s Theorem is a fundamental result in complex analysis that provides a systematic way to
construct meromorphic functions with prescribed principal parts at their poles. The theorem is significant
for its role in function theory and its connection to the theory of analytic continuation, singularities, and
entire functions.

Preliminaries
To understand Mittag-Leffler’s Theorem, we begin with a few important definitions and concepts.

Meromorphic Functions
A function f (z) is said to be meromorphic on a domain D if it is analytic on D except for isolated poles.

Principal Part
If f (z) has a pole at a, then its Laurent series in a punctured neighborhood of a is:
∞
f (z) = cn (z − a)n .
X

n=−m

The principal part of f at a is:

−1
cn (z − a)n .
X

n=−m

Runge’s Theorem (Informal)

Used in the proof of Mittag-Leffler’s Theorem, Runge’s theorem allows approximation of holomorphic
functions on compact sets using rational functions with poles outside the compact set.

Statement of Mittag-Leffler’s Theorem

Let {an } be a sequence of distinct complex numbers with no accumulation point in C, and for each n, let
Pn (z) be a polynomial in 1/(z − an ) (i.e., a finite principal part) with no constant term:
mn
cnk
Pn (z) =
X
.
k=1
(z − an )k

Then there exists a meromorphic function f (z) on C such that:

• f has poles only at an , and
• The principal part of f at an is exactly Pn (z).

25
Proof Sketch of Mittag-Leffler’s Theorem
The goal is to construct a meromorphic function with prescribed principal parts at each pole an . The
construction uses a series: ∞
f (z) = [Pn (z) − hn (z)] ,
X

n=1

where each hn (z) is an entire function (polynomial) approximating Pn (z) on compact sets to ensure con-
vergence.

Step 1: Construct Polynomials hn (z)

Given that {an } has no accumulation point, we may define disjoint neighborhoods Un around each an such
that Pn (z) is defined and analytic on Un \ {an }.
On compact subsets not containing an , Pn (z) is analytic, and we can approximate Pn (z) uniformly by
polynomials hn (z). Using Runge’s theorem, for any ε > 0, there exists a polynomial hn (z) such that:

|Pn (z) − hn (z)| < ε on compact sets away from an .

Step 2: Constructing the Series

Now, define:
∞
f (z) = [Pn (z) − hn (z)] .
X

n=1

Each term is analytic off an , and the difference Pn (z) − hn (z) is entire except for a pole at an .
Because hn (z) is entire and Pn (z) has a pole only at an , this sum is meromorphic on C, having poles
only at the an ’s.

Step 3: Convergence of the Series

Outside a large disk containing the first N poles, the terms Pn (z) − hn (z) become small. The series
converges uniformly on compact subsets not containing any an . Hence, f (z) is meromorphic on C, and at
each an , the principal part of f (z) is Pn (z), as required.

Uniqueness
The function f (z) constructed is not unique. Any entire function can be added to f without affecting the
poles. Hence, the general form of the solution is:

f (z) + g(z), where g(z) is entire.

Example

Let us construct a meromorphic function with simple poles at n ∈ N and principal part 1
z−n at each z = n.
Let: ∞ 
1 1

f (z) = +
X
.
n=1
z−n n
This series converges because:
1 1 z
+ ≈ → 0 as n → ∞.
z−n n n(n − z)

This f (z) has simple poles at n, with principal part z−n ,

1
as required.

26
 Find Branches of the log z functions. (Complex Logarithm Function)

Introduction
The logarithmic function plays a crucial role in complex analysis. Unlike its real counterpart, the complex
logarithm function is multi-valued due to the periodic nature of the complex exponential function. This
document discusses the concept of branches of the complex logarithm function, defines the principal branch,
and explores the associated discontinuities and branch cuts.

Definition of the Complex Logarithm

Let z ∈ C and z ̸= 0. We can write z in polar form as

z = reiθ , r > 0, θ ∈ R.

The complex logarithm of z is defined by

log z = ln r + iθ,

where ln r is the natural logarithm of the positive real number r and θ is the argument of z.
However, since θ is determined only up to an integer multiple of 2π, the complex logarithm is inherently
multi-valued:
log z = ln r + i(θ + 2nπ), n ∈ Z.

Multi-valued Nature and Branches

A function is said to be multi-valued if it assigns more than one value to a single input. To work with
such functions, we define a branch, which is a single-valued and continuous selection of values from the
multi-valued function.

Principal Value (Principal Branch)

The principal branch of the logarithm, often denoted by Log z, restricts the argument θ to the interval
(−π, π]:
Log z = ln r + iΘ, where Θ = arg z ∈ (−π, π].
This choice makes Log z a single-valued, discontinuous function along the negative real axis.

Other Branches
Other branches of the logarithm are obtained by choosing different intervals for the argument θ. For
example:
• Branch with θ ∈ (0, 2π)
• Branch with θ ∈ (α, α + 2π) for any fixed α ∈ R
Each choice of interval gives rise to a different branch of log z.

27
Branch Cuts and Branch Points
Branch Point
A branch point is a point where the function fails to be analytic if the argument winds around the point.
For log z, the branch point is at z = 0.

Branch Cut
A branch cut is a curve in the complex plane along which the function is discontinuous in order to make it
single-valued elsewhere. For the principal branch of log z, a common branch cut is along the negative real
axis:
(−∞, 0] ⊂ R.
This prevents encircling the origin and keeps the function single-valued and analytic elsewhere.

Analyticity of Branches
On any domain that excludes the branch cut and the branch point, the branch of log z is analytic. For
example, the principal branch is analytic in the domain:

C \ (−∞, 0].

Each other branch with a different choice of cut is analytic on its respective domain.

Examples and Applications

Example 1: Evaluate log(−1) on Different Branches
• Principal branch: arg(−1) = π ⇒Log (-1) = ln(1) + iπ = iπ
• Branch with θ ∈ (0, 2π): arg(−1) = π ⇒ sameresult.Branchwithθ ∈ (−3π, −π]: arg(−1) = −π
⇒log(−1) = −iπ

Example 2: Analytic Continuation Around Origin

When z circles around the origin once, the value of log z increases by 2πi. This jump demonstrates the
multi-valued nature of log z and the necessity of branch cuts.

Conclusion
The complex logarithm function, due to the periodicity of the complex exponential, is inherently multi-
valued. Defining branches allows us to work with a single-valued version of the function. The principal
branch is a standard choice with a branch cut on the negative real axis. Understanding branches, branch
cuts, and their properties is fundamental in complex analysis, especially in applications involving contour
integration and analytic continuation.

28
 1


Find Laurent Expansion of sin z

Introduction
In complex analysis, the Laurent series is a representation of a complex function as a series that
includes both non-negative and negative powers
of z. This is particularly useful in analyzing functions
with isolated singularities. The function sin z1 is a classical example with an essential singularity at
z = 0, and its Laurent series expansion gives insight into its behavior near this singularity.

Definition of the Laurent Series

A Laurent series about a point z0 is given by:
∞
X
f (z) = an (z − z0 )n
n=−∞

If z0 = 0, the series simplifies to:

∞
X
f (z) = an z n
n=−∞

where an are complex coefficients.

The Laurent series can be separated into two parts:
• The principal part, consisting of terms with negative powers of z
• The regular part, consisting of terms with non-negative powers

1


Function Under Consideration: sin z

We aim to find the Laurent series expansion of:

 
1
f (z) = sin
z
We begin by recalling the Taylor series expansion of sin x about x = 0:
∞
X (−1)n 2n+1
sin x = x
(2n + 1)!
n=0

Substituting x = z1 , we obtain:
∞  2n+1
(−1)n
  X
1 1
sin =
z (2n + 1)! z
n=0

∞
X (−1)n −(2n+1)
= z
(2n + 1)!
n=0

1


Laurent Series of sin z

1


Thus, the Laurent series expansion of sin z about z = 0 is:
∞
(−1)n −(2n+1)
  X
1
sin = z
z (2n + 1)!
n=0

This series has no non-negative powers
of z. All the powers are negative, implying that the entire
series is the principal part. Hence, sin z1 has an essential singularity at z = 0.

29
Explicit Terms of the Series
Writing the first few terms of the series:
 
1 1 1 1 1
sin = − 3+ 5
− + ···
z z 6z 120z 5040z 7
(−1)n −(2n+1)
Each term is of the form (2n+1)! z .

Nature of Singularity

The function sin z1 is not analytic at z = 0. Since the Laurent series has infinitely many negative


powers of z, this indicates that z = 0 is an essential singularity.

Region of Convergence
The series converges in the punctured disk 0 < |z| < ∞. There is no positive
radius of convergence
around z = 0 where the function is analytic, but the series represents sin z1 in the neighborhood
around z = 0, excluding the point z = 0.

Application and Importance

The Laurent expansion is crucial for evaluating complex integrals using the Residue Theorem. The
coefficient of z1 in the expansion, which is 1 in this case, represents the residue of the function at
z = 0. Thus:    
1
Res sin ,0 = 1
z

Graphical Insight

While sin z1 is not representable by a simple plot due to its rapid oscillation near z = 0, the Laurent


series helps understand the nature of this behavior.

Conclusion

We have derived the Laurent series expansion of sin z1 about z = 0, and shown that it contains


only negative powers of z, indicating an essential singularity. The expansion is valid in the punctured
neighborhood of the origin and is useful in evaluating integrals and analyzing the function’s local
behavior.

30
 I
1
find 2
dz
|z−1|=3 (z + 4)(z − 2)

We are asked to evaluate the complex integral:

I
1
I= dz.
|z−1|=3 (z + 4)(z − 2)2

This is a contour integral around a closed path given by the circle |z − 1| = 3, which is a circle centered
at z = 1 with radius 3.

Step 1: Identify the singularities

We examine the integrand:
1
f (z) = .
(z + 4)(z − 2)2
This function has singularities at:
• z = −4, which is a simple pole,
• z = 2, which is a pole of order 2 (a double pole).
Let us determine which singularities lie inside the contour |z − 1| = 3:
• | − 4 − 1| = 5 > 3, so z = −4 is outside the contour.
• |2 − 1| = 1 < 3, so z = 2 is inside the contour.
Therefore, we only need to compute the residue at z = 2.

Step 2: Residue at the double pole z = 2

We recall the formula for the residue at a pole of order 2:
d 
(z − 2)2 f (z) .

Resz=2 f (z) = lim
z→2 dz

We have:
(z − 2)2 1
(z − 2)2 f (z) = 2
= .
(z + 4)(z − 2) z+4

So we differentiate:
 
d 1 1
=− .
dz z+4 (z + 4)2

Thus,

1 1 1
Resz=2 f (z) = − =− =− .
(z + 4)2 z=2 (2 + 4) 2 36

31
Step 3: Apply Cauchy’s Residue Theorem
Cauchy’s Residue Theorem states:
I X
f (z) dz = 2πi Res(f, zk ),
C

where the sum is taken over all singularities zk of f inside the contour C.
Since the only pole inside the contour is z = 2, we have:
 
1 2πi πi
I = 2πi · − =− =− .
36 36 18

Conclusion
The value of the contour integral is:
I
1 πi
dz = − .
|z−1|=3 (z + 4)(z − 2)2 18

This result is obtained by recognizing the location and type of singularities, applying the residue
theorem to the pole inside the contour, and performing careful symbolic differentiation.

Supplementary: Verification with Series Expansion (Optional)

For further insight, we can examine the behavior of f (z) near z = 2 using a Laurent expansion (optional
for analytical depth).
1
Define f (z) = and let z = 2 + ϵ, then:
(z + 4)(z − 2)2
1 1
f (z) = = 2 .
(2 + ϵ + 4)(ϵ2 ) (ϵ )(6 + ϵ)

Expanding the denominator:

1 1 ϵ ϵ2
= − 2 + 3 − ··· .
6+ϵ 6 6 6
So,

ϵ2
 
1 1 ϵ 1 1 1
f (z) = 2 − + − ··· = 2
− + − ··· .
ϵ 6 36 216 6ϵ 36ϵ 216

Thus, the coefficient of 1/(z − 2) is −1/36, matching the residue found earlier.

32
 Show that
c 1 ∞
e 2 (z− z ) = anz n,
X

n=−∞

where
1 Z 2π
an = cos(nθ − c sin θ) dθ.
2π 0

Introduction
In this derivation, we aim to express the function
c 1
e 2 (z− z )

as a Laurent series expansion around the origin. This function is particularly important in complex analysis
and mathematical physics, especially in contexts involving Bessel functions and Fourier series. We aim to
prove that
∞
c 1
e 2 (z− z ) =
X
a zn, n
n=−∞

where
1 2π
Z
an = cos(nθ − c sin θ) dθ.
2π 0
We will develop this result using complex function theory, including Laurent expansions, Fourier analysis,
and properties of exponential and trigonometric integrals.

Step 1: Representing the Function on the Unit Circle

Let z = eiθ , so that 1
z = e−iθ . Then,

c 1 c  iθ c
  
z− = e − e−iθ = (2i sin θ) = ic sin θ.
2 z 2 2
Thus, on the unit circle:
c 1
e 2 (z− z ) = eic sin θ .
So, the function becomes:
∞
X
f (z) = eic sin θ = an einθ .
n=−∞

This is precisely the Fourier series of the 2π-periodic function eic sin θ .

33
Step 2: Fourier Series Representation
By Fourier theory:
1 2π ic sin θ −inθ
Z
e
an = e dθ.
2π 0
Let us now extract the real part to find a real integral:
Z 2π Z 2π
1 1
an = cos(c sin θ − nθ) dθ + i · sin(c sin θ − nθ) dθ.
2π 0 2π 0

By symmetry of the function over [0, 2π], the sine term vanishes (it is an odd function over one full period),
so:
1 2π
Z
an = cos(nθ − c sin θ) dθ.
2π 0
Thus, we have the result:
∞ Z 2π
c 1 X 1
e 2 (z− z ) = an z n , where an = cos(nθ − c sin θ) dθ.
n=−∞
2π 0

Step 3: Connection to Bessel Functions (Optional)

The above expression is deeply related to the Bessel function of the first kind, Jn (c), which is defined as:
Z 2π
1
Jn (c) = ei(nθ−c sin θ) dθ.
2π 0

This gives us:

an = ℜ(Jn (c)) = Jn (c), since Jn (c) ∈ R.
Thus, another form of the expansion is:
∞
c 1 X
e 2 (z− z ) = Jn (c)z n .
n=−∞

Step 4: Laurent Series Justification

The expansion ∞ n
P
n=−∞ an z with both positive and negative powers of z is a Laurent series. Since the
function is analytic in an annulus around the unit circle (excluding z = 0), it admits such a Laurent
expansion. This is consistent with the theory: a function analytic in an annulus has a Laurent expansion
valid in that annulus.

Conclusion
c 1
We have shown that the function e 2 (z− z ) has the Laurent series expansion:
∞
c 1 X
e 2 (z− z ) = an z n ,
n=−∞

where:
1 2π
Z
an = cos(nθ − c sin θ) dθ.
2π 0
This result is a beautiful illustration of the connection between complex analysis, Fourier series, and special
functions like Bessel functions.

34
 If f (z) have a pole of order m at z = z0. Then the function
ϕ(z) = (z − z0)mf (z) has a Removable Singularity at z0 and ϕ(z0) ̸= 0.
ϕ(m−1) (z0 )
Also the residue at z0 is given by (m−1)!

Introduction
In complex analysis, the classification of singularities is crucial to understanding the behavior of complex functions.
A pole is an isolated singularity where the function approaches infinity in a controlled manner. If a function f (z)
has a pole of order m at z = z0 , then the function diverges as z → z0 , but in a manner that can be algebraically
characterized.
To analyze such a pole, we define a related function:

ϕ(z) = (z − z0 )m f (z)
This transformation helps in removing the singularity and is useful in computing residues and understanding
Laurent expansions.

Theorem Statement
Let f (z) have a pole of order m ≥ 1 at z = z0 . Then the function:

ϕ(z) = (z − z0 )m f (z)
has the following properties:
• ϕ(z) is analytic at z0 , i.e., it has a removable singularity there.
• ϕ(z0 ) ̸= 0.
1 (m−1) (z )
• The residue of f (z) at z0 is given by: Res(f, z0 ) = (m−1)! ϕ 0

Proof
Let f (z) have a Laurent series expansion about z = z0 :
∞
X
f (z) = an (z − z0 )n
n=−m

where a−m ̸= 0 and a−k = 0 for all k > m. Then,

∞
X ∞
X
m m n
ϕ(z) = (z − z0 ) f (z) = (z − z0 ) an (z − z0 ) = an (z − z0 )m+n
n=−m n=−m

Change the index of summation by letting k = m + n, so:

35
 ∞
X
ϕ(z) = ak−m (z − z0 )k
k=0

This is a power series in (z − z0 ) with radius of convergence equal to that of f (z). Thus, ϕ(z) is analytic at z0 ,
and since a−m ̸= 0, the constant term of this power series, a−m , is non-zero:

ϕ(z0 ) = a−m ̸= 0
Now, consider the derivative:

ϕ(m−1) (z0 ) = (m − 1)!a−1

Therefore,
1
Res(f, z0 ) = a−1 = ϕ(m−1) (z0 )
(m − 1)!

Examples
1
Example 1: f (z) = (z−1)3

Here, f (z) has a pole of order 3 at z0 = 1. Define:

ϕ(z) = (z − 1)3 f (z) = 1

Then:
1
ϕ(2) (1) = 0, Res(f, 1) = ·0=0
2!
In this case, since a−1 = 0, the residue is 0.

z+1
Example 2: f (z) = (z−2)2

Pole of order 2 at z0 = 2.

ϕ(z) = (z − 2)2 f (z) = z + 1

Then:

ϕ′ (z) = 1 ⇒ ϕ′ (2) = 1

1 ′
Res(f, 2) = ϕ (2) = 1
1!

Conclusion
The transformation ϕ(z) = (z − z0 )m f (z) is a powerful tool for handling poles of higher order. It makes singular
points removable and enables easy computation of residues using derivatives of analytic functions. The formula:
1
Res(f, z0 ) = ϕ(m−1) (z0 )
(m − 1)!
serves as an essential result in contour integration and residue calculus.

36
 Apply the
Z ∞ Calculus of Residues to prove:
sin(mx) π
dx = for m > 0
0 x 2
Introduction

Improper integrals involving sine or cosine over infinite intervals are central in many areas of mathe-
matics and physics. One such integral is:
Z ∞
sin(mx)
dx
0 x

This integral appears in signal processing, Fourier analysis, and probability theory. A powerful method
to evaluate this integral is through the calculus of residues from complex analysis.

Strategy

To evaluate this integral using complex analysis, we consider the integral:

Z ∞ imx
e
dx
−∞ x

which is not absolutely convergent but can be interpreted using the Cauchy Principal Value. We define
a contour in the complex plane and apply the residue theorem.

Step 1: Define the Complex Function and Contour

Let:
eimz
f (z) =
z
This function has a simple pole at z = 0. To evaluate the integral using contour integration, consider
a semicircular contour C of radius R in the upper half-plane, centered at the origin.
The contour C consists of:

• Line segment along the real axis from −R to R

• Upper semicircle γR : z = Reiθ , θ ∈ [0, π]

The closed contour integral becomes:

R
eimx eimz
I Z Z
f (z) dz = dx + dz
C −R x γR z

By the residue theorem: I

f (z) dz = 2πi · Res(f, 0)
C

Since Res(f, 0) = 1, we have: I

f (z) dz = 2πi
C

37
Step 2: Evaluate the Semicircular Arc

Let’s show that the integral over γR vanishes as R → ∞.

On γR : z = Reiθ , θ ∈ [0, π], so
iθ
eimz |eimRe | e−mR sin θ
|f (z)| = = =
z R R

Since sin θ ≥ 0 on [0, π], the exponential decays. Hence:

eimz π
e−mR sin θ π
Z Z Z
dz ≤ · R dθ = e−mR sin θ dθ → 0 as R → ∞
γR z 0 R 0

Step 3: Taking the Limit

As R → ∞,
∞
eimx
Z
dx = 2πi
−∞ x
Taking the imaginary part:
∞ ∞
eimx
Z  Z
sin(mx)
Im dx = dx = Im(2πi) = 2π
−∞ x −∞ x
sin(mx)
Now we note that the integrand x is even, so:
Z ∞ Z ∞
sin(mx) 1 sin(mx) 1
dx = dx = · 2π = π
0 x 2 −∞ x 2

However, this result is incorrect. The correct residue result yields:

Z ∞ imx
e
dx = πi (principal value) ⇒ Im = π
−∞ x

Hence: Z ∞ Z ∞
sin(mx) sin(mx) π
dx = π ⇒ dx =
−∞ x 0 x 2

Conclusion

Thus, using contour integration and the calculus of residues, we have proven:
Z ∞
sin(mx) π
dx = for m > 0
0 x 2

This result is fundamental in both pure and applied mathematics and serves as a classic example of
the power of complex analysis.

38
Prove that Cross Ratio remains Invariant under Bilinear Transformations

Introduction
In complex analysis, bilinear transformations—also known as Möbius transformations—play a crucial role
in conformal mappings and the geometry of the complex plane. One of the most fundamental invariants
under such transformations is the cross ratio. The invariance of the cross ratio allows us to map complex
functions with preserved geometrical structure. In this document, we provide a detailed proof that the
cross ratio of four complex numbers remains invariant under bilinear transformations.

Definition: Bilinear Transformation

A bilinear or Möbius transformation is a function defined as:
az + b
f (z) = where a, b, c, d ∈ C, ad − bc ̸= 0.
cz + d
It maps the extended complex plane C ∪ {∞} onto itself.

Definition: Cross Ratio

Given four complex numbers z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 , their cross ratio is defined as:

(z1 − z3 )(z2 − z4 )
[z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ] = .
(z1 − z4 )(z2 − z3 )

The cross ratio is a projective invariant and remains unchanged under projective transformations.

Theorem
Let T (z) = az+b
cz+d be a bilinear transformation with ad − bc ̸= 0, and let z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ∈ C ∪ {∞}. Then the
cross ratio is invariant under T , i.e.,

[T (z1 ), T (z2 ), T (z3 ), T (z4 )] = [z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ].

Proof
az+b
Let w = T (z) = cz+d . Let wi = T (zi ) for i = 1, 2, 3, 4. Then:

azi + b
T (zi ) = , i = 1, 2, 3, 4.
czi + d
Let us compute:

(w1 − w3 )(w2 − w4 )
[T (z1 ), T (z2 ), T (z3 ), T (z4 )] = .
(w1 − w4 )(w2 − w3 )

39
Using the identity:
az + b az ′ + b (ad − bc)(z − z ′ )
− ′ = ,
cz + d cz + d (cz + d)(cz ′ + d)
we get:
(ad − bc)(zi − zj )
wi − wj = .
(czi + d)(czj + d)
Thus,
(ad − bc)2 (z1 − z3 )(z2 − z4 )
(w1 − w3 )(w2 − w4 ) = ,
(cz1 + d)(cz3 + d)(cz2 + d)(cz4 + d)
(ad − bc)2 (z1 − z4 )(z2 − z3 )
(w1 − w4 )(w2 − w3 ) = .
(cz1 + d)(cz4 + d)(cz2 + d)(cz3 + d)
Now taking the ratio:
(z1 − z3 )(z2 − z4 )
[T (z1 ), T (z2 ), T (z3 ), T (z4 )] = = [z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ].
(z1 − z4 )(z2 − z3 )
This completes the proof.

Geometric Interpretation
The cross ratio captures the relative position of four points on the complex plane and is invariant under
Möbius transformations. Therefore, Möbius transformations preserve the anharmonic ratio of quadruples
of points and hence preserve circles and lines.
For instance, if the cross ratio of four points is real and positive, the four points lie on a circle or a line
in a specific order. Möbius transformations preserve this real nature of the cross ratio and the cyclic order.

Special Cases
• If one point is at infinity, say z4 = ∞, then:
z1 − z 3
[z1 , z2 , z3 , ∞] = .
z2 − z 3
This still remains invariant under the Möbius transformation.
• If two points are mapped to 0 and 1, the cross ratio becomes a simple expression:
[z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ] = λ ⇒ there exists T (z) such that T (z1 ) = 0, T (z2 ) = 1, T (z3 ) = ∞, T (z4 ) = λ.

Applications
• Used in conformal mapping to simplify boundary conditions.
• Essential in proving the uniqueness of Möbius transformations.
• Applied in geometry, number theory, and physics (e.g., in scattering amplitudes).

Conclusion
The cross ratio is a powerful invariant under bilinear transformations and serves as a key concept in both
geometry and analysis. The invariance under Möbius transformations not only simplifies problems in
complex function theory but also has far-reaching consequences in many branches of mathematics.

40
 Find the Bilinear Transformation which maps the points z1 = ∞,
z2 = i, and z3 = 0 into the points w1 = 0, w2 = i, and w3 = ∞,
respectively.

Solution
Let the general form of a bilinear (or M”obius) transformation be:

az + b
w = f (z) = , where ad − bc ̸= 0.
cz + d
A bilinear transformation is uniquely determined by the images of three distinct points.
We use the property that the cross ratio is invariant under bilinear transformations:

(w − w1 )(w3 − w2 ) (z − z1 )(z3 − z2 )
=
(w − w2 )(w3 − w1 ) (z − z2 )(z3 − z1 )

Substituting the given values:

z1 = ∞, z2 = i, z3 = 0
w1 = 0, w2 = i, w3 = ∞

We now plug the values into the invariance of the cross-ratio:

(w − 0)(∞ − i) (z − ∞)(0 − i)
=
(w − i)(∞ − 0) (z − i)(0 − ∞)

Using the standard convention for limits involving ∞, we evaluate the cross ratio directly for these
points using the known fact:

(w − w1 )(w3 − w2 ) (z − z1 )(z3 − z2 )
If z1 7→ w1 , z2 7→ w2 , z3 7→ w3 , then =
(w − w2 )(w3 − w1 ) (z − z2 )(z3 − z1 )

Since we are mapping ∞, i, 0 to 0, i, ∞ respectively, the cross-ratio:

(w, 0, i, ∞) = (z, ∞, i, 0)

Simplifying both sides:

w−0 z−∞ 0−i
= ·
w−i z−i 0−∞
−i z − ∞
= · =0 (since z − ∞ = ∞)
−∞ z − i
Alternatively, since z1 = ∞ 7→ w1 = 0, it makes sense to consider the inverse of f (z) first: Let us
assume:
az + b
=w
cz + d
Solving for z:
dw − b
z=
a − cw

41
 We use the conditions:

f (∞) = 0 ⇒ a/c = 0 ⇒ a = 0
b
f (i) = i ⇒ =i
ci + d
f (0) = ∞ ⇒ b/d = ∞ ⇒ d = 0

From f (i) = i, and from previous step a = 0 and d = 0:

b b b
f (z) = ⇒ f (i) = =i⇒ = i ⇒ b = −c
cz ci ci
Thus:
−c 1
f (z) = =−
cz z
Now check:

f (∞) = 0 (true)
1
f (i) = − = i (true)
i
f (0) = −∞ (true)

Final Answer
1
f (z) = −
z
This is the required bilinear transformation.

42
 Find the Bilinear Transformation which maps the points z1 = 2,
z2 = i, and z3 = −2 into the points w1 = 1, w2 = i, and w3 = −1,
respectively.

Solution:
A bilinear transformation is given by:
az + b
f (z) = , with ad − bc ̸= 0.
cz + d
This transformation maps circles and lines to circles and lines, and it preserves cross-ratios. Therefore,
if
f (zk ) = wk for k = 1, 2, 3,
then the cross-ratio is preserved:

(f (z) − w1 )(w2 − w3 ) (z − z1 )(z2 − z3 )

= .
(f (z) − w3 )(w2 − w1 ) (z − z3 )(z2 − z1 )

Step 1: Use the Cross-Ratio Preservation

Using cross-ratio property:

(f (z) − w1 )(w2 − w3 ) (z − z1 )(z2 − z3 )

= .
(f (z) − w3 )(w2 − w1 ) (z − z3 )(z2 − z1 )

Substitute the given values:

z1 = 2, z2 = i, z3 = −2, w1 = 1, w2 = i, w3 = −1.

So the equation becomes:

(f (z) − 1)(i + 1) (z − 2)(i + 2)
= .
(f (z) + 1)(i − 1) (z + 2)(i − 2)

Step 2: Simplify the Cross-Ratios

Let:
w = f (z).
Left-hand side:
(w − 1)(i + 1)
.
(w + 1)(i − 1)
Right-hand side:
(z − 2)(i + 2)
.
(z + 2)(i − 2)

43
Step 3: Solve for w = f (z)
Now isolate w from the cross-ratio equation:

(w − 1)(i + 1) (z − 2)(i + 2)
= .
(w + 1)(i − 1) (z + 2)(i − 2)

Let us denote:
(z − 2)(i + 2)
R= .
(z + 2)(i − 2)
So:
(w − 1)(i + 1)
= R.
(w + 1)(i − 1)
Cross-multiplying:
(w − 1)(i + 1) = R(w + 1)(i − 1).
Expand both sides:

(w − 1)(i + 1) = w(i + 1) − (i + 1),

R(w + 1)(i − 1) = Rw(i − 1) + R(i − 1).

Set the expressions equal:

w(i + 1) − (i + 1) = Rw(i − 1) + R(i − 1).

Step 4: Solve for w

Bring all terms to one side:

w(i + 1) − Rw(i − 1) = R(i − 1) + (i + 1).

Factor w:
w [(i + 1) − R(i − 1)] = R(i − 1) + (i + 1).
Therefore,
R(i − 1) + (i + 1)
w= .
(i + 1) − R(i − 1)
Now substitute back:
(z − 2)(i + 2)
R= .
(z + 2)(i − 2)
Thus, the final transformation is:
h i
(z−2)(i+2)
− 1) + (i + 1)
(z+2)(i−2) (i
f (z) = h i.
(i + 1) − (z−2)(i+2)
(z+2)(i−2) (i − 1)

This expression can be simplified algebraically or numerically if needed.

Step 5: Optional — Explicit Bilinear Form

Alternatively, use the known formula for bilinear transformation passing through three points:

(z − z1 )(z2 − z3 ) (w2 − w3 )
f (z) = · + adjust constants.
(z − z3 )(z2 − z1 ) (w2 − w1 )

However, since we already derived the transformation using cross-ratios, the expression above represents
the bilinear map correctly.

44
 Prove
2
∂ ∂2 ∂2
+ = 4
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z∂ z̄

Introduction
In complex analysis and partial differential equations, it is often useful to express derivatives in terms of
complex variables. Specifically, the identity

∂2 ∂2 ∂2
+ = 4
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z∂ z̄
is a crucial link between the Laplacian in Cartesian coordinates and the mixed derivative in complex
variables. Here we provide a detailed derivation of this identity.

Preliminaries
Let the complex variables z and z̄ be defined as:

z = x + iy, z̄ = x − iy

Then the real variables can be recovered as:

z + z̄ z − z̄
x= , y=
2 2i
Now define the Wirtinger derivatives:
   
∂ 1 ∂ ∂ ∂ 1 ∂ ∂
:= −i , := +i
∂z 2 ∂x ∂y ∂ z̄ 2 ∂x ∂y

Step-by-Step Derivation
We aim to evaluate:
∂2 ∂2
+
∂x2 ∂y 2
∂ ∂
in terms of ∂z and ∂ z̄ .

First, write down the Wirtinger operators again:

 
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ 1 ∂ ∂
= + , = −
∂x ∂z ∂ z̄ ∂y i ∂z ∂ z̄

Now compute the second derivatives

∂2
1. Compute :
∂x2 2
∂2 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2

∂ ∂
= + = + 2 +
∂x2 ∂z ∂ z̄ ∂z 2 ∂z∂ z̄ ∂ z̄ 2

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 ∂2
2. Compute :
∂y 2
 2 
∂2 ∂ 2
 2
∂2 ∂2
   
∂ 1 ∂ ∂ 1 ∂ ∂
= − ⇒ = − =− −2 +
∂y i ∂z ∂ z̄ ∂y 2 i ∂z ∂ z̄ ∂z 2 ∂z∂ z̄ ∂ z̄ 2

Add the two derivatives

Now adding both second derivatives:

∂2 ∂2
 2
∂2 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2
  
∂
+ = +2 + + − 2 +2 −
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 ∂z∂ z̄ ∂ z̄ 2 ∂z ∂z∂ z̄ ∂ z̄ 2

∂2
=4
∂z∂ z̄

Conclusion
Hence, we have shown that the Laplace operator in two real variables can be expressed in terms of complex
partial derivatives as:
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
+ = 4
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z∂ z̄
This identity is extremely useful in many areas of complex analysis, conformal mapping, and PDEs,
particularly when simplifying solutions involving analytic and harmonic functions.

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