METHODS OF

RESEARCH
A Learning Guide

Donabel Mendoza-Germino, Ph.D.

JOSHUA YSMAEL D. FONTANILLA

Methods of Research.
1
 Table of Contents

Page

Overview of Research

What is Research? 4

Purposes of Research 4

Characteristics of Research 6

Types of Research 9

Research Format 13

Research Guidelines 15

The Problem and Review of

Related Literature

Research Title 15

Background of the Study / 16

Introduction

Review of Related Literature 19

Conceptual Framework 23

Definition of Terms 25

Statement of the Problem 28

Hypothesis 30

Significance of the Study 32

Scope and Limitation 34

Methods of Research.
2
 Method

Research Design 36

Population Sampling 42

Research Materials and 43

Instruments

Statistical Treatment of Data 44

Presentation, Analysis and

Interpretation of Results

Guidelines in the Presentation 50

of Data

Interpretation of Data 51

Summary of Findings,
Conclusions and
Recommendations

Summary of Findings 55

Conclusions 55

Recommendations 57

References 59

Appendix A 62
(Likert-Type Scale Response
Anchors)
Appendix B
Guidelines for Thesis/Dissertation 67
Writing for Araullo University
PHINMA Education Network
Graduate School

Methods of Research.
3
 OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH

What is Research?
 Research is a systematic process of
collecting, and analyzing data and
information for some purpose
 A systematic, controlled, original and critical
investigation of a hypothetical proposition
about a presumed relation among natural
phenomena
 A systematic and objective analysis and
recording of controlled observations that
may lead to the development of
generalizations, principles, or theories,
resulting in prediction and possibly ultimate
control of events.
 A systematic attempt to provide answers to
questions.
 A systematic process that seeks answers to
problems following the steps of scientific
method.

Purposes of Research
1. To discover new facts about known
phenomena.
2. To find answers to problems which are only
partially solved by existing methods and
information.
3. Improve existing techniques and develop
new instruments or products.
Methods of Research.
4
4. Discover pathways of action known
substances and elements.
5. To provide basis for decision-making in
business, industry, education, government,
and in other undertakings. One approach in
decision making is the research approach.
6. To satisfy the researcher’s curiosity.
7. To find answers to queries by means of
scientific methods
8. To expand or verify existing knowledge.
This usually happens when researchers are
replicated. Newly discovered facts may be
found to expand knowledge gained from a
previous research or verified if the same
facts are found.
9. To improve educational practices for raising
the quality of school products. Research
surveys often result in the revision of
curricula and instructional innovations to
maximize the effectiveness of the learning
process.
10. To promote health and prolong life. This
purpose is very obviously demonstrated in
pharmaceutical, nutritional and medical
research.
11. To improve man with more of his basic
needs – more and better food, clothing,
shelter, etc. The works of Philrice and IRRI
are good examples of this purpose.

Methods of Research.
5
12. To make work, travel, and communication
faster, easier, and more comfortable.

Characteristics of a Good Research

1. Systematic
It follows an orderly and sequential
procedure that leads to the discovery
of truth, solution of a problem, or
whatever is aimed to be discovered.

2. Empirical
 This means that research must be
backed up by collection of data.
These data come from sense
experiences.

Methods of Research.
6
3. Logical

 To be logical, research must follow a

system, an orderly manner so that its
results are convincing.

4. Replicable
 It means that others can use the
results of the study or may build
upon the research results of another.
 Replication means duplication but in
a different setting and different sets
of respondents.

5. Patient and unhurried

 Good research projects are done
with patience and perseverance.
 Research cannot be done hurriedly.
Each step in scientific method
requires adequate time and
attention.
 The researcher should be willing to
spend a long time in his search for
the truth. Research is a serious work
which requires time, patience, and
courage.

Methods of Research.
7
6. Requires careful and accurate recording
and reporting.
 Each step in the research process is
followed carefully and correctly.
 Terms are defined accurately;
 procedures are described in detail;
 References are precisely
documented;
 Results are recorded objectively and
conclusions are stated with caution
and restraint.

Methods of Research.
8
 TYPES OF RESEARCH

Basic Research

 is experimental or theoretical work

undertaken primarily to acquire new
knowledge of the underlying foundations of
phenomena and observable facts, without
any particular application or use in view.
 Is concerned with knowledge for the sake
of theory
 Is driven by a scientist’s curiosity or interest
in a scientific question. The main motivation
is to expand man’s knowledge, not to
create or invent something.
 For example, basic science investigations
probe for answers to questions such as:
o How did the universe begin?
o What are protons, neutrons, and
electrons composed of?
o How do slime molds reproduce?
o What is the specific genetic code of
the fruit fly?
 The results of the basic research are not
generally sold but are usually publishes in
scientific journals or circulated to interested
colleagues.

Methods of Research.
9
Applied Research

 An original investigation undertaken in

order to acquire new knowledge.
 Is concerned with showing how the findings
can be applied or summarized into some
type of teaching methodology.
 Aims to see the application of scientific
knowledge to solution of problem
 Is designed to solve practical problems of
the modern world, rather than to acquire
knowledge for knowledge’s sake
 It has for its purpose the improvement of a
product or process
 For example, applied researches may
investigate ways to:
o Improve agricultural crop production
o Treat or cure a specific disease
o Improve the energy efficiency of
homes, offices, or modes of
transportation
o Improve education curriculum
 The knowledge or information derived from
it is often patented.

Methods of Research.
10
Types of Research Outputs

A research activity should produce a

research output. Research outputs, based
on the technical definition or research,
should contain novel knowledge about a
matter or process that has been studied.

There are three types of research outputs:

1. Discovery of new matter
2. Invention of new matter or process that
leads to new technology
3. Publications

Of the three, discoveries and

inventions are the cutting edge of research
domain. Discoveries should be confirmed
and published in leading journals. New
inventions, on the other hand, should be
subjected to patenting and be also
eventually disclosed via journal publication.
Journal publication is the most common
type of research dissemination through the
print or online media that reaches a wide
and varied readership. Alongside this,
research outputs can also be disseminated
through congresses, symposia, or
conferences.

Methods of Research.
11
 The utilization of research outputs
such as invention, lead to the development
of technologies or the innovation of existing
technologies. Discoveries provide new
knowledge about a matter. Published
research data and outputs may lead to new
order or policies for the local, national, or
global society. Research utilization is the
backbone of progressive societal
development, and is the motor of the
advancement of civilization.

Methods of Research.
12
Research Format

• Research formats help researchers to have

an overview of the study. Conceptualizing
the entire picture of a study enables the
researcher to anticipate possible problems.

APA (American Psychological Association)

Format

Preliminary Pages
Title Page
Approval page
Acknowledgement Page
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Figures
Abstract
Body
Chapter 1. The Problem and Review of
Related Literature
Introduction
Review of Related Literature
Conceptual Framework of the Study
Statement of the Problem
Hypotheses of the Study
Significance of the Study
Scope and Limitation

Methods of Research.
13
 Chapter II. Method
Research Design
Participants
Research Site
Materials and Instrument
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Chapter III. Presentation, Analysis and
Interpretation of Results
Chapter IV. Summary, Conclusion
and Recommendation
References
Appendices

Methods of Research.
14
 RESEARCH GUIDELINES
POINTS TO CONSIDER

The Problem and Review of Related Literature

RESEARCH TITLE

 Research Title must be reflective of its problem

 It must answer the following questions:
 What question will answer THE FOLLOWING
 What are you trying to investigate?
 What are you trying to find out, determine or
discover?
 Who question will answer who are the
respondents or subjects of the study
 Where question will indicate the research
locale, setting or the place where the research
study is conducted.

Some Characteristics of a Good Research

Problem/Topic
 Relevant to the needs of the time
 Within the researcher’s interest and capabilities
 Clear, specific and attainable within a given period
of time
 Information should be available
 Not be harmful to people and society
 New

Methods of Research.
15
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY / INTRODUCTION

 The proponent should describe the

existing and prevailing problem situation
based on his/her experience. This
scope may be global, national, regional
and local.

 The proponent should give strong

justification for selecting such research
problem in his/her capacity as a
researcher. Being a part of the
organization or systems and the desire
and concern to improve the systems.

 The researcher should link and relate

the background of the study to the
proposed research problem.

Methods of Research.
16
Example of Introduction
INTRODUCTION
School is where a child learns and develops most part of
his life. Indeed, it is a second home where teachers do not
only educate but nurture them with all of their ability as
educators. It is also the part of their lives that they cannot
skip nor ignore because education is very essential to their
growth.
Pupils acquire academic intelligence through
instructions inside the classroom. But intelligence is not the
only determinant of academic achievement of a pupil.
Academic achievement of a pupil is always associated with
the many components of learning environment. Events in
every class, teacher and pupil interaction, and experiences
outside the four walls of their classroom may influence a
pupils’ perception and strengthen his or her view of learning.
The influence of schools’ events on pupils' academic
performance came from an individual perception rather than
the "objective" reality of the activities and interpersonal
relations in the educational environment.
Social skills of pupils are also enhanced through
learning and through interaction with their classmates as well
as their schoolmates. Furthermore, there are various
activities that help a pupil’s development in his/her social
skill. These incidents lead to positive outcomes which are
very important in increasing a pupil’s good behavior. But
unfortunately not all children can develop adequate social
skills in their childhood due to some instances like extreme
shyness or being afraid to get out of their shells and
experience some activities that is fresh to them.
However, co-curricular activities provide experiences
that are not included in formal courses of study. They allow
pupils to apply the knowledge that they have learned in other
classes and acquire concepts of democratic life. It serves the
same goals and functions as the necessary and voluntary
courses in the curriculum. Different types of co-curricular
activities may entice a child’s interest and can provide the
satisfaction she wants. Participating in such co-curricular
activities edify pupils on how to improve their social skills for
them to progress and move forward as better individual.

Methods of Research.
17
 In the latter part, academic self-efficacy of a child in terms
of social and study skills may be also influenced by the
different situations formed. A strong sense of self-efficacy can
push a child to keep moving forward and do the necessary
things she needs in learning. The benefits of having an
increased level of self-efficacy may benefit a child’s life in
many ways. Helping create this better sense of self-efficacy
may be achieved in numerous ways.
Looking into consideration all the facts stated above,
this paper was designed specifically to assess and compare
the insights about, self-efficacy in terms of social skills and
study skills, and the performance of grade six pupils in Rizal
District, Nueva Ecija having co-curricular activities.

Source:
Ramilo R. N. 2014. Social Skills, Academic Self-Efficacy and
Performance of Pupils with and without Extra-Curricular Activities.
Araullo University Unpublished Thesis

Methods of Research.
18
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

 Related literature includes research

findings, published or unpublished theories
and principles formulated by experts or
authorities in some field or discipline; and
ideas or opinions of experts contained in
books, pamphlets magazines and
periodicals.

 It should be written in terms of the purpose

of the study.

 It should give more weight to studies

considered more authoritative as evaluated
and should give reference to primary rather
than secondary sources.

 It should be organized thematically to

conform with the specific problems.

 It should be synthesized such that evidence

from all the studies reviewed would get an
overall understanding of the state of
knowledge in the problem area.

Methods of Research.
19
Tips to Write Review of Related Literature

The review of related literature is divided

into two parts: professional literature and related
studies. Professional literature comes from
published materials like books, journals,
magazines, pamphlets, etc., while related studies
are from unpublished materials like theses,
research reports and dissertations.

Advantages of Related Literature

1. It helps the researcher look for possible

theories, concepts or principles to support
his investigation.
2. It is essential in formulating a sound
research problem or research title,
hypotheses, etc.
3. It enlightens the researcher as to the
direction of the study.
4. It proves that the study is researchable and
possesses novelty.
5. It helps to identify the statistical instruments
to be used in the study.
6. It serves as a guide to writing the findings,
conclusions and recommendations.

Methods of Research.
20
Guides to Preparing the Review of Literature

1. For the review of literature you may need to

visit a number of libraries for articles related
to your investigation.
2. At the library, look into the card catalogs for
titles of articles, books, and documents.
Write the call numbers of these materials,
and if necessary, ask the help of the
librarian.
3. Organize your materials. Write the names
of authors, titles of books, sources, year of
publication, publisher and place of
publication. If materials are unpublished,
indicate authors, titles, and classify if thesis
or dissertation, the college or university
where that study was made, year and page,
etc.
4. Refrain from copying entire chapters
without proper documentation or
acknowledgements. Plagiarism is
punishable by law. If you are a third party,
you need to acknowledge the original
author and the second party if you include
their views, findings, and articles in your
study.

Methods of Research.
21
 Example:

The researcher as a second party

According to Dela Cruz (2008), .................

Dela Cruz (2008) stated that .........

................ the intrusion of advanced

echnology and the shifting of civilization
into the third wave described by Alvin
Toffler as the “information Age and
Knowledge Revolution” paves the way for
making education as instrument to facilitate
change (Dela Cruz, 2008).

The researcher as a third party

According to Dela Cruz, as cited by Santos

(2010), ..............

.......the intrusion of advanced technology

and the shifting of civilization into the third
wave described by Alvin Toffler as the
“information Age and Knowledge
Revolution” paves the way for making
education as instrument to facilitate change
(Dela cruz as cited by Santos, 2010)

5. Cluster the related literature by topic. Make

a theme of your review based on the
important variables of the study. A thematic
approach to writing a review of related

Methods of Research.
22
 literature makes it logical, systematic and
convenient to the researcher.

ADDITIONAL TIPS:
 Keep it current. Be attentive to the date of the
source.
 Record and conquer. Be sure to keep complete
bibliographical citations (name of article, journal,
author, page number, URL, etc.). You'll need that
information later when you write your references,
and it's an incredible pain to have to find the sources
again.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY

 The conceptual framework is the schematic

diagram which shows the variables
included in the study.
 Arrows or line should be properly placed
and connected between boxes to show the
relationship between the independent and
dependent variables.
 All the independent and dependent
variables should be clearly discussed and
explained how these would influence the
results of the study.

Methods of Research.
23
Example of Conceptual Framework of the Study

conceptual Framework of the Study

Figure 1 shows the conceptual framework of the

study. This conceptualized the relationship between
demographic profile of the call center workers and their
perceptions and awareness about AIDS.

Perception about AIDS

Demographic
Profile of
Cabanatuan City
Call Center
Manifestation Awareness
Workers
a. Physical and
symptoms
Age
b. Emotional
Gender
c. Psychological
Marital Status
Educational
Contraception and Safety
Attainment
Awareness

Figure 1

Conceptual Paradigm of the Study

Source:
Mercado Frederick. 2013. Perception and Awareness of Call
Center Workers about Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
(AIDS). Araullo University Unpublished Thesis .

Methods of Research.
24
DEFINITION OF TERMS

 The terms which connote different meaning

from the conceptual or dictionary definitions
should be operationally defined to facilitate
the full understanding of the text by the
readers.

 The terms to be operationally defined are

those used throughout the study and may
be a word or a phrase, usually taken from
the title, the statement of the problem or
hypothesis.
 The terms should be arranged in
alphabetical order and the definitions
should be stated in complete sentences.

Methods of Research.
25
Example No. 1

Definition of Terms
Physical Manifestation Awareness refers to
the knowledge of the physical symptoms associated
with AIDS such as diarrhea, pneumonia, weight loss,
and high fever shortness of breathing.
Emotional Manifestation Awareness refers
to the knowledge of the different emotional effects
brought about by the knowledge that an individual is
suffering from AIDS. This includes grief, fear,
sadness, anger, denial, guilt, anxiety, and uncertainty.
Psychological Manifestation Awareness
refers to the knowledge of the different
mental/psychological states associated with AIDS
such as low self-esteem, depression, suicidal
behavior, socal isolation, dependency and stress.
Contraception and Safety Awareness refers
to the knowledge of the existing contraception
methods and safety procedures/measures that are
used to combat AIDS and other Sexually Transmitted
Disease (STD’s).
Perception about AIDS refers to the different
views/opinions about the disease.

Source:
Mercado Frederick. 2013. Perception and Awareness of Call
Center Workers about Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
(AIDS). Araullo University Unpublished Thesis.

Methods of Research.
26
Example No. 2

Definition of Terms
The following operational definitions were used
in this study.
Control Group - refers to a group of students
used in the study and they will be subjected to
traditional method of teaching.
Environmental Science Classes - refers to
the lecture classes of Environmental Science of the
students in Araullo University, PHINMA Education
Network.
Experimental Group - refers to a group of
students wherein technology-based presentation tools
will be integrated in teaching and learning process.
IT – Information Technology
Participants- these are the subject experts, IT
experts and first year students taking Environmental
Science, who will served as respondents in this study.
Presentation Tool - refers to an instructional
material composed of multimedia system such as
PowerPoint presentation, video, films. This
educational tool is also with internet instructional
resources like online videos, online quizzes, online
games and related educational websites.
Technology Integration – refers to how
transparently technology was blended into the lesson,
and whether it was used to convey content in ways not
easily done without technology (Baylor & Ritchie,
2002). In this study the term also refers to “the
combination of all technology parts, such as hardware
and software, together with each subject-related area
of curriculum to enhance learning”.

Source:
Aquino, A.M. 2012.Development and Evaluation of Environmental
Science Presentation Tool. Araullo University Unpublished
Dissertation

Methods of Research.
27
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

1. There should be an introductory

statement which reflects the main
problem of the study.

2. Sub-problem should be stated in

such a way that it is not answerable
by either yes, no, when and where.

3. Sub-problems should include all the

independent and moderate variables
which are reflected in the conceptual
framework.

4. Sub–problems should be arranged in

logical order and extensive in
coverage and must be mutually
exclusive in its dimensions.

Methods of Research.
28
Example of Statement of the Problem

Statement of the Problem

This study seeks to examine culture shock and
culture lag that foreign students experienced in
studying in the Philippines. It aimed to establish the
effects of the students’ culture lag to their
performance in their general education subjects.
Specifically it seeks to answer the following
questions:
1. How may the profile of foreign students be
described in terms of:
1.1. gender,
1.2. age,
1.3. nationality,
1.4. length of stay in the Philippines,
1.5. school enrolled in, and
1.6. course enrolled in?
2. How may the culture lag of the foreign
students be described in terms of
2.1. physical,
2.2. emotional, and
2.3. intellectual?
3. How may the cultural adjustments of the
students be described in terms of:
3.1. initial help in getting oriented,
3.2. adjustment difficulty,
3.3. feelings experienced; and
3.4. emotional support?
4. Is there a significant relationship between the
foreign students’ experience of culture lag and
their socio-demographic profile?
5. Is the culture lag experienced by the foreign
students associated to their cultural
adjustments?
Source:
Lazatin, Ferman. 2011. Culture Lag and Cultural Adjustment of
Foreign Students in Cabanatuan City. Araullo University
Unpublished Thesis.

Methods of Research.
29
Hypothesis

 A hypothesis is a working guide in

research, the expected outcome of the
study.

 Defined as educated guess based on the

statement of the problem.

2 types of Hypothesis
 Descriptive
o For descriptive questions

 Statistical
o For statistical questions

Methods of Research.
30
 Hypotheses and Sub-Problems

Sub-problems Hypotheses
1. What is the profile of Majority of the
the respondents in respondents are male,
terms of: belonging to the 20-25
a. Sex age bracket and college
b. Age graduates.
c. Educational
attainment
2. Is there a significant There is significant
correlation between correlation between the
the skills and attitudes skills and attitudes of
of teachers in the use teachers in the use of
of instructional instructional materials.
materials?
3. What is the status of The status of waste
waste management in management in
selected LGUs of selected LGUs of Ilocos
Ilocos Sur? Sur is good.
4. Is there a significant There is no significant
difference between difference between
chartered and chartered and
component cities in component cities in
Northern Luzon in Northern Luzon in terms
terms of waste of waste disposal
management? management.
Source: Vizcarra, Florante O. Introduction to Educational Research. Edited
by Ernie T. Bhagwani. Great Books Trading, 2003.

Methods of Research.
31
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

 This section describes the contributions of

the study to knowledge. This could be in
the form of new knowledge in the field, a
check on the major findings of other
studies, a check on the validity of findings
in a different population, a check on trends
over time and a check on the other findings
using different methodology.
 It discusses the importance of the study to
the society, the country, the government,
the community, the institution, the agency
concerned, the curriculum planners and
developers and to the researchers.
 It expounds on the study’s probable impact
to education, science, technology, on-going
researchers and etc.

Methods of Research.
32
Example of Significance of the Study
Significance of the Study

The findings that are revealed by the study may

become sources of valuable information to the
following:
Students. The findings of the study may give
students an insight and adequate information on their
emotional intelligence and preferred learning styles.
They may be able to identify their strengths and
weaknesses and therefore do the necessary actions to
be able to perform better in their classes.
School Administrators. The school
administrators may use the findings of the study to
make necessary policies and administrative
preparations to support the teaching strategies
necessary to address the needs of the teachers and
students. Library facilities and learning resource
centers can be enhanced to support the learning
environment of the students and teachers.
Faculty Members. The result and findings of
this study may enable teachers to have deeper
understanding of the emotional intelligence and
learning style profile of their students so that they may
appropriately adjust their teaching methodologies and
strategies.

Source:
Mustard Viola Fern. 2012. The Influence of Emotional Intelligence
and Learning Style on Students’ Academic Achievement: Its
Implication to Science Teaching. Araullo University Unpublished
Dissertation.

Methods of Research.
33
SCOPE AND LIMITATION

 This section explains the nature, coverage,

and time frame of the study.

 It presents in brief the subject area of

investigation, the place, the time period, or
school year covered.

 It discusses the variables included in the

study and the exclusion of other variables
which are expected to be included.

 It indicates the extent of capability of results

arising from the sampling population.

Methods of Research.
34
Example of Scope and Limitation

Scope and Limitation

The study is limited to the selected foreign
students in Cabanatuan City. Respondents of the
study include college students who were enrolled
during the school year 2011-2012.
The study focused on the physical, emotional
and intellectual culture lags experienced by the foreign
students and the cultural adjustment the students
employ while studying in the Philippines.
The study is limited to the descriptive method
of research, using questionnaire as the major source
of data, supported by interviews and observations.

Source:
Lazatin, Ferman. 2011. Culture Lag and Cultural Adjustment of
Foreign Students in Cabanatuan City. Araullo University
Unpublished Thesis.

Methods of Research.
35
 METHOD

METHOD

 This discusses the research locale,

research design, population sampling or
respondents of the study, research
instrument, and the statistical treatment of
data.

Research Locale

o This discusses the place or setting of

the study. It describes in brief the
place where the study is conducted.
Only important features which have
the bearing on the present study are
included.
o Shows the target population.

Research Design
o This describes the research mode
whether it is true experimental or
quasi-experimental design,
descriptive or survey research,
historical research, qualitative
research, ethnographic and etc.

Methods of Research.
36
Research Designs

After identifying the problem and sub-problems of

your study, research design is the next step. There are
different types of research designs – qualitative and
quantitative. Qualitative design is subdivided into
historical, ethnographic and case study; while
quantitative designs are descriptive, correlational, and
experimental.

The Qualitative Research Design

The qualitative research design involves in-depth

analysis of problems. Its focus is to provide accurate
descriptions of problems without attempting to treat or
employ sophisticated statistical tools to solve or
describe problems. Quantitative research design is the
opposite of qualitative research whose focus is to
describe problems descriptively and numerically. The
relationships and differences of variables involved in
the study are treated in quantitative research designs.

Usually a qualitative research problem is

purposive, selective and involves a small group of
respondents. It welcomes information and other factors
that would directly influence the subject. No specific
hypothesis is to be presented, the researcher will only
record the observation or results of the study without
any attempt to manipulate them.

Qualitative methods consist of 3 kinds of data

collection: (1) in-depth, open-ended interviews; (2)
direct observation; and (3) written documents.

To get the whole picture, the researcher needs to

Methods of Research.
37
look into the significant contributions of members of a
particular tribe in local governance, for example. To do
this, the researcher may have to sleep, eat, socialize,
and practically live with them for a certain period of
time in order to gather data.

1. Historical Design

History, in its simplest definition, involves a critical

inquiry of the past. It aims to provide critical knowledge
of the past events that will help the individual to picture
the whole truth. Knowledge of the past is the basis of
the present and the future. Present and future
conditions are accounted for or influenced by past
occurrences.

Historical research therefore, attempts to broaden

knowledge because it systematically collects,
evaluates, describes and explains activities occurring
in the past. However, events are often improperly
recorded, evaluated and interpreted due to
insufficiency of information and limitations of the
investigator.

2. Ethnographic Research Design

Ethnographic study is quantitative in nature. It

aims to provide a holistic view of the problem. The
instrument used in data-gathering is usually
observation, interview and participation. The
researcher utilizing this design must be skilful in
evaluating information. He knows how to deal with
people and adapts to the social atmosphere where the
data can be found. Careful analyses should be made
to come up with a comprehensive perspective problem.
Methods of Research.
38
Opinions should be validated to avoid suspicions that
such a result is the product of the researcher’s wild
imagination. The triangulation approach must be used
in checking the veracity of information.

3. Case Study Design

A case study design is qualitative research similar

to the ethnographic and historical research in almost all
approaches. It is closer to an ethnographic study
because it uses the past and present to describe the
future of the problem. It utilizes observations,
interviews and examinations like the IQ or diagnostic
test to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the
problem. This serves as baseline data for the
identification of treatment.

The Quantitative Research Design

Quantitative research design utilizes more

statistical tests to explain the nature, characteristic,
relationships and differences of variables. It includes
descriptive, correlational and experimental.

1. Descriptive Design

Descriptive design is the most commonly-used

method of investigation in educational research. It
describes and interprets what is. It is concerned with
conditions or relationships that exist, practices that
prevail, beliefs and processes that are going on, effects
that are being felt or trends that are developing.

There are important values of descriptive research

in the classroom like factors affecting the performance

Methods of Research.
39
of students. Since the ultimate goal of education is the
wholesome development of students, knowing the
status of the family, the environment of the students,
adequacy of teachers, administrative support, teaching
facilities, etc., are inputs to effective and efficient
learning. When these things are subjected to a
research study, the learner may evaluate prevailing
conditions that are essential to determining appropriate
solutions to factors affecting the learning environment.

2. Correlational Research Design

Correlational research is sometimes known as

associational research because it measures the extent
or magnitude of association between two variables.
This is another form of descriptive research because it
only measures the existing relationships of variables.
The following are useful in determining the correlation
coefficient of the variables: (1) Pearson Product
Moment Coefficient of Correlation,(2) Special
Correlation techniques that include Spearman Rank,
Kendall Tau, Point Biserial and Phi Coefficient.

Example of correlational topics:

-Sex and the choice of profession

-Academic performance and sex

-Relationship between math and English grades of

students.
-Aptitude test rating and type of high school
graduated from
-Mental ability of minority and majority students

Methods of Research.
40
 -Extent of research skills and attitudes

3. Experimental Designs

Experimental design is different from other

research designs in relation to processing of data
because a researcher needs to explore the nature,
characteristics, relationship and differences of one or
more variables. The term “experiment” requires
manipulation of variables to observe effects or results.
A researcher has to determine the effects of variables
being manipulated together – the dependent variables
or the output of the study, and the independent
variables or the factors that influence dependent
variables.

Methods of Research.
41
Population Sampling

 This describes the target population and

the sample frame.
 It specifies the sampling technique used
and how the sample size is determined.

Common Sampling Procedure Used

Simple Random Sampling

In simple random sampling, every individual in
the target population has an equal chance of
being part of the sample. This requires two
steps: (1) obtain a complete list of the
population and (2) randomly select individuals
from that list for the sample.

Stratified Random Sampling

In stratified random sampling, the researcher
first divides the population into groups based on
a relevant characteristic and then selects
participants within those groups. In educational
research, stratified random sampling is typically
used when the researcher wants to ensure that
specific subgroups of people are adequately
represented within the sample.

Purposive Sampling
In purposive sampling, the researcher uses
their expert judgment to select participants that
are representative of the population. To do this,
the researcher should consider factors that
might influence the population: perhaps socio-
economic status, intelligence, access to
education, etc. Then the researcher
purposefully selects a sample that adequately
Methods of Research.
42
 represents the target population on these
variables.

Total Sampling
Total population sampling is a type of sampling
technique that involves examining the entire
population.

Research Materials and Instruments

 This explains the specific type of research
instrument used such as questionnaire,
checklist, questionnaire-checklists,
structured interview, teacher–made test,
standardized instrument which are adopted
or borrowed with permission from the
author or from other sources.
 The parts of the instruments should be
explained and what bits of information are
derived.
 The establishment of validity and reliability
should be explained and only experts
should be chosen to validate such
instrument. Specific and appropriate
statistical test used should be given and the
computed values derived. Interpretation
should be included in the discussions.

Methods of Research.
43
Statistical Treatment of Data

 Explain how each statistical test is used in

the treatment of data.
 If the research instrument included options
which are scaled, explain how each scale is
given the weight, its interval and class
limits.

Commonly Used Statistical Terms

Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Central Tendency
Mean, arithmetic mean (X or M): The
sum of the scores in a distribution divided by
the number of scores in the distri- bution. It is
the most commonly used measure of central
tendency. It is often reported with its companion
statistic, the standard deviation, which shows
how far things vary from the average.
Median (Mdn): The midpoint or number
in a distribution having 50% of the scores
above it and 50% of the scores below it. If there
are an odd number of scores, the median is the
middle score.
Mode (Mo): The number that occurs
most frequently in a distribution of scores or
numbers. In some fields, notably education,
sample data are often called scores, and the
sample mode is known as the modal score.

Measures of Variability
Interquartile range (IQR): A measure of
statistical dispersion being equal to the
difference between the third and first quartiles.

Methods of Research.
44
 The first quartile (designated Q1) is the lower
and cuts off the lowest 25% of data (the 25th
percentile); the second quartile (Q2), or the
median, cuts the data set in half (the 50th
percentile); and the third quartile (Q3) cuts off
highest 25% of data, or the lowest 75% (the
75th percentile).
Range (Ra): The difference between the
highest and lowest scores in a distribution; a
measure of variability.
Standard deviation (SD): The most
stable measure of vari- ability, it takes into
account each and every score in a normal
distribution. This descriptive statistic assesses
how far individual scores vary in standard unit
lengths from its midpoint of 0. For all normal
distributions, 95% of the area is within 1.96
standard deviations of the mean.
Variance (SD2): A measure of the
dispersion of a set of data points around their
mean value. It is a mathemati- cal expectation
of the average squared deviations from the
mean.

Inferential Statistical Tests

Tests concerned with using selected
sample data compared with population data in
a variety of ways are called inferential statistical
tests. There are two main bodies of these tests.
The first and most frequently used are called
parametric statistical tests. The second are
called nonparametric tests. For each parametric
test, there may be a comparable nonparametric
test, sometimes even two or three.

Parametric tests are tests of

significance appropriate when the data
represent an interval or ratio scale of

Methods of Research.
45
 measurement and other specific assumptions
have been met, specifically, that the sample
statistics relate to the population parameters,
that the variance of the sample relates to the
variance of the population, that the population
has normality, and that the data are statistically
independent.
Nonparametric tests are statistical tests
used when the data represent a nominal or
ordinal level scale or when assumptions
required for parametric tests cannot be met,
specifically, small sample sizes, biased
samples, an inability to determine the
relationship between sample and population,
and unequal variances between the sample
and population. These are a class of tests that
do not hold the assumptions of normality.

Statistical Terms

Analysis of variance (ANOVA): A statistical

technique for determining the statistical
significance of differences among means; it can
be used with two or more groups and uses the
F-test statistic. *PT

Chi-square (x²): A nonparametric test of statistical

significance appropriate when the data are in
the form of frequency counts; it compares
frequencies actually observed in a study with
expected frequencies to see if they are
significantly different. *NPT

Correlation coefficient (r): A decimal number

between 0.00 and ±1.00 that indicates the
degree to which two quantitative variables are
related. The most common one used is the
Pearson Product Moment correlation coefficient
Methods of Research.
46
 or just the Pearson coefficient.

Cronbach’s alpha coefficient: A coefficient of

consistency that measures how well a set of
variables or items measures a single,
unidimensional, latent construct in a scale or
inventory. Alpha scores are conventionally
interpreted as follows: high, 0.90; medium, 0.70
to 0.89; and low, 0.55 to 0.69.

Cumulative frequency distribution: A graphic

depiction of how many times groups of scores
appear in a sample.

Dependent t-test: A data analysis procedure that

assesses whether the means of two related
groups are statistically different from each
other, for example, one group’s mean score
(time one) compared with the same group’s
mean score (time two). It is also called the
paired samples t-test.

F-test (F): A parametric statistical test of the equality

of the means of two or more samples. It
compares the means and variances between
and within groups over time. It is also called
analysis of variance (ANOVA). *PT

Independent t-test: A statistical procedure for

comparing measurements of mean scores in
two different groups or samples. It is also called
the independent samples t-test. *PT

Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance: A

nonparametric inferential statistic used to
compare two or more independent groups for

Methods of Research.
47
 statistical significance of differences. *NPT

Mann-Whitney U-test (U): A nonparametric inferential

statistic used to determine whether two
uncorrelated groups differ significantly. *NPT

McNemar’s test: A nonparametric method used on

nominal data to determine whether the row and
column marginal frequencies are equal. *NPT

Median test: A nonparametric test that tests the null

hypothesis that the medians of the populations
from which two samples are drawn are
identical. *NPT

Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA): It is an

ANOVA with several dependent variables. *PT

One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA): An

extension of the independent group t-test where
you have more than two groups. It computes
the difference in means both between and
within groups and compares variability between
groups and variables. Its parametric test
statistic is the F-test. *PT

Pearson correlation coefficient (r): This is a

measure of the correlation or linear relationship
between two variables x and y, giving a value
between +1 and −1 inclusive. It is widely used
in the sciences as a measure of the strength of
linear dependence between two variables. *PT

Spearman’s rank order correlation: A nonparametric

test used to measure the relationship between
two rank- ordered scales. Data are in ordinal

Methods of Research.
48
 form. *NPT

Wilcoxon sign rank test (W+): A nonparametric

statistical hypothesis test for the case of two
related samples or repeated measurements on
a single sample. It can be used as an
alternative to the paired Student’s t-test when
the population cannot be assumed to be
normally distributed. *NPT

Methods of Research.
49
 Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of
Results

Guidelines in the Presentation of Data

1. The presentation should be made one by

one with the sub-problems. The
arrangement must be based on the order of
the sub-problems. If the first sub-problem is
on profile variables, a table or graph should
be the first data to be presented.
2. There should be textual and tabular
presentations of data.
3. Make a label or title of the table in graph.
4. If possible don’t break the data. The
readers may not easily understand the
overall findings of the study when data is
broken and disturbed in different pages.
5. Textual presentation comes before the
table. Right after the initial discussions, the
table or graph follows.

Methods of Research.
50
Interpretation of Data

There are three levels in the interpretation

of data.

Level 1. Table Reading.

 The contents of the table are to be
presented numerically and
descriptively.

Level 2. Implications or meanings of data.

 The meanings or interpretations of
results are to be followed after the
table reading.

Level 3. Cross-referencing or Justification

 The results are to be compared with
existing knowledge or finished
studies. Usually presented concepts
in Review of Related Literature,
interviews and observations are to
be considered.

Methods of Research.
51
Example

Table 3 shows that employees often assist their co-

workers when needed (wm=3.88); suggest ways on how to
improve office procedures (wm=3.72); help train new
employees (wm=3.93); use organizational property with
care (wm=4.08); respect the worth and dignity of others
(wm=4.14); work beyond office hours even without pay
(wm=3.98); observe strictly organizational policies, rules,
and regulations (wm=4.05); report to work earlier than I
need to be (wm=3.86); and usually consult with co-workers
before taking any action or discussion (wm=3.94).
These findings indicate that employees are positive and
constructive. They support their co-workers and benefit the
company. These behaviors of employees embrace
organizational citizenship behavior. Zhang (2011) cited that
being helpful and supportive of colleagues in a way that
benefits the organization, working towards the
organization’s goals embodied in the definition of
citizenship behavior. In an interview with the respondents,
they mentioned:
“Employees here have very good relationship”.
“I help others at work especially those new to
company so that they can easily
adapt”
“I work here for so long, this company and the
people I work with are meant to be
treasured”
“The company is fair to us so it deserves the
concern coming from us”.
According to Podsakoff, Whiting, Podsakoff & Blume,
(2009), an organization will benefit from encouraging
employees to engage in OCB, because it has been shown to
increase productivity, efficiency and customer satisfaction,
and reduce costs and rates of turnover and absenteeism.
Organ et al. (2006) also added that organizational
Methods of Research.
52
citizenship behavior can enhance productivity (helping new
co-workers; helping colleagues meet deadlines); free up
resources (autonomous, cooperative employees give
managers more time to clear their work; helpful behavior
facilitates cohesiveness (as part of group maintenance
behavior); attract and retain good employees (through
creating and maintaining a friendly, supportive working
environment and a sense of belonging); and create social
capital (better communication and stronger networks
facilitate accurate information transfer and improve
efficiency).
Likewise, Borman et al., (2001) maintained that
behaviors such as organizational citizenship behavior
contribute to organizational effectiveness because they
help create the psychological, social and organizational
context that helps employees to perform their jobs.
Citizenship behavior lubricates the social machinery of the
organization, increasing efficiency and reducing friction
among employees.

Source:
De Guzman, B. F. 2016. Employees’ Cultural Differences as Predictors of
Organizational Citizenship Behavior. Unpublished Thesis. Araullo
university Graduate School. P 35-37.

Methods of Research.
53
 Phrases For The Interpretation Of Data

It appears that.....
It is understandable that....
According to...
It is expected that....
It was indicated that...
It is worth mentioning that...
This may be due to the...
This explains why...
Interestingly...
Admittedly...
Undeniably...
On the basis of the...
Consequently....
There also seems to be...
It means that...
It can be deduced that....
This implies...
This negates...
This findings runs counter to the...
It shows that...
This goes to show....
As exhibited in the..
This is attributed to the fact that...
However, notwithstanding...

Source: Vizcarra, Florante O. Introduction to Educational

Research. Edited by Ernie T. Bhagwani. Great Books
Trading, 2003.

Methods of Research.
54
 Summary of Findings, Conclusions and
Recommendations

Summary of Findings

All presentations in the summary must be

brief so that they will not duplicate chapters 1 and
3 of the study. The summary is essential as a
benchmark in the presentation of findings,
conclusions and recommendations for
systematic, logical and consistent results.

Conclusions

Conclusions must be written in the present

tense. They are stated based on the findings of
the study. There is a need for careful analysis in
identifying them so that they will not appear as
findings or recommendations. They are made in a
general statement which reflects the results of the
study.

If there are five specific problems there

should also be five conclusions. If there are sub-
topics under one sub-problem, you may or may
not present them separately. You can lump them
in one conclusion if applicable. Here are examples
of conclusions based on the findings.

Methods of Research.
55
 Findings Conclusions
Majority of the potential The potential investors
investors were college possess a substantial
graduates; however, background knowledge
there were some and professional
postgraduate degree experience; hence, given
holders. The greatest the necessary training,
number of these potential they can be motivated to
investors had venture into
occupations related to entrepreneurship.
professional work.
Majority of them had an
average monthly income
of P10,000 – P19,999.
Majority of these
potential investors had 1
to 3 dependents but 3 of
them had more than 10
dependents.
The status of human Human resources are
resources was “very academically qualified and
much” in educational professionally performed in
qualifications, while an acceptable manner.
“much” along They are also qualified as
professional to workload, rank and
performance, work load, tenure and faculty
rank and tenure and development.
faculty development. The
average mean value was
3.32 described as
“much”.
Majority of the audio- Public elementary schools
visual and are not sufficiently provided
supplementary materials with adequate instructional
were “slightly available” materials and equipment
while printed materials needed to facilitate quality
like textbooks and audio- teaching and learning.
visual equipment were
Methods of Research.
56
“not available”.
There was no significant The conventional method
difference between the of teaching is equally
mathematics effective as a cooperative
achievement scores of learning strategy in
students exposed to the teaching mathematics.
conventional and Or
cooperative learning The conventional and
methods of teaching. cooperative learning
This was attested to by methods are effective in
the computed t value of teaching mathematics.
2.15 which was lower
than the critical value of
3.172 at 0.05 level of
significance.
Source: Vizcarra, Florante O. Introduction to Educational Research. Edited
by Ernie T. Bhagwani. Great Books Trading, 2003.

Recommendations

The recommendations of the study are

based on the findings and conclusions. The
number of findings and conclusions must also be
the number of recommendations if possible.

The recommendations must be specific and

point out the direct agency or people involved like
administrators, teachers, students, and
researchers for possible future action. They must
be carefully stated so that they will not appear as
the “importance” of the study.

Methods of Research.
57
Findings
The English teacher respondents rarely used
instructional materials and were not so competent in
the use of different methods and approaches,
strategies and techniques in teaching the language.

Conclusion
English teachers are not competent in the use and
preparation of instructional materials and application of
approaches, strategies and techniques in teaching
language.

Recommendation
Administrators should encourage English teachers to
join seminars and other professional organization to
improve their competencies in teaching particularly in
the use and preparation of instructional materials.
English teachers should vary their methods,
approaches, strategies and techniques to suit their
students’ needs. They should be given sufficient time
to find out what techniques are most appropriate for
each activity.

Source: Vizcarra, Florante O. Introduction to Educational Research. Edited

by Ernie T. Bhagwani. Great Books Trading, 2003.

Methods of Research.
58
REFERENCES
This include all the materials used and
reviewed by the researcher, such as books,
magazines, periodicals, journals, thesis or
dissertation (published or unpublished).
Monographs, speeches and modules, web page
or internet, etc.
In the choice of bibliographic materials, the
following should be considered:
a. Relatedness to the research problem
b. Inclusion of recent publications (materials
published in the 50’s up to 70’s should not
be included)

Methods of Research.
59
 References / Sources

Aquino, A.M. 2012.Development and Evaluation of

Environmental Science Presentation Tool.
Araullo University Unpublished Dissertation

Fraekel J.R. and N.E. Wallen. 2003. Student Workbook

to accompany How to Design and Evaluate
Research in Education. Fifth Edition. McGraw-
Hill Higher Education. ISBN 0-07-253184-3.

Lazatin, Ferman. 2011. Culture Lag and Cultural

Adjustment of Foreign Students in Cabanatuan
City. Araullo University Unpublished Thesis.

Mercado Frederick. 2013. Perception and Awareness

of Call Center Workers about Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). Araullo University
Unpublished Thesis.

Mustard Viola Fern. 2012. The Influence of Emotional

Intelligence and Learning Style on Students’
Academic Achievement: Its Implication to
Science Teaching. Araullo University
Unpublished Dissertation.

Ramilo R. N. 2014. Social Skills, Academic Self-

Efficacy and Performance of Pupils with and
without Extra-Curricular Activities. Araullo
University Unpublished Thesis.

Vizcarra, Florante O. Introduction to Educational

Research. Edited by Ernie T. Bhagwani. Great
Books Trading, 2003.

Methods of Research.
60
University Research Coordination Office, Research
Proposal Guidelines, Points to Consider. De La
Salle University. LS Mezz. 154 - 155 * Local
164.

Vagias, Wade M. (2006). Likert-type scale response

anchors. Clemson International Institute for
Tourism & Research Development, Department
of Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management.
Clemson University

Methods of Research.
61
 Appendix A

Likert-Type Scale Response Anchors

Level of Acceptability Level of Appropriateness
• 1 – Totally unacceptable • 1 – Absolutely inappropriate
• 2 – Unacceptable • 2 – Inappropriate
• 3 – Slightly unacceptable • 3 – Slightly inappropriate
• 4 – Neutral • 4 – Neutral
• 5 – Slightly acceptable • 5 – Slightly appropriate
• 6 – Acceptable • 6 – Appropriate
• 7 – Perfectly Acceptable • 7 – Absolutely appropriate

Level of Agreement Knowledge of Action

• 1 – Strongly disagree • 1 – Never true
• 2 – Disagree • 2 – Rarely true
• 3 – Somewhat disagree • 3 – Sometimes but
• 4 – Neither agree or disagree infrequently true
• 5 – Somewhat agree • 4 – Neutral
• 6 – Agree • 5 – Sometimes true
• 7 – Strongly agree • 6 – Usually true
• 7 – Always true

My beliefs Level of Importance

• 1 – Very untrue of what I • 1 – Not at all important
believe • 2 – Low importance
• 2 – Untrue of what I believe • 3 – Slightly important
• 3 – Somewhat untrue of what • 4 – Neutral
I • 5 – Moderately important
believe • 6 – Very important
• 4 – Neutral • 7 – Extremely important
• 5 – Somewhat true of what I
believe
• 6 – True of what I believe
• 7 – Very true of what I believe

Methods of Research.
62
Reflect Me? Priority:
• 1 – Very untrue of me • 1 – Not a priority
• 2 – Untrue of me • 2 – Low priority
• 3 – Somewhat untrue of me • 3 – Somewhat priority
• 4 – Neutral • 4 – Neutral
• 5 – Somewhat true of me • 5 – Moderate Priority
• 6 – True of me • 6 – High priority
• 7 – Very true of me • 7 – Essential priority

Level of Concern Priority Level

• 1 – not at all concerned • 1 – Not a priority
• 2 – Slightly concerned • 2 – Low priority
• 3 – Somewhat concerned • 3 – Medium priority
• 4 – Moderately concerned • 4 – High priority
• 5 – Extremely concerned • 5 – Essential

Level of Problem Affect on X

• 1 – Not at all a problem • 1 – No affect
• 2 – Minor problem • 2 – Minor affect
• 3 – Moderate problem • 3 – Neutral
• 4 – Serious problem • 4 – Moderate affect
• 5 – Major affect

Level of Consideration Level of Support/Opposition

• 1 – Would not consider • 1 – Strongly oppose
• 2 – Might or might not • 2 – Somewhat oppose
consider • 3 – neutral
• 3 – Definitely consider • 4 – Somewhat favor
• 5 – Strongly favor

Level of Probability Level of Agreement

• 1 – Not probable • 1 – Strongly disagree
• 2 – Somewhat improbable • 2 – Disagree
• 3 – Neutral • 3 – Neither agree or disagree
• 4 – Somewhat probable • 4 – Agree
• 5 – Very probable • 5 – Strongly agree

Methods of Research.
63
Level of Desirability Level of Participation
• 1 – Very undesirable • 1 – No, and not considered
• 2 – Undesirable • 2 – No, but considered
• 3 – neutral • 3 – Yes
• 4 – Desirable
• 5 – Very desirable

Frequency – 5 point Frequency

• 1 – Never • 1 – Never
• 2 – Rarely • 2 – Rarely
• 3 – Sometimes • 3 – Occasionally
• 4 – Often • 4 – A moderate amount
• 5 – Always • 5 – A great deal

Frequency of Use Frequency – 7 point

• 1 – Never • 1 – Never
• 2 – Almost never • 2 – Rarely, in less than 10%
• 3 – Occasionally/Sometimes of the chances when I could
• 4 – Almost every time have
• 5 – Every time • 3 – Occasionally, in about
30% of the chances when I
could have • 4 – Sometimes, in
about 50% of the chances
when I could have • 5 –
Frequently, in about 70% of
the chances when I could have
• 6 – Usually, in about 90% of
the chances I could have.
• 7 – Every time

Amount of Use Level of Familiarity

• 1 – Never use • 1 – not at all familiar
• 2 – Almost never • 2 – Slightly familiar
• 3 – Occasionally/Sometimes • 3 – Somewhat familiar
• 4 – Almost every time • 4 – Moderately familiar
• 5 – Frequently use • 5 – Extremely familiar

Methods of Research.
64
Level of Awareness Level of Difficulty
• 1 – not at all aware • 1 – Very difficult
• 2 – Slightly aware • 2 – Difficult
• 3 – Somewhat aware • 3 – Neutral
• 4 – Moderately aware • 4 – Easy
• 5 – Extremely aware • 5 – Very easy

Likelihood Level of Detraction

• 1 – Extremely unlikely • 1 – detracted very little
• 2 – unlikely •2–
• 3 – Neutral • 3 – Neutral
• 4 – likely •4–
• 5 – Extremely likely • 5 – Detracted very much

Good / Bad Barriers

• 1 – Very negative • 1 – Not a barrier
•2– • 2 – Somewhat of a barrier
• 3 – Neutral • 3 – Moderate barrier
•4– • 4 – Extreme barrier
• 5 – Very positive

Level of Satisfaction – 5 point Level of Satisfaction – 5 point

• 1 – Very dissatisfied • 1 – Not at all satisfied
• 2 – dissatisfied • 2 – slightly satisfied
• 3 – unsure • 3 – moderately satisfied
• 4 – satisfied • 4 – Very satisfied
• 5 – Very satisfied • 5 – Extremely satisfied

Level of Satisfaction – 7 point Level of Quality – 5 point

• 1 – Completely dissatisfied • 1 – Poor
• 2 – Mostly dissatisfied • 2 – Fair
• 3 – Somewhat dissatisfied • 3 – Good
• 4 – neither satisfied or • 4 – Very good
dissatisfied • 5 – Excellent

Methods of Research.
65
• 5 – Somewhat satisfied
• 6 – Mostly satisfied
• 7 – Completely satisfied

Comparison of Two Products Level of Responsibility

• 1 – much worse • 1 – Not at all responsible
• 2 – somewhat worse • 2 – somewhat responsible
• 3 – about the same • 3 – mostly responsible
• 4 – somewhat better • 4 – completely responsible
• 5 – much better

Level of Influence
• 1 – not at all influential
• 2 – slightly influential
• 3 – somewhat influential
• 4 – very influential
• 5 – extremely influential

Source:
Vagias, Wade M. (2006). Likert-type scale response anchors. Clemson
International Institute for Tourism & Research Development,
Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management.
Clemson University

Methods of Research.
66
 Appendix B

Guidelines for Thesis/Dissertation Writing for

Araullo University PHINMA Education Network
Graduate School
_____________________________

Effective First Semester SY 2009-2010, the American

Psychological Association (APA) format, will be used
for writing thesis and dissertation manuscripts.

General Document Guidelines

A. Paper: Use 81/2 x 11 inch clear paper with

Araullo University heading, substance 20
B. Margins: One inch and half on left and on
one inch for top, bottom, right
C. Font Size and Type: 12-pt. Courier new
D. Line Spacing: Double-space throughout
the paper, including the title page, abstract,
body of the document
E. Spacing after Punctuation: Space once
after commas, colons, and semicolons
within sentences. Insert two spaces after
punctuation ending sentences/
F. Alignment: Justify
G. Paragraph Indention: 5-7 spaces
H. Pagination: The page number appears one
inch from the right edge of the paper on the
first line of every page.

Preliminary pages usually carry lowercase

roman numerals. No page number first
page of the chapter.

Methods of Research.
67
 I. Order of Pages: The following are the
preliminary pages of the manuscript
Title Page
Approval page
Acknowledgement Page
Table of contents
List of Tables
List of Figures
Abstract (not to be more than 350
words)
Chapter I THE PROBLEM AND REVIEW OF
RELATED LITERATURE
Introduction
Review of Related Literature
Should be organized according to topic
Conceptual Framework of the Study
Paradigm
Definition of Terms
Statement of the Problem
Hypotheses of the Study
Significance of the Study
Scope and Limitation
Chapter II Method
Research design
Participants
Research Site
Materials and Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis

Chapter III Presentation, Analysis and

Interpretation of Results
Chapter IV Summary, Conclusion and
Recommendation

References
Appendices
Curriculum Vitae

Methods of Research.
68
 Abstract: The abstract is a one-paragraph, self-
contained summary of the most important elements of
the paper.

A. Pagination: The abstract begins on a new

page
B. Heading: Abstract (centered on the first line
below the running head)
C. Format: The abstract (in block format)
begins on the line following the Abstract
heading. The abstract word limit 350 words

 Body

A. Pagination: The body of the paper begins

on a new page Subsections of the body of
the paper do not begin on new pages.
B. Headings: Five levels of headings are
available to be used to organize the paper
and reflect the relative importance of
sections. For example, many empirical
research articles: Main headings (such as
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE,
METHOD PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS
AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS,
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATION) would use Level 1
(centered, boldface, uppercase and
lowercase letters), and subheadings (such
as Participants, Apparatus, and Procedure
as subsections of the Method section)
would use Level 2 (flush left, boldface,
uppercase and lowercase letters).

 Text citations: Source material must be documented

in the body of the paper by citing the author(s) and
Methods of Research.
69
date(s) of the sources. The underlying principle is that
ideas and words of others must be formally
acknowledged. The reader can obtain the full source
citation from the list of references that follows the body
of the paper.

A. When the names of the authors of a source are

part of the formal structure of the sentence, the
year of publication appears in parentheses
following the identification of the authors.
Consider the following example:

Wirth and Mitchell (1994) found that although

there was a reduction in insulin dosage over a
period of two weeks in the treatment condition
compared to the control condition, the
difference was not statistically significant. [Note:
and is used when multiple authors are identified
as part of the formal structure of the sentence.
Compare this to the example in the following
section.]

B. When the authors of a source are not part of

the formal structure of the sentence, both the
authors and year of publication appear in
parentheses. Consider the following example:

Reviews of research on religion and health

have concluded that at least some types of
religious behaviors are related to higher levels
of physical and mental health (Gartner, Larson,
& Allen, 1991; Koenig, 1990; Levin &
Vanderpool, 1991; Maton & Pargament, 1987;
Paloma & Pendleton, 1991; Payne, Bergin,
Bielema, & Jenkins, 1991). [Note: & is used
when multiple authors are identified in
parenthetical material. Note also that when
several sources are cited parenthetically, they

Methods of Research.
70
 are ordered alphabetically by first authors’
surnames and separated by semicolons.]

C. When a source that has two authors cited, both

authors are included every time the source is
cited.

D. When a source that has three, four, or five

authors is cited, all authors are included the first
time the source is cited. When that source is
cited again, the first author’s surname and “et
al.” are used. Consider the following example:

Reviews of research on religion and health

concluded that at least some types of religious
behaviors are related to higher levels of
physical and mental health (Payne, Bergin,
Bielema, & Jenkins, 1991)

Payne et al. (1991) showed that…

E. When a source that has six or more authors is

cited, the first author’s surname and “et al.” are
used every time the source is cited (including
the first time).

F. Every effort should be made to cire only sources

that you have actually read. When it is
necessary to cite a source that you have read
(“Murzynski & Degelman” in the following
example), use the following format for the text
citation and list only the source you have read in
the References list:

Grayson (as cited in Murzynski & Degelman,

1996) identified four components of body
language that were related to judgments of
vulnerability.

Methods of Research.
71
 G. To cite a personal communication (including
letters, emails and telephone interviews), include
initials, surname, and as exact a date as
possible. Because a personal communication is
not “recoverable” information, it is not included in
the References section. For the text citation,
use the following format:

B.F. Skinner (personal communication, February

12, 1978) claimed.

H. To cite a Web document, use the author-date

format. If no author is identified use the first few words
of the title in place of the author. If no date is
provided, use “n.d.” in place of the date. Consider the
following examples:

Degelman (2009) summarizes guidelines for the

use of APA writing style.

Changes in Americans’ views of gender status

differences have been documented (Gender and
Society, n.d.)

I. To cite the Bible, provide the book, chapter, and

verse. The first time the Bible is cited in the text,
identify the version used. Consider the following
example:

You are forgiving and good, O Lord, abounding in love

to all who call to you” (Psalm 86:5, New International
Version). [Note: No entry in the References list is
needed for the Bible.]

 Quotations: When a direct quotation is used, always

include the author, year, and page number as part of
the citation.

Methods of Research.
72
A. A quotation of fewer than 40 words should be enclosed
in double quotation marks and should be incorporated
into the formal structure of the sentence. Example.

Patients receiving prayer had “less congestive heart

failure, required less diuretic and antibiotic therapy,
had fewer episodes of pneumonia, had fewer cardiac
arrests, and were less frequently intubated and
ventilated” (Byrd, 1988, p. 829).

B. A lengthier quotation of 40 or more words should

appear (without quotation marks) apart from the
surrounding text, in block format, with each line
indented five spaces from the left margin.

 References: All sources included in the References

section must be cited in the body of the paper
(and all sources cited in the paper must be
included in the References section).

A. Pagination: The References section begins on a new

page.
B. Heading: References (centered on the first line below
the running head)
C. Format: The references (with hanging indent) begin on
the line following the References heading. Entries are
organized alphabetically by surnames of first authors.
Most references entries have the following components:

1. Authors: Authors are listed in the same order as

specified in the source, using surnames and initials.
Commas separate all authors. When there are
seven or more authors, list the first six and then use
“et al.” for remaining authors. If no author is
identified, the title of the document begins the
reference.

Methods of Research.
73
 2. Year of Publication: In parentheses following
authors, with a period following the closing
parenthesis. If no publication date is identified, use
“n.d.” in parentheses following the authors.
3. Source Reference: Includes title, journal, volume,
pages (for journal article) or title, city of publication,
publisher (for book). Italicize titles of books, titles of
periodicals, and periodical volume numbers.
4. Electronic Retrieval Information: For sources that
are available online, include electronic retrieval
information following the basic elements of the
source reference. Electronic retrieval information
may include digital object identifiers (DOIs) or
uniform resource locators (URLs). DOIs are unique
alphanumeric identifiers that lead users to digital
source material.

D. Examples of sources

1. Journal article with DOI

Murznski, J., & Degelman, D. (1996). Body

language of women and judgments of vulnerability
to sexual assault. Journal of Applied Social
Psychology, 26, 1617-1626. Doi: 10.1111/j.1559-
1816.1996tb00099.x

2. Journal article without DOI

Koenig, H.G. (1990). Research on religion and

mental health in later life: A review and commentary.
Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 23, 23-53.

3. Journal article without DOI, retrieved online

[Note: For articles retrieved from databases, include
the URL of the journal home page. Database
information is not needed. Do not include the date of
retrieval.]

Methods of Research.
74
4. Book

Paloutzian, R.F. (1996). Invitation to the psychology

of religion (2nd ed.), Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

5. Informally published Web document

Degelman, D. (2009), APA style essentials,

Retrieved from
http://www.vanguard.edu/faculty/ddegelman/detail.a
spx?doc_id=796

6. Informally published Web document (no date)

Nielsen, M.E. (n.d.). Notable people in psychology

of religion. Retrieved from
http://www.psywww.com/psyrelig/psyrelpr.htm

7. Informally published Web document (no author,

no date)

Gender and society, (n.d.). Retrieved from

http://www.trinity.edu/-mkearl/gender.html

8. Abstract from secondary database

Garrity, K., & Degelman, D. (1990). Effect of server

introduction on restaurant tipping. Journal of
Applied Social Psychology, 20, 168-172. Abstract
retrieved from PsycINFO database

9. Article or chapter in an edited book

Shea, J.D. (1992). Religion and sexual adjustment.

In J.F. Schumaker (Ed.), Religion and mental health
(pp. 70-84). New York: Oxford University Press.

Methods of Research.
75
 10. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders

American Psychiatric Association. (2000).

Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental
disorders (4th ed., text rev.) Washington, DC:
Author.

 Appendixes: A common use of appendixes is to present

unpublished tests or to describe complex equipment or
stimulus materials.

A. Pagination: Each Appendix begins on a

separate page.
B. Heading: If there is only one appendix,
Appendix is centered on the first line below the
manuscript page header. If there is more than
one appendix, use Appendix A (or B or C, etc.).
Double-space and type the appendix title
(centered in uppercase and lowercase letters).
C. Format: Indent the first line 5-7 spaces.
D. Append questionnaires, statistical outputs,
letters of requests, curriculum vitae,

 Tables: A common use of tables is to present quantitative

data or the results of statistical analyses (such as ANOVA).
See the Publication Manual (2010, pp. 128-150) for detailed
examples. Tables must be mentioned in the text.

A. Pagination: Each Table begins on a separate page.

B. Heading: Table 1 (or 2 or 3, etc.) is typed flush left on the
first line below the running head. Double-space and type
the table title flush left (italicized in uppercase and
lowercase letters).

 Figures: A common use of Figures is to present graphs,

Methods of Research.
76
photographs, or other illustrations (other than tables). See the
Publication Manual (2010, pp. 150-167) for detailed examples.

A. Pagination: Figures begin on a separate

page

Methods of Research.
77