Acids, Bases

and Salts

CHEMISTRY

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Acids, Bases and Salts

We know that the physical world around us is made of a large number of chemicals.
Soil, air, water, all the life forms and the materials that they use all consist of chemicals.
Out of such chemicals, acids, bases and salts are mostly used in everyday life, let it be
a fruit juice or a detergent or a medicine.

They play a key role in our day-to-day activities. Our body metabolism is carried out by
means of hydrochloric acid secreted in our stomach. An acid is the compound which is
capable of forming hydrogen ions (H+) in aqueous solution whereas a base is the
compound that forms hydroxyl ions (OH–) in solution. When an acid and a base react
with each other, a neutral product is formed which is called salt.

Acids
The word ‘acid’ is derived from the Latin name “acidus” which means sour taste.
Substances with sour taste are called acids. These turn blue litmus and Methyl orange
to red.

Source Acid Present

Apple Malic Acid

Lemon Citric Acid
Grape Tartaric Acid
Tomato Oxalic Acid
Vinegar Acetic Acid
Curd Lactic Acid
Orange Ascorbic Acid
Tea Tannic Acid
Stomach Juice Hydrochloric Acid
Ant, Bee Formic Acid

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In 1884, a Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius proposed a theory on acids and bases.
According to Arrhenius theory, an acid is a substance which furnishes H+ ions or H3O+
ions in aqueous solution. They contain one or more replaceable hydrogen atoms. For
example, when hydrogen chloride is dissolved in water, it gives H+ and Cl- ions in water.

HCl(aq)→H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Hydrogen ions in HCl are produced in the presence of water. The separation of H+ ion
from HCl molecules cannot occur in the absence of water.

HCl + H2O → H3O+ + Cl-

Hydrogen ions cannot exist alone, but they exist in combined states with water
molecules.

Thus, hydrogen ions must always be H+ (or) Hydronium (H3O+)

Classification of Acids
Acids are classified in different ways as follows:

Based on their sources

(i) Organic acids

(ii) Inorganic acids

i. Organic Acids: Acids present in plants and animals (living things) are
organic acids. Example: HCOOH, CH3COOH.

ii. Inorganic Acids: Acids prepared from rocks and minerals are inorganic
acids or mineral acids.

Based on their Basicity

 Monobasic Acid: Acids that contain only one replaceable hydrogen atom per
molecule is called monobasic acid. It gives one hydrogen ion per molecule of the
acid in solution. Example: HCl, HNO3

 Dibasic Acid: Acids which gives two hydrogen per molecule of the acid in the
solution. Example: H2SO4, H2CO3 .

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Tribasic Acid: An acid which gives three hydrogen ions per molecule of the acid
in solution. Example: H3PO4

Based on Ionisation
Acids get ionised in water (produce H+ ions) completely or partially. Based on the
extent of ionisation acids are classified as follows:

1. Strong Acids: These are acids that ionize completely in water. Example: HCl

2. Weak Acids: These are acids that ionize partially in water. Example
CH3COOH

Based on Concentration
1) Concentrated Acids: It has a relatively large amount of acid dissolved in a
solvent.

2) Dilute Acids: It has a relatively smaller amount of acid dissolved in solvent.

Properties of Acids

1) They have sour taste

2) Their aqueous solutions conduct electricity since they contain ions

3) Acids turns blue litmus red

4) Acids react with active metals to give hydrogen gas.

5) Acids react with metal carbonate and metal hydrogen carbonate to give carbon
dioxide.

6) Acids react with metallic oxides to give salt and water.

7) Acids react with bases to give salt and water. This is known as neutralisation
reaction.

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Uses of Acids

1. Sulphuric acid is called King of Chemicals because it is used in the preparation of

many other compounds. It is used in car batteries also.

2. Hydrochloric acid is used as a cleansing agent in toilets.

3. Citric acid is used in the preparation of effervescent salts and as a food preservative.

4. Nitric acid is used in the manufacture of fertilizers, dyes, paints and drugs.

5. Oxalic acid is used to clean iron and manganese deposits from quartz crystals. It is
also used as bleach for wood and removing black stains.

6. Carbonic acid is used in aerated drinks.

7. Tartaric acid is a constituent of baking powder.

Aqua Regia

We know that metals like gold and silver are not reactive with either HCl or HNO3. But
the mixture of these two acids can dissolve gold. This mixture is called Aquaregia. It is a
mixture of hydrochloric acid and nitric acid prepared optimally in a molar ratio of 3:1. It is
a yellow-orange fuming liquid. It is a highly corrosive liquid, able to attack gold and other
resistant substances.

The term aqua regia is a Latin phrase meaning “King’s Water”. The name reflects the
ability of aqua regia to dissolve the noble metals such as gold, platinum and palladium.

Uses of Aqua Regia:

i. It is used chiefly to dissolve metals such as gold and platinum.

ii. It is used for cleaning and refining gold.

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Bases

According to Arrhenius theory, bases are substances that ionise in water to form
hydroxyl ions (OH–). There are some metal oxides which give salt and water on
reaction with acids. These are also called bases. Bases that are soluble in water are
called alkalis. A base reacts with an acid to give salt and water only.

Base + Acid → Salt + Water

For example, zinc oxide (ZnO) reacts with HCl to give the salt zinc chloride and water

ZnO (s) + 2HCl (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)

Similarly, sodium hydroxide ionises in water to give hydroxyl ions and thus get dissolved
in water. So it is an alkali.

NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Memory Tip
All alkalis are bases but not all bases are alkalis. For example: NaOH and KOH are
alkalis whereas Al(OH)3 and Zn(OH)2 are bases.

Classification of Bases

Based on their Acidity

 Monoacidic Base:

 It is a base that ionises in water to give one hydroxide ion per molecule.

 Example: NaOH, KOH

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 Diacidic Base: It is a base that ionises in water to give two hydroxide ions per
molecule. Example: Ca(OH)2 , Mg(OH)2

 Triacidic Base: It is a base that ionises in water to give three hydroxide ions
per molecule. Example: Al(OH)3, Fe(OH)

Based on Concentration
1. Concentrated Alkali: It is an alkali having a relatively high percentage of alkali
in its aqueous solution.

2. Dilute Alkali: It is an alkali having a relatively low percentage of alkali in its

aqueous solution.

Based on Ionisation
1. Strong Bases: These are bases which ionise completely in aqueous solution.
Example: NaOH, KOH

2. Weak Bases: These are bases that ionize partially in aqueous solution.
Example: NH4OH, Ca(OH)2 Strong base

Memory Tip
The term acidity is used for base, which means the number of replaceable hydroxyl
groups present in one molecule of a base.

Properties of Base

 They have bitter taste.

 Their aqueous solutions have soapy touch.

 They turn red litmus blue

 Their aqueous solutions conduct electricity

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 Bases react with metals to form salt with the liberation of hydrogen gas.

Zn + 2 NaOH → Na2ZnO2 + H2

 Bases react with non-metallic oxides to produce salt and water. Since this is similar
to the reaction between an acid, we can conclude that non-metallic oxides are
acidic in nature.

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3+ H2O

 Bases react with acids to form salt and water.

KOH + HCl → KCl + H2O

The above reaction between a base and an acid is known as Neutralisation reaction.

 On heating with ammonium salts, bases give ammonia gas.

NaOH + NH4Cl → NaCl + H2O + NH3

Uses of Base

1. Sodium hydroxide is used in the manufacture of soap.

2. Calcium hydroxide is used in white washing of buildings.

3. Magnesium hydroxide is used as a medicine for stomach disorder.

4. Ammonium hydroxide is used to remove grease stains from clothes.

Tests for Acids and Bases

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1. Test with a litmus paper: An acid turns blue litmus paper into red. A base
turns red litmus paper into blue.

2. Test with an indicator Phenolphthalein: In acid medium, phenolphthalein is

colourless. In basic medium, phenolphthalein is pink in colour.

3. Test with an indicator Methyl orange: In acid medium, methyl orange is pink in
colour. In basic medium, methyl orange is yellow in colour.

4. Olfactory Indicators include vanilla, onion, clove etc which change their smell
when mixed with acid or base.

Indicator Colour in Acid Colour in Base

Litmus Blue to Red Red to Blue

Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink

Methyl Orange Pink Yellow

pH Scale

A scale for measuring hydrogen ion concentration in a solution is called pH scale. The
‘p’ in pH stands for ‘potenz’ in German meaning power. pH scale is a set of numbers
from 0 to 14 which is used to indicate whether a solution is acidic, basic or neutral.

1. Acids have pH less than 7

2. Bases have pH greater than 7

3. A neutral solution has pH equal to 7

The pH of a solution can be determined by using a universal indicator. It contains a

mixture of dyes. It comes in the form of a solution or pH paper.

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Importance of pH in Daily Life

 pH in our digestive system

It is very interesting to note that our stomach produces hydrochloric acid. It helps
in the digestion of food without harming the stomach. During indigestion the
stomach produces too much acid and this causes pain and irritation. pH of
stomach fluid is approximately 2.0.

 pH changes as the cause of tooth decay

White enamel coating of our teeth is calcium phosphate, the hardest substance
in our body. Toothpastes which are generally basic and used for cleaning the
teeth can neutralise the excess acid and prevent tooth decay.

 pH of soil

In agriculture, the pH of soil is very important. Citrus fruits require slightly alkaline
soil, while rice requires acidic soil and sugarcane requires neutral soil.

 pH of rainwater

The pH of rain water is approximately 7 which means that it is neutral and also
represents its high purity. If the atmospheric air is polluted with oxide gases of
Sulphur and nitrogen, they get dissolved in rainwater and make its pH less than
7.

The Solution Approximate pH

Blood 7.3-7.5
Saliva 6.5-7.5
Gastric Juice 1.0-3.0
Soft Drinks 3.0
Sea Water 8.5
House Hold Ammonia 12.5
Tomato Juice 4.0-4.4

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Salts
Salts are the products of the reaction between acids and bases. Salts produce positive
ions and negative ions when dissolved in water.

Acids + Base Salt + Water

 Normal Salts: A normal salt is obtained by complete neutralization of an acid

by a base.

NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O

 Acid Salts: It is derived from the partial replacement of hydrogen ions of an

acid by a metal. When a calculated amount of a base is added to a polybasic acid,
acid salt is obtained.

NaOH + H2SO4 → NaHSO4 + H2O

 Basic Salts: Basic salts are formed by the partial replacement of hydroxide
ions of a Diacidic or Triacidic base with an acid radical.

Pb(OH)2 + HCl → Pb(OH)Cl + H2O

Properties of salt

1. Salts are mostly solids which melt as well as boil at high temperature.

2. Most of the salts are soluble in water. For example, chloride salts of potassium and
sodium are soluble in water. But silver chloride is insoluble in water.

3. They are odourless, mostly white, cubic crystals or crystalline powder with salty
taste.

4. Salt is hygroscopic in nature.

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Points to Remember
 Acid is a substance which furnishes H+ ions or H3O+ ions when dissolved in water.

 Base is a substance which releases OH- ions when dissolved in water.

 Salt is the product of reaction between acids and bases.

 Acids and bases neutralize each other to form corresponding salts and water.

 Salts have various uses in everyday life and in industries.

 Acidic and basic solutions in water conduct electricity because they produce
hydrogen and hydroxide ions respectively.

 When an acid reacts with a metal, hydrogen gas is evolved and a corresponding
salt is formed.

 Phenolphthalein, Methyl orange is used as indicators to find out the given solution
whether acid or base.

 Litmus paper is also used to find out the given solution whether acid or base.

 pH paper is to find out the given solution whether acidic or basic in nature.

 Aqua Regia is a mixture of hydrochloric acid and nitric acid optimally in a molar
ratio of 3:1.

 pH Scale is used to find out the power of hydrogen ion concentration in a solution.

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Atom and
Nuclei

PHYSICS

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Atom and Nuclei

Around the end of 19th century after Maxwell’s Proposed explanation of
Electromagnetic wave and Hertz experimented on generation and detection of
electromagnetic wave, this leads to many discoveries like X-ray and Cathode rays
which laid the foundation of Modern day atomic and Nuclear structure which we are
going to discuss in this topic.

Atomic Structure

Discovery of electrons and J.J Thomson’s model of

Atom
 Between 1856-1940 J.J Thomson extensively studies revealed that atoms of
different elements contain negatively charged constituents that are identical for all
atoms.

 Which is later termed as Electrons and later he proposed the first model of an
atom according to which the positive charge of the atom is uniformly distributed
throughout the volume of the atom and the negatively charged electrons are
embedded in it like seeds in a watermelon

 This model of J.J Thomson is called as Plum pudding model of the atom as
shown below.

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Alpha-Scattering experiment and Rutherford’s model

of Atom

To prove J.J Thomson’s structure of mode Ernst Rutherford proposed an experiment

and later this experiment conducted by H. Geiger and E. Marsden which was simple
and quite remarkable

 This Alpha- Scattering experiment consist of a source of alpha particle, A thin gold
foil, A florescent screen on which alpha particle is bombarded as shown above.

 Through this experiment we concluded that the model J.J Thomson had
suggested cant be correct because according to his model atom is hollow and
positive charge of the atom is uniformly distributed throughout the volume, if this
true most alpha particle should be scatter because of repulsive force between
positive charged nucleus and alpha particles.

 But we get exact opposite result of this most alpha particles are passed through
gold foil undeviated which let us understood that all the positive charge is
concentrated tightly at the centre of atom and this agreement supported the
hypothesis of the nucleus which was proposed by Rutherford’s Nuclear model.

 Which states that all the positive charge is tightly compressed and concentrated
at the centre of an atom and all electrons will be revolving around them by like
planets revolves around sun.

 Later because of few issues like stability of nucleus Bohr’s model was adopted.

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Nuclear Structure
 As mentioned earlier positive charge is concentrated tightly at the centre of atom
and approximately entire mass of atom is concentrated in a very small space
called the nucleus of atom and this nucleus consist of positive charge particle
known as proton and neutral particle known as neutron and this particle is known
as nucleons.

 And these nucleons are bound together by force known as Nuclear force.

 Here radius of nucleus is of order 10-10 to 10-14m.

 Whereas number of protons is also known as Atomic mass (Z) and total number
of nucleons are also known as mass number (A) which is sum of number of
protons and neutrons.

 And it is generally represented as

Properties of Electron

Some of the basic property of electron can be given as

 Mass of electron is 9.10938356 × 10-31 kg

 Spin angular momentum of electron

 Charge of electron -1

 Radius of electron is approximately 2.82x10-15 m

Properties of Proton

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Some of the basic property of Proton can be given as

Proton
 Mass of electron is 1.6726 × 10-27 kg

 It is around 1826 time the mass of electron

 Spin angular momentum of electron

 Charge of Proton +1

 Radius of proton is approximately 1.11x10-15 m

Property of Neutrons
Some of the basic property of Neutron can be given as
Neutron
 Mass of electron is 1.6750 × 10-27 kg

 Spin angular momentum of electron

 Charge of Neutron 0

 Radius of neutron is approximately 1.11x10-15 m

Properties of Nucleus

Some of important property of nucleus can be given as

 Size of nucleus is of the order of fermi (1 fermi = 1015 m)

 Radius of Nucleus is given as , where R0 = 1.3 fermi and A is

mass number which is total number of nucleons

 The size of the atom is of the order of 10-10 m or 1 Armstrong

 Density of nucleus is given as

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Here,

mp = mass of proton

 Where as density of nucleus is independent of mass number A.

 Mass of atom can be expressed in terms of Atomic mass unit or amu, and

1 amu is defined as 1/12th the mass of an atom of which is most stable

-27
of isotope of carbon i.e., 1 u or amu = 1.660539 × 10 kg

Some important atomic species

There are three types of atomic species

 Isotopes: The elements which are having the same atomic number but a
different mass number are known as the isotopes.

E.g. protium, deuterium, tritium are all isotopes of Hydrogen.

 Isobars: The elements which are having the same atomic mass number but
a different atomic number are known as the isotopes.

E.g.

 Isotones: Atoms of different elements having the same number neutrons is

known as Isotones.

E.g.

 Mirror nucleus: The nucleus having same mass number but proton and
neutron number are interchange is called as mirror nuclei

Properties of Nuclear force

 The entire branch of physics can be classified using 4 fundamental force

experienced by particle and it can be given as

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Some important property of Nuclear Force

Nuclear force is one of the fundamental forces which is responsible for binding the
entire nucleus together, inspite of strong electromagnetic repulsion between protons.

Now some of the characteristics of nuclear force can be given as

 Nuclear force is strongest among all the fundamental forces

 It is a short-range force, its maximum effective range is 10-15 m

 Because of nuclear force the entire existence of nucleus is possible

 Unlike gravitation and electromagnetic force, Nuclear force is not a centre

force

Einstein’s Mass Energy equivalence

Principle
Einstein proposed a theory according to which mass and energy are equivalent.

He predicted that if some mass m is converted into energy E, then its relation can be
expressed as

Here c is velocity of light in vacuum which is constant.

This was a remarkable idea which helps us harness nuclear energy and helped us
understanding modern and particle physics as we do today.

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Mass defect and Nuclear Binding

Energy

Mass Defect
After an extensive study in field of nuclear physics we had discovered that mass of
entire nucleus is less than the sum of masses of nucleons (i.e., Proton + Neutron),
this was later termed as mass detect.

And it can be expressed as

Here,

M = mass of nucleus

mp = mass of proton

mn = mass of neutrons

Z = atomic number

Δm = mass defect

Binding energy

The binding energy of particle can be defined as the minimum energy required to
remove nucleons (Proton or neutron) to an infinite distance from the nucleus.

It can be expressed as

Or,

Whereas Binding energy per nucleus,

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We can consider binding energy per nucleons as an average energy per nucleon
needed to separate a nucleus into its individual nucleons.

From the above graph we notice the following main features of the plot:

 the binding energy per nucleon, Ebn, is practically constant, i.e. practically
independent of the atomic number for nuclei of middle mass number ( 30 <
A < 170).

 The curve has a maximum of about 8.75 MeV for A = 56 and has a value of
7.6 MeV for A = 238.

 Ebn is lower for both light nuclei (A<30) and heavy nuclei (A>170).

 Also from this we can see that Fe or iron has highest binding energy per
nucleon, hence it is the most stable nucleus among all.

Q: The binding energy of deuteron is 1 MeV per nucleon and an α –

particle has a binding energy of 7 MeV per nucleon. Then in the fusion
reaction , the energy Q released is

A:

Given that,

Mass of 1H2 = 2.01478 a.m.u.

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Mass of 2He4 = 4.00388 a.m.u.

Mass of two deuterium = 2 × 2.01478 = 4.02956

Energy equivalent to 21H2= 4.02956 × 1 MeV = 4.03 MeV

Energy equivalent for = 4.00388 × 7 MeV = 28.03 MeV

Energy released = 28.03 – 4.03 = 24 MeV

Types of Nuclear Reaction

Based on Einstein’s mass energy equivalence principle if an atom losses mass it will
covert into equivalent amount of energy.

And this loss of mass is possible if an atom undergoes nuclear reaction

Whereas in modern physics, a nuclear reaction can be classified into two types

1. Nuclear Fission

2. Nuclear Fusion

 Nuclear fusion is a reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei come close
enough to form one or more different atomic nuclei and subatomic particles
(neutrons or protons). Either Nuclear fusion is the process of forming a heavy
nucleus from two lighter nuclei.

For example, Hydrogen atoms are fused to form Helium

 Here ΔE is of order 24 MeV for each such reaction, and there are millions
and millions of such reaction happening every second on Sun hence it
produce such tremendous amount of energy.

 Fission reaction or nuclear fission is a process in which the nucleus of a heavy

atom (such as uranium, plutonium or thorium) when bombarded with low-energy
neutrons and it split apart into lighter nuclei and few neutrons which causes a
chain reaction. When this is done, a tremendous amount of energy is released if
the mass of the original nucleus is just a little more than the sum of the masses of
the individual products.

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This is how fission of uranium takes place

Here ΔE is energy released during fission rection, which is of order of 200 MeV

And based on this Fission reaction can further be further classified

into controlled and uncontrolled fission reaction

In controlled fission the chain reaction is controlled and only a controlled amount of
reaction is allowed, nuclear reactors in nuclear power plants are one of the examples
of the controlled fission reaction.

And for uncontrolled fission chain reaction is allowed to happen unless fission
material is over, nuclear bomb is one of the examples of an uncontrolled fission
reaction.

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Nuclear Reactor & Hydrogen Bomb

Nuclear reactor is most modern and amazing device which uses control chain reaction
of a fissionable material like Uranium or Plutonium

And some important component of Nuclear Reactors are as follows

 Nuclear Fuel: They are the fi ssionable material used to create nuclear
reaction, whereas some example of nuclear fuels are

 Moderator: They used to slow down fast-moving neutrons which are

responsible for creating chain reaction

 Control Rod: This control rod has property of absorbing slow neutrons
and controlling the rate of nuclear reaction

 Coolant: Nuclear reaction create huge amount of energy and they are
used to remove the heat produce during this chain reaction.

e.g. Liquid Sodium

Radioactivity

 As we know nucleus is made up of both proton and neutron which are bound
together by nuclear force although there is Columbic force of repulsion between all
protons, which means heavier nucleus will have a greater number of proton and
hence higher will be its force of repulsion which makes atom unstable.

 This is a reason why heavier atoms like thorium, uranium, etc. are mostly unstable,
and because of this it undergoes radioactive

 This property of radioactivity was accidentally discovered by H. Becquerel in 1896.

 It was discovered while studying the fluorescence and phosphorescence of

compounds irradiated with visible light.

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 His study concluded that radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon in which an

unstable nucleus undergoes a decay. This is referred to as radioactive decay.

 Radioactive decay can be classified into three types

1) α-decay

2) β-decay

3) γ-decay

α-decay

Alpha particles are one of the ways in which an unstable atom can gain stability and it
had mass equivalent to that of helium nucleus.

Whereas some of properties of α-particles can be given as

 Alpha-particles have relative low penetration compared to all radioactive

particle

 It has twice the charge of proton and 4 times as heavy as proton

 Alpha-particles are deflected by electrical and magnetic field

 Velocity of alpha particle is of order 1/10th to that of speed of light in vacuum

 Alpha-particles ionize the gases through which they are passed

 Due to low penetration of Alpha-particles they can be stopped by aluminum

foil of thickness 0.1 mm.

 Zinc Sulphide produce florescence in presence of alpha particle

β-decay

Just like alpha particle β-particle are also a form of ionizing radiation, but unlike alpha
particle beta decay can be further classified into 3 types

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1) β+ decay: For positive beta decay a proton is decayed into neutron and
positron as shown below

2) β- decay: For negative beta decay a neutron is decayed into proton and
electron as shown below

3) electron capture: in an electron capture electron is captured by proton and

produce neutron

And some important properties of β-particles can be given as

 β -particles have relative high penetration compared to alpha-particle but

lower than γ-particle

 It has charge and mass equivalent to that of an electron/positron

 β-particles are always deflected by electrical and magnetic field

 Velocity of β-particles is approximately equals to that of speed of light in

vacuum

 β-particles ionize the gases through which they are passed but ionization
power of β-particles is 1/100th to that of alpha-particle

 whereas penetration power of β-particles is 100 times that of alpha-particle.

 β-particles can be affected any photographic plates

 β-particles can produce artificial radioactivity

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γ-decay
In gamma decay just photon is emitted after an unstable atom is de-excited, hence
gamma particle has no charge and it is mass less

 since γ-particles is chargeless they are never deflected by electrical or

magnetic field

 ionization power of γ-particles is very less compared to beta or alpha particle

 Since γ-ray is just a photon its velocity is equal to velocity of light

 They can affect the photoelectric plate

 They can knock out electrons from an atom on which they fall

 Wavelength of γ-rays is of order 10-12 m

Law of Radioactivity
In a radioactive sample undergoes α, β or γ-decay, it is concluded that the number of
nuclei undergoing the decay per unit time is proportional to the total number of nuclei in
the sample.

Or

Here,

N0 = original amount of sample

N = amount of sample after time t

λ = decay constant

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unit of decay constant is sec-1 and its value is independent of temperature, volume,
pressure, force, etc.

Now time required to decay a sample from N0 to N can be given as below using
equation we derived earlier

Half-life of Radioactive sample

A Half life of radioactive sample can be defined as the time interval at which the
amount of given sample becomes half of its initial quantity and it is denoted by T1/2.

 Half-life time never changes for a given radioactive sample because of any
other factors

And half life of radioactive sample can be expressed as

Mean Life time of Radioactive Sample

A mean life time of an atom can be defined as the sum of life times of all the atom in
the sample divided by total no of atoms present in the sample

In 1 mean life time percentage of atom present in same is equal to 37%

And we describe the amounts of radiation in Curie and its conversions can be given as

1 Curie (1 Ci) = 3.7 × 1010 decay/second

And

1 amu = 931.5 MeV

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Activity of Radioactive Isotopes

An activity (A) of radioactive substance can be defined as the rate of decay per second
or number of nuclei N disintegrating per sec

Si of activity is becquerel (Bq)

1 (Bq) = 1 disintegration/second

Soddy-Fazan’s Displacement Rule

 When a radioactive atom undergoes α-decay, an atomic number of resultant atom

decreases by 2 unit and mass number decrease by 4 unit

 When a radioactive atom undergoes negative β-decay, an atomic number of

resultant atoms increases by 1 unit and mass number remains the same.

 When a radioactive atom undergoes positive β-decay, an atomic number of

resultant atoms decreases by 1 unit and mass number remains the same.

Q: The end product of the decay of 90Th232 is 82Pb208. The number of α and β
particles emitted are respectively

A:

 From the given reaction the parent nuclei 90Th232 undergoes α decay and β decay
and form daughter nuclei 82Pb208

Either this reaction can be shown as

PHYSICS | Atom and Nuclei PAGE 17

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 Where from this we can predict the number of α particles emitted since there are 24
total nucleons (i.e., Proton + neutrons) where broken out from Pb atom.

 Therefore, whenever an α particle is emitted, hence 4 nucleons are broken out from
the parent nucleus similarly in case if 24 nucleons are broken from the parent nucleus
it means there are 6 α-particles are emitted

 But 6 α-particles will have a total of 12 protons and 12 neutrons (i.e., 24 nucleons)
but in our case, we have only 8 protons and 16 neutrons (i.e., 24 nucleons)

 In beta decay neutron is decayed into proton and electron as shown below

 Using this we can say that in our case out of 16 neutrons 4 will undergo beta decay
and finally we get 12 protons and 12 neutrons which means after decay we will get 4
beta (β) decay and 6 alpha (α) decay.

PHYSICS | Atom and Nuclei PAGE 18

Atomic
Structure
Updated as of OCT 2020

CHEMISTRY

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Atomic Structure

Atoms
 An atom is the smallest particle of every element.

 The word atom came from the Greek word Atomos which means indivisible.

 Atoms are made of Electron, Protons, and Neutrons. Proton and Neutron reside in
the nucleus of the atom and electrons orbit the nucleus.

 Atoms always have an equal number of protons and electrons and the number of
neutrons and protons is usually same as well.

 Protons and Neutrons are held together in the nucleus by a strong force called
Strong Nuclear force.

Discovery of Electrons
Dalton’s theory:

 The matter is composed of very small particles known as atoms.

 Atoms are indivisible (That cannot be divided) and cannot be destroyed through
chemical reactions.

 All atoms of an element have identical chemical properties and mass.

 Drawbacks: Various other scientist discovered that atoms were made of elec-
tron proton and neutron.

 In 1850s, Faraday began to study electrical discharge in partially evacuated tubes,

known as cathode ray discharge tubes.

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 A cathode ray tube is made of glass having two thin pieces of metal, called
electrodes, sealed in it.

 The electrical discharge through the gases could be observed only at very low
pressure and at very high voltage.

 The pressure of different gases can be adjusted by evacuation.

 When sufficient High voltage is applied on the electrodes, current starts flowing
through a stream of particles moving in the tube from the negative electrode
(cathode) to the positive electrode (anode).

 These stream of particles were called cathode rays or cathode ray particles.

The results of this experiment:

1. The cathode rays start from cathode and move towards the anode.

2. In the absence of electrical or magnetic field, these rays travel in straight lines.

3. In the presence of electrical or magnetic field, the behavior of cathode rays is similar
to that expected from negatively charged particles, suggesting that the cathode rays
consist of negatively charged particles, called electrons.

Discovery of Protons and Neutrons

 Electrical discharge carried out in the modified cathode ray tube led to the discovery
of particles carrying positive charge, also called Protons.

 Some of the positively charged particles carry a multiple of the fundamental unit of
electrical charge.

 The smallest and lightest positive ion was obtained from hydrogen and was called
proton.

 When electrically neutral particles having a mass slightly greater than that of the
protons was emitted. He named these particles as neutrons.

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Non-Fundamental Particles
 Particles other than electron, protons and neutrons are called non-fundamental
particles.

1. Positron: It is antiparticle of electron, it has positive charge and its

mass is equal to that of the mass of electron. It is represented by e+.

2. Antiproton: It is antiparticle of proton. It has negative charge and its

mass is equal to that of the mass of proton. It is represented by ‘p’.

3. Neutrino and Antineutrino: The existence of these particles was

explained during the emission of β-particles from radioactive nuclei. The rest
mass and charge of these particles is zero, but they have both energy and
momentum.

4. Pi-mesons: The existence of π mesons was predicted by Yukawa. Nuclear

forces are explained by the exchange of pi-mesons between the nucleons. Pi-
mesons are of three type, positive pi-mesons, negative pi-mesons, neutral pi-
mesons.

5. Quarks and Bosons: These are the elementary particles from which
other heavy sub-atomic particles such as electrons, protons and neutrons are
formed. Bosons are the particles for which number of rotations are whole
number.

Different Atomic models

J.J Thomson’s Model of Atom
 Thomson proposed a theory according to which he defined atoms to be similar to
that of a Christmas pudding.

 He stated that atoms consist of a positively charged sphere and electrons are
embedded into it.

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 He also said that negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude, so an atom
as a whole is electrically neutral.

Thomson's Atomic Model

 Drawbacks: It failed to explain how the positive charge holds on the electron inside
the atom. It also failed to explain the reasons of stability of an atom.

Rutherford’s Atomic Model

 Rutherford used α–particle scattering experiment on gold sheet.

 He observed that most of the α– particles passed through the gold foil without
deflecting.

 Some α–particles were deflected by small angles, and some were deflected by
nearly 180° .

 On the basis of this experiment Rutherford stated that there is a positively charged
spherical center in an atom called the nucleus, and nearly all the mass of an atom
(having radius 10-10m) is packed in the nucleus (having radius 10–15 m).

 The theory says that the size of the nucleus is very small as compared to the size of
the atom.

 He stated that electrons revolve around the nucleus in a well defined path called
“orbit”.

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Rutherford's Scattering Experiment

Deflected Particles from a Gold Sheet

 Drawbacks: It failed to explain about the stability of electrons in a circular

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Neil Bohr’s Theory

 Bohr utilized the concept of quantisation and put forward the following points in his
theory.

 The electrons revolve in their orbits without losing energy.

 An electron moves from lower to higher states by gaining the energy and moves
from higher energy states to lower energy states by losing energy.

 The lowest energy level of an electron is called the Ground state.

 The energy levels are represented by an integer known as the Quantam number.
These quantam numbers start from n=1, 2, 3, ….. and got assigned as K, L, M, N,
…. Shells.

Bohr's Model

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 Drawbacks: Bohr’s model was not able to define the effect of magnetic field and
electric field on the spectra of atoms.

 The Bohr atomic model made correct predictions for smaller sized atoms like hydro-
gen, but poor spectral predictions were obtained when larger atoms are considered.

Atomic Number and Mass Number

 The charge on the proton is equal but opposite to that of electron.

 The number of proton present in the nucleus of the atom is called atomic number
(Z).

 The positive charge of nucleus is because of protons but the mass of nucleus is due
to both protons and neutrons.

 Protons and neutrons are together called nucleons.

 The total number of nucleons is called mass number (A).

Isobars
 Isobars are the atoms with same mass number but different atomic number.
Example: 6C14 and 7N14.

 Isobars of Uranium is used in nuclear reactor.

 The isobar of cobalt is used in treatment of cancer, and the isobar of Iodine is used
in the treatment of goiter.

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Isobars

Isotopes
 Isotopes are the atoms with different mass number but similar atomic number.
Example: 1H1 (Protium), 1H2 (Deuterium), 1H3 (Tritium).

 Chemical properties of atoms are determined by the number of electrons, which are
determined by the number of protons in the nucleus.

 Number of neutrons present in the nucleus have a little effect on the chemical
properties of an element. Therefore, all the isotopes of a given element show similar
chemical behavior.

 Some isotopes are stable, but some can emit subatomic particles in order to reach a
more stable state, such isotopes are called Radioisotopes, and the process of
emitting particles by them is called decay.

 The unstable isotopes emit rays which are called radioactive rays. Alpha, Beta and
Gamma are the rays emitted by unstable isotopes.

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Isotopes of Hydrogen

Quantum Numbers
 The quantum numbers are the set of four numbers that give complete information
about

 The position of or energy

 Subshell

 Orientation

 Spinning (Direction of rotation in the orbital) of an electron

1. The Principle Quantum number (n):

 ‘n’ is a positive integer with value of n = 1,2,3.......

 It identifies the shell or orbit number of an electron, it also determines the size
and energy of the orbit.

 As the value of ‘n’ increases, energy of orbital increases.

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2. Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l):

 It is used to describe subshell or angular momentum of the revolving electron.

 If l = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4….. then subshell will be s, p, d, f, g….

 For principle quantum number n, l has values from 0 to (n-1) e.g if n=1 then
l=0 and if n=3 then l= 0, 1, 2, 3

3. Magnetic Quantum Number (m):

 It determines the orientation of orbitals in space or direction of an orbital in

the space of magnetic field.

 The value of ‘m’ depends upon the value of l, it varies from –l…….0……..+l.

Total value of m= (2l=1)

If l = 0 then m = 0

If l=1 then m = -1, 0, +1

If l=2 then m = -2, -1, 0, +1, +2

4. Spin Quantum number (s):

 It represents the spin of an electron in an orbital.

 Generally two types of spins are possible for an electron, these are clock-
wise and anti-clockwise.

 The value of s can be +1/2 or -1/2. The orbital cannot hold more than two

Structural features of an Atom

 Structural features of an atom are given below

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Shells and Subshells

 The orbitals or paths of different and definite energies in which the electrons revolve
called shells.

 The energy of innermost shell is lowest and of outermost shell is largest.

 Symbols K, L, M, N are used to represent various shells from lower to upper energy.

 Each orbit or shall consists of one or more subshells depending upon the three
dimensional graphic plot of electronic wave function and internal atomic
composition.

 Each shell is associated with one or more orbitals that are represented by the small
letters s, p, d and f.

Shell Total number of Electrons

K-shell 2
L-shell 8
M-shell 18
N-shell 32

Orbitals
 The three dimensional space, present around the nucleus of an atom, where
probability of finding an electron is maximum, is called orbit.

 Each orbital is associated with a fixed number of electrons. E.g. the maximum
number of electrons present in s, p, d, and f subshells are 2, 6, 10, and 14
respectively.

Electronic Configuration
 Distribution of Electron in Different orbits (Shells): It is an arrangement of electrons
in various shells, subshells and orbits of an atom.

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Bohr Burry Scheme

 The distribution of electrons into different orbits of an atom was suggested by Bohr
and Burry in 1921. According to them, the electrons enter in the orbit in accordance
with the following rules:

1. Maximum number of electrons in a shell is given by the formula 2n2.

2. The outmost shell can have a maximum of 8 electrons.

3. Electrons are filled in the shells stepwise manner i.e. from inner to outer.

Rules for Filling Electrons in the

Afbau Principle
 In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals are filled in order of their increasing
energies, or electrons first occupy the lowest energy orbital available to them
and enter into higher energy orbitals only after the lower energy orbitals are filled.
For example, carbon has 6 electrons and its electronic configuration is 1s22s22p2.

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Order of Filling the Electrons

Pauli Exclusion Principle

 The number of electrons to be filled in various orbitals is restricted by the exclusion
principle.

 No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers, in
other words “Only two electrons may exist in the same orbital and these
electrons must have opposite spin.

 The restriction imposed by Pauli’s exclusion principle on the number of electrons in

an orbital helps in calculating the capacity of electrons to be present in any subshell.

 The maximum number of electrons in the shell with principal quantum number n is
equal to 2n2.

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Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity

 This rule deals with the filling of electrons into the orbitals belonging to the same
subshell.

 This rule states that pairing of electrons in the orbitals belonging to the same
subshell (p, d or f) does not take place until each orbital belonging to that subshell
has got one electron each i.e., it is singly occupied.

 Since there are three p, five d and seven f orbitals, therefore, the pairing of electrons
will start in the p, d and f orbitals with the entry of 4th, 6th and 8th electron.

Valence and Core Electrons

 Electron present in the outermost orbit of the atom is called valence electron and the
electron present in innermost orbit of an atom is called core electron.

 The chemical properties of an element depends upon valency of element, and that is
calculated from the number of valence electrons.

Electronic configuration of the electrons

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 Exceptions:

1. Chromium (24): 1s22s22p63s23d54s1

2. Copper (29): 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d9

 These two are exception because a completely full or half full d sub-
level is more stable than a partially filled d sub-level, so an electron
from the 4s orbital is exited and rises to a 3d orbital. In these both
cases an electron moves from the 4s sublevel to produce a half full 3d
(Cr) or completely filled 3d (Cu).

Points to Remember
1. Protons and Neutrons together are called Nucleons.

2. Hydrogen is the only element, isotopes of which have different names.

3. Polonium has maximum number of isotopes.

4. Artificial isobars are obtained by the emission of β-particles from radioactive

elements.

CHEMISTRY | Atomic Structure PAGE 16

Chemical
Bonding

CHEMISTRY

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Chemical Bonding
 Matter is made up of different type of elements.

 A group of atoms is called molecule.

 The attractive force which holds various constituents together in different chemical
species is called a chemical bond.

KÖSSEL-LEWIS Approach to Chemical

Bonding
 In order to explain the formation of chemical bond in terms of electrons, a number of
attempts were made, Kossel and Lewis were successful in their attempt of giving a
satisfactory explanation.

 Lewis represented the atom in terms of a positively charged “Kernel” (the nucleus
plus the inner electrons) and the outer shell that could accommodate a maximum of
eight electrons.

 Lewis explained that atoms achieve the stable octet when they are linked by
chemical bonds.

Lewis Symbols
 In the formation of a molecule, only the outer shell electrons take part in chemical
combination and they are known as valence electrons.

 The inner shell electrons are protected and are generally not involved in the
combination process.

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 The number of dots around a symbol represents the number of valence electrons.
This number of valence electrons helps to calculating the common or group valence
of the element.

Lewis symbols

Points Given by Kossel Theory

 According to him, the highly electronegative halogens and the highly electropositive
alkali metals are separated by the noble gases.

 The formation of a negative ion from a halogen atom and a positive ion from an
alkali metal atom is related to the gain and loss of an electron by the respective
atoms.

 The negative and positive ions formed, attain stable noble gas electronic
configurations.

 The noble gases (with the exception of helium) have a particularly stable outer shell
configuration of eight (octet) electrons, ns2np6.

 The negative and positive ions are stabilized by electrostatic attraction.

 The bond formed, as a result of the electrostatic attraction between the positive and
negative ions, was called the electrovalent bond. Thus the electrovalence is equal to
the number of unit charge (s) on the ion.

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Octet Rule
 Kossel and Lewis gave an important theory known as electronic theory of chemical
bonding.

 Atoms can combine either by transfer of valence electrons from one atom to another
or by sharing of valence electrons in order to have an octet in their valence shells.
This is known as octet rule.

Covalent Bond
 When two atoms share one electron pair they are said to be joined by a single
covalent bond.

 If two atoms share two pairs of electrons, the covalent bond between them is called
a double bond.

 When combining atoms share three electron pairs like in the case of two nitrogen
atoms in the N2 molecule, a triple bond is formed.

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Lewis Representation of Simple Molecules

 The Lewis dot structures gives a picture of bonding in molecules and ions in terms of
the shared pairs of electrons and the octet rule.

 Here is the Lewis structure for some atoms.

Lewis Representation of Simple Molecules

Limitations of the Octet Rule

1. The incomplete octet of the central atom: In some compounds, the number of
electrons surrounding the central atom is less than eight.

2. Odd electron molecule: In molecules with an odd number of electrons like

nitric oxide, NO and nitrogen dioxide, NO2, the octet rule is not satisfied for all the
atoms.

3. The expanded octet: Elements in and beyond the third period of the periodic
table, apart from 3s and 3p orbitals, have 3d orbitals available for bonding. In many
compounds of these elements there are more than eight valence electrons around
the central atom.

4. It does not explain the relative stability of the molecules being totally silent about the

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Ionic or Electrovalent Bond

 Ionic bond is formed when one atom gains electrons while the other atom loses
electrons from its outermost level or orbit.

 This bond is formed by the complete transfer of valence electron in order to attain
stability.

 ∆egH (Electron gain enthalpy) is the enthalpy change, when a gas phase atom (in its
ground state) gains an electron. The electron gain process can be exothermic or
endothermic. The ionization, is always endothermic.

 Electron affinity is the negative of the energy change accompanying electron gain.

 Ionic bonds form more easily between elements with comparatively low ionization
enthalpies and elements with comparatively high negative value of electron gain
enthalpy.

Lewis Representation of Simple Molecules

Lattice Enthalpy
 It is defined as the energy required to completely separate one mole of a solid ionic
compound into gaseous constituent ions.

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Bond Parameters
Bond Length
 It is defined as the equilibrium distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms in a
molecule.

 It is measured by spectroscopic, X-ray diffraction. Covalent radius is half of the

space between two similar atoms joined by a covalent bond.

 The covalent radius is measured as the radius of an atom’s core which is in contact
with the core of a nearby atom in a bonded situation.

 The van der Waals radius represents the overall size of the atom which includes its
valence shell in a non-bonded situation.

Bond Angle
 Bond angle is the angle between the orbitals containing bonding electron pairs
around the central atom in a molecule/complex ion.

 Bond angle is defined in degree which can be experimentally determined by

spectroscopic methods.

Bond Angle of Water Molecule

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Bond Enthalpy
 Bond enthalpy is defined as the amount of energy required to break one mole of
bonds of a particular type between two atoms in a gaseous state.

 The unit of bond enthalpy is kJ mol-1.

Bond Order
 In the Lewis description of covalent bond, the Bond Order is given by the number of
bonds between the two atoms in a molecule.

 Identical bond orders; for example, F2 and O2 have bond order 1. N2, CO and NO+
have bond order 3.

 With increase in bond order, bond enthalpy increases and bond length decreases.

Resonance Structures
 Whenever a single Lewis structure cannot describe a molecule accurately, a number
of structures with similar energy, positions of nuclei, bonding and non-bonding pairs
of electrons are taken as the canonical structures of the hybrid which describes the
molecule accurately.

 Resonance is represented by a double headed arrow.

 Some examples of resonance structures are provided by the carbonate ion and the
carbon dioxide molecule.

Polarity of Bonds
 The existence of a hundred percent ionic or covalent bond represents an ideal
situation.

 Bond polarity is the separation of electric charge along a bond, leading to a molecule
or its chemical groups having an electric dipole or dipole moment.

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The Valence Shell Electron Pair

Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory
 This theory provides a simple procedure to predict the shapes of covalent bonds.

 According to this theory, the shape of a molecule depends upon the number of
valence shell electron pairs (bonded or non-bonded) around the central atom.

 Pairs of electrons in the valence shell repel one another.

 The valence shell is taken as a sphere with the electron pairs localizing on the
spherical surface at maximum distance from one another.

 A multiple bond is treated as a single electron pair and the two or three electron
pairs of a multiple bond are treated as a single super pair.

 If two or more resonance structures can represent a molecule, the VSEPR model is
applicable to any such structure.

Limitations of VSEPR Theory

 This theory fails to explain isoelectronic species i.e. elements having the same
number of electrons.

 The VSEPR theory does not shed any light on the compounds of transition metals.

 It predicted that halides of group 2 elements will have a linear structure, whereas
their actual structure is a bent one.

VSEP Number and the Shape of Molecules

VSEP Number Shape of the Molecule
2 Linear
3 Trigonal Planar
4 Tetrahedral
5 Trigonal Bipyramidal
6 Octahedral
7 Pentagonal Bipyramidal

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Valence Bond Theory

 It is based on the knowledge of atomic orbitals, electronic configurations of
elements, the overlap criteria of atomic orbitals, the hybridization of atomic orbitals
and the principles of variation and superposition.

Postulates of Valence Bond Theory

 Covalent bonds are formed when two valence orbitals (half-filled) belonging to two
different atoms overlap on each other. The electron density in the area between the
two bonding atoms increases as a result of this overlapping, this increase the
stability of the resulting molecule.

 The presence of many unpaired electrons in the valence shell of an atom enables it
to form multiple bonds with other atoms. According to this theory the paired
electrons present in the valence shell do not take participate in the formation of
chemical.

Orbital Overlap Concept

 In the formation of hydrogen molecule, there is a minimum energy state when two
hydrogen atoms are so near that their atomic orbitals go under partial
interpenetration. This partial merging of atomic orbitals is known as the overlapping
of atomic orbitals which results in the pairing of electrons.

 The extent of overlapping decides the strength of a covalent bond. Greater the
overlap the stronger is the bond formed between two atoms.

Overlapping of Atomic Orbitals

 When orbitals of two atoms come close to form bond, their overlap may be positive,
negative or zero, it all depends upon the sign (phase) and direction of orientation of
amplitude of orbital wave function in space. The formation of covalent bonds applies
equally to the homonuclear/heteronuclear diatomic molecules and polyatomic
molecules.

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Types of Overlapping and Nature of

Covalent Bonds
 The covalent bond may be classified into two types depending upon the types of
overlapping: (i) Sigma(σ) bond, and (ii) pi(π) bond

Sigma(σ) bond
 This type of covalent bond is formed by the end to end (head-on) overlap of bonding
orbitals along the inter-nuclear axis, this is also called head on overlap or axial
overlap.

s-s overlapping
 In this case, there is overlap of two half-filled s-orbitals along the inter-nuclear axis.

s-p overlapping
 This type of overlap exists between half-filled s-orbitals of one atom and half-filled p-
orbitals of another atom.

p–p overlapping
 This type of overlap takes place between half-filled p-orbitals of the two approaching
atoms.

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pi(π ) bond
 In the formation of π bond the atomic orbitals overlap in such a way that their axes
remain parallel to each other and perpendicular to the inter-nuclear axis. The orbitals
formed due to sidewise overlapping consists of two saucer type charged clouds
above and below the plane of the participating atoms.

Hybridisation
 The atomic orbitals combine to form new set of equivalent orbitals called hybrid
orbitals. The hybrid orbitals are used in bond formation. The phenomenon is
known as hybridization.

 This can also be defined as the process of mixing of the orbitals of slightly different
energies so as to redistribute their energies, resulting in the formation of new set of
orbitals of equivalent energies and shape.

 The number of hybrid orbitals is equal to the number of the atomic orbitals that get
hybridized.

 The hybridized orbitals are always equivalent in energy and shape.

 The hybrid orbitals are more effective in forming stable bonds than the pure atomic
orbitals.

Types of Hybridisation
There are various types of hybridisation in s, p and d orbitals.

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1. Sp hybridization: This type of hybridisation involves the mixing of one s

and one p orbital resulting in the formation of two equivalent sp hybrid orbitals.

2. Sp2 hybridization: In this hybridisation there is involvement of one s and

two p-orbitals in order to form three equivalent sp2 hybridised orbitals.

3. Sp3 hybridization: This type of hybridisation can be explained by the

example of CH4 molecule in which there is mixing of one s-orbital and three p-
orbitals of the valence shell to form four sp3 hybrid orbital of equivalent energies

Hybridisation of Elements involving d Orbitals

 The elements present in the third period contain d orbitals in addition to s and p
orbitals. The energy of the 3d orbitals are comparable to the energy of the 3s and 3p
orbitals. The energy of 3d orbitals are also comparable to those of 4s and 4p
orbitals. As a consequence the hybridisation involving either 3s, 3p and 3d or 3d, 4s
and 4p is possible.

Molecular Orbital Theory

 According to this theory the electrons in a molecule are present in the various
molecular orbitals as the electrons of atoms are present in the various atomic
orbitals.

 The atomic orbitals of comparable energies and proper symmetry combine to form
molecular orbitals.

 While an electron in an atomic orbital is influenced by one nucleus, in a molecular

orbital it is influenced by two or more nuclei depending upon the number of atoms in
the molecule. Thus, an atomic orbital is mono-centric while a molecular orbital is
polycentric.

 The number of molecular orbital formed is equal to the number of combining atomic
orbitals. When two atomic orbitals combine, two molecular orbitals are formed. One
is known as bonding molecular orbital while the other is called anti-bonding
molecular orbital.

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Conditions for the Combination of Atomic Orbitals

 The combining atomic orbitals must have the same or nearly the same energy.

 The combining atomic orbitals must have the same symmetry about the molecular
axis.

 The combining atomic orbitals must overlap to the maximum extent.

Types of Molecular Orbitals

 Molecular orbitals of diatomic molecules are designated as σ (sigma), π (pi), δ
(delta), etc.

 The sigma (σ) molecular orbitals are symmetrical around the bond-axis while pi (π)
molecular orbitals are not symmetrical.

Electronic Configuration and Molecular Behavior

 The distribution of electrons among various molecular orbitals is called the electronic
configuration of the molecule.

 Bond order is defined as one half the difference between the number of electrons
present in the bonding and the anti-bonding orbitals.

Hydrogen Bonding
 Nitrogen, oxygen and fluorine are the higly electronegative elements.

 When these are attached to a hydrogen atom to form covalent bond, the electrons of
the covalent bond are shifted towards the more electronegative atom. This partially
positively charged hydrogen atom forms a bond with the other more electronegative
atom. This bond is known as hydrogen bond and is weaker than the covalent bond.

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 Hydrogen bond can be defined as the attractive force which binds hydrogen atom of
one molecule with the electronegative atom (F, O or N) of another molecule.

Hydrogen Bonding

Cause of Formation of Hydrogen Bond

 When hydrogen is bonded to strongly electronegative element ‘X’, the electron pair
shared between the two atoms moves far away from hydrogen atom. As a result the
hydrogen atom becomes highly electropositive with respect to the other atom ‘X’.
Since there is displacement of electrons towards X, the hydrogen acquires fractional
positive charge (δ+) while ‘X’ attain fractional negative charge (δ–).

 The magnitude of H-bonding depends on the physical state of the compound. It is

maximum in the solid state and minimum in the gaseous state. Thus, the hydrogen
bonds have strong influence on the structure and properties of the compounds.

Types of H-Bonds
 Intermolecular hydrogen bond: It is formed between two different molecules
of the same or different compounds. For example, H-bond in case of HF molecule,
alcohol or water molecules, etc.

 Intramolecular hydrogen bond: It is formed when hydrogen atom is in

between the two highly electronegative (F, O, N) atoms present within the same
molecule. For example, in o-nitro phenol the hydrogen is in between the two oxygen

CHEMISTRY | Chemical Bonding PAGE 15

Chemistry in
Daily Life
CHEMISTRY

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Chemistry in Daily Life

Medicines
Introduction
 Drugs are chemicals of low molecule mass (~ 100–500u).

 They interact with macromolecular targets and produce bio-reactions.

 When bio-reactions are therapeutic and beneficial, these chemicals are called drugs and are used to
diagnose, prevent and treat diseases.

 If more than the recommended amount is used, most drugs are effective poisons.

 The therapeutic use of chemicals is called Chemotherapy.

Classification of Drugs
On the basis of pharmacological effect
 It is useful for physicians because it is available to them for a particular treatment.

 For example, analgesics have an analgesic effect, destroy antiseptic microbes or inhibit their growth.

Based on the effect of the Drug

 It is based on the effect of the drug on a particular Biochemical process.

 For example, all antihistamines reduce the effect of the histamine compound, which produces
inflammation in the body.

Based on the chemical composition

 Drugs classified in this way share similar structural characteristics and often have similar pharmacological
functionalities.

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Based on Target-molecule
 Drugs typically interact with biomolecules, such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

 Those are called targets-molecules or drugs.

 Drugs with similar structural characteristics may have similar mechanisms of action.

 Target - Classification based on molecules is most useful for pharmaceutical chemists.

Drug Target Interaction

 Organic macromolecules perform various functions in the body.

 For example, proteins that act as bio-catalysts are called enzymes, proteins that are crucial in the body's
communication system are called receptors.

 Carrier proteins carry polar molecules across the cell body.

 Nucleic acids contain the symbolic genetic information of the cell.

 Lipids and carbohydrates are part of the structure of the cell.

 The drug-target interaction process can be described by the example of enzyme and receptor.

1. Like Enzymes Drug Targets

A. The catalytic function of enzymes

 In order to understand the interactions between drugs and enzymes it is necessary to know how to do
enzymes catalyze reaction.

 Enzyme do two major work in catalytic activity:

 The first function of an enzyme is to hold the substrate for chemical reaction.

 The active surface of the enzyme holds the functional molecule in the appropriate position,
allowing it to be effectively attacked by the reactant.

 Functions are bound by a variety of interactions on the active surface of the enzyme, such
as ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, wander wall interactions, or dipoles - bipolar forces.

 The second function of an enzyme is to provide a functional group to react to the chemical reaction
by attacking the base, which will attack the reaction.

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B. Drug-enzyme interaction

 Drugs inhibit any of the above activities of enzymes.

 They can block the binding surface of enzymes and interfere with the binding of enzymes or they can
inhibit the catalytic function of enzymes, such drugs are called enzyme inhibitors.

 Drugs can inhibit the combination of reactants on the active surface of an enzyme in two ways:

 Drugs compete with the actual agents on the active surface of the enzyme.

 Such drugs are known as competitive inhibitors.

 Some drugs do not combine on the active surface of the enzyme.

 It combines on different surfaces of the enzyme which is called allosteric surface.

 Combining on the allosteric surface of the resistor changes the shape of the active surface
in such a way that the substrate cannot recognize it.

 If the bond between the enzyme and the inhibitor is a strong covalent bond and cannot be
broken easily, the enzyme is permanently blocked.

 The body then degrades the enzyme-inhibitor clusters and creates a new enzyme.

2. Like Receptors Drug Targets

 Receptors are the deciding proteins of the body's circulatory system.

 Most of these are located in the cytoplasm.

 Receptive proteins are located in the cell in such a way that their small active surface part opens up in the
outer region of the cell.

 Some chemicals in the body transmit the message between the Nerve cells and muscle.

 These chemicals, called chemical messengers, are ingested on the binding surface of receptor proteins.

 The receiver size changes to accommodate the messenger.

 This causes the message to reach the cell.

 In this way chemical messengers convey the message within the cell without entering the cell.

 These receptors appear to be selective towards one of the chemical carriers.

 Because their bonding surfaces have different size, structure, and amino acid composition.

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 The drugs which bind on the surface of the receptor and obstruct its natural function are called
antagonists.

 This is beneficial for blocking messages.

 The second types of drugs are those that activate the receptor by imitating the natural messenger, these
are called Agonists.

 These are beneficial in the absence of natural chemical messengers.

Therapeutic Effects of Drugs of various Categories

1. Anti-Acid
 Excess production of acid in the stomach causes excitement and pain.

 Until 1970, acidity was treated only by Sodium Hydrocarbonate and Magnesium Hydroxide.

 But excessive sodium hydrogen carbonate alkalizes the stomach and induces more acid production.

 Metallic hydroxides are the better treatment.

 Because they are insoluble, they do not allow pH to move indifferently.

 Both treatments only control the symptoms of the disease, not the cause.

 Therefore, the treatment of the patient with these metal salts was not easy at first.

 Due to the ulcer (ulcer) being fatal in the advanced stage, its only treatment was to remove the diseased
part of the stomach.

 The main changes in the treatment of hyperemia occurred after that discovery.

 The drug cimetidine design was designed to prevent the interaction of histamine with receptors located in
the gastric wall.

 The importance of this drug was so great that Ranitidine (Zantec) was discovered.

2. Histamine
 Histamine is a potent vasodilator.

 It narrows the smooth muscles of the bronchioles and esophagus and softens the walls of other muscles,
such as blood vessels.

 Histamine is also the cause of nasal congestion caused by colds and allergies caused by pollen.

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 Brompheniramine (Dimetep) and Turphenadine (Seladein), a synthetic drug, act as antihistamines.

 It competes with histamine for the binding surface of the receptor on which histamine exerts its effect and
thus hinders the natural function of histamine.

Now the question arises why the above antihistamine does not affect the acid secretion of the stomach?

 The reason is that anti-allergic and anti-acid drugs work on different receptors.

3. Neural active drugs

 Pacific and Analgesics are neurologically active drugs.

 These affect the message-carrying process from nerve to receptor.

A. Pacific

 Pacific is a class of chemical compounds that are used in stress and minor or major mental illnesses.

 It inspires the feeling of being good, relieves anxiety, stress, anger or excitement.

 These are essential components of sleeping pills.

 Noradrenalin is a neurotransmitter that plays a role in mood changes.

 These drugs inhibit the enzymes that catalyze the degradation of noradrenaline.

 Equanil is used to control depression and atrophy.

 Barbiturates are sleepy, meaning they are used to sleep.

B. Analgesics

 It reduces or eliminates analgesic pain without consciousness, attenuation, psychosis, disorganization or

paralysis or any other obstruction in the nervous system.

 They are classified as follows:

 Asparagus Analgesic (non-sedative or non-addictive)

 Narcotic Drug (narcotic)

i) Asparagus Analgesic (non-narcotic)

 Aspirin and paracetamol are non-narcotic analgesics.

 Aspirin is the most common medicine.

 These drugs are effective in

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 Relieving the pain caused by skeletal pain, such as rheumatoid arthritis.

 Reducing fever (antipyretic) and stopping the uterine quivering.

 Prevent heart attacks due to the effect of not allowing blood clots to form.

ii) Narcotic Analgesic (narcotic analgesic)

 Morphine and many of its homogenes, when given in medicinal quantities, relieve pain and bring
them to sleep.

 In toxic amounts, they are insignificant, diabolical, twitching and finally death.

 Morphine Narrators are sometimes called Ahiphene (Opiates) because they are derived from
Poppy (Opium poppy).

 These analgesics are mainly used to give relief in post-operative pain, heart pain, end stage cancer
pain and labor pains.

C. Antimicrobial

 Diseases in humans and organisms can be caused by various microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses,
fungi and other parasites.

 Antibiotics are resistant, antibacterial and antibacterial drugs.

i) Antibiotics

 Antibiotic drugs are used to treat infections due to being less toxic to humans and organisms.

 Antibiotics, complete or partially by chemical synthesis, are said to be those substances that inhibit
or destroy their growth by inhibiting metabolic processes of microorganisms in low concentrations.

 In the 19th century, the discovery of such chemicals began to adversely affect the invading
organisms, but not on the host.

 The German biologist Paul Elish was the originator of this assumption.

 They investigated arsenic-based structures for the purpose of preparing less toxic substances for
the treatment of syphilis.

 He made the drug Arsphenamine known as Salvarsan.

 Paul Elish received the Nobel Prize for Medical Sciences in 1908 for this discovery.

 It was the first effective treatment discovered for the treatment of Syphilis.

 Although Salvarsan is toxic to humans, its effect on the Spirochete Bacterium, which produces
Syphilis, is much greater than in humans.
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 In 1932, he succeeded in making the first effective antibacterial, ‘Pontosil’, which resembles
Salvarsan in structure.

 It was soon discovered that in the body, contosil is converted into a compound sulfanyl amide,
which is the actual effector compound, thus sulfa drugs were discovered.

 The real revolution in antibacterial medicine started in 1929 with Alexander Fleming's antibiotic
discovery in penicillium fungi.

 It took 13 years to collect enough of the material for medical testing by separation and purification.

 The following are some examples of both types of antibiotics.

Antibacterial Antibodies

Penicillin Erythromycin

Aminoglycoside Tetracycline

Ofloxacin Chloramphenicol

 Penicillin is produced in India by Hindustan Antibiotics in Pimpri and in the private industrial
sector.

 Chloramphenicol is a broad spectrum antibiotic isolated in 1947.

 It is quickly absorbed into the gastrointestinal region.

 It is fed in diseases like typhoid, dysentery, acute fever, some urinary infections, meningitis and
pneumonia.

ii) Antiseptic and disinfectant (disinfectant)

 Antiseptic and disinfectant are also chemicals that either destroy microorganisms or inhibit their
growth.

 Anticonvulsants are applied to living tissues, such as wounds, bruises, ulcers and the surface of
diseased skin.

 The commonly used antidepressant Detol is a mixture of Chloroxylenol and Terpineol.

 Bithionol is added to soap to provide antiseptic properties (the compound is also known as bi-
ithanel).

 Iodine is a strong antidote.

 Its alcohol-water mixture of 2-3% solution of Iodine is called Tincture.

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 Iodoform is also used as antiseptic on wounds.

 By changing the concentration, the same substance can act as antiseptic or sterile.

D. Antigenicity

 Antigenicity drugs are useful in population control.

 Birth control pills necessarily contain a mixture of synthetic estrogen and progesterone derivatives. Both
compounds are hormones.

 It is known that ‘progesterone inhibits ovulation’.

 Synthesized progesterone derivatives are more effective than natural progesterone.

 Norethindrone is an example of a synthetic progesterone derivative widely used in reproductive control

pills.

 Ethinylestradiol (Novastrol) is an estrogen derivative used in reproductive control pills with a

progesterone derivative.

Chemicals in Food
 Reasons for adding chemicals to foods are

 Preservation of them

 Increasing attractiveness

 Promoting nutritional quality

 The following are the major classes of food additives added to food items

 Food dyes

 Flavor and sweeteners

 Fat emulsifiers and stabilizers

 Flour reformers that prevent rancidity and bleaches

 Antioxidants

 Preservatives

 Nutritional supplements such as minerals, vitamins and amino acids.

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 They are added either for the purpose of enhancing the safety of the stored food or to enhance its beauty.

1. Artificial Sweeteners
 Natural sweeteners such as sucrose increase the calories consumed.

 Ortho Sulfo Benzamide, also known as saccharin, is the first popular artificial sweetener.

 It is about 550 times sweeter than cane sugar.

 It is excreted from the body in unchanged form with urine.

 It appears completely inactive and harmless after consumption.

 Its use is very important for patients with diabetes and those who need to control calorie intake.

A. Aspartame

 Aspartame is the most successful and widely used synthetic sweetener.

 It is about 100 times sweeter than sucrose.

 It is a Methyl Ester of a dipeptide made of Aspartic Acid and Phenylalanine.

 Its use is limited to cold foods and beverages only.

B. Alitem

 Alitem is a more potent sweetener.

 It is more permanent than aspartame.

 It is difficult to control sweetness when used.

C. Sucralose

 Sucralose is a trichloro derivative of sucrose.

 Its form - color and taste is like sugar.

 It is stable at cooking temperature.

 It does not give calories.

2. Food Preservatives
 Food preservatives protect food from malfunctions caused by the growth of microorganisms.

 Eating salt, sugar, vegetable oil and sodium benzoate are commonly used preservatives.

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 Sodium benzoate is used in limited quantities and it becomes metabolized in the body.

 Sorbic Acid and Propanoic Acid salts are also used as preservatives.

3. Antioxidant
 These are important and essential food additives.

 They aid in food preservation by slowing down the action of oxygen on the food.

 Their action towards oxygen is more than that of the food they prescribe.

 Butylated HydroxyToluene (BHT) and Butylated Hydroxy Anisole (BHA) are two such antioxidants.

 After adding BHA to butter, it’s safe storage time increases from months to years.

 Sometimes citric acid is also mixed with BHT and BHA to make it more effective.

 Sulfur Di-oxide and Sulfite are useful antioxidants for the preservation of organic liquor, beer, sugar
syrup, peeled or dried fruits and vegetables.

Purification Reagent
 Two types of scavengers are used as purification reagents,

 Soap

 Synthetic detergent

 It improves the purification properties of water.

 They aid in the removal of fat, which clings to clothing and skin along with other substances.

1. Soap
 Soaps are very old scavengers.

 Soaps used for cleaning are Sodium or Potassium salts of long-chain fatty acids, such as stearic, oleic and
palmitic acids.

 Soaps containing sodium salts are made by heating fat (glyceryl ester of fatty acids) with an aqueous
solution of sodium hydroxide. This reaction is called saponification.

 In this reaction the ester of fatty acids is hydrolyzed and the soap obtained remains in colloidal state.

 It is precipitated by adding sodium chloride to the solution.

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 After removing the soap, glycerol remains in the remaining solution, which can be obtained by efficient
distillation.

 Only sodium and potassium soap are soluble in water and used for cleaning.

 Potassium soaps are generally more gentle to the skin than sodium soaps.

 They can be made using potassium hydroxide solution in place of sodium hydroxide.

Types of Soaps

 Soaps are basically made by boiling soap fat or oil with appropriate soluble hydroxide.

i) Cosmetic Soap

 Cosmetic soaps are made from the best fats and oils and care is taken to remove excess of Alkali.

 Colors and fragrances are added to make them more attractive.

ii) Floating Soap

 Small bubbles of air are dissipated before they harden to make soap that floats in water.

iii) Transparent Soap

 Transparent soaps are made by dissolving soap in ethanol and then evaporating excess solvent.

Iv) Drug Soap

 Drug soaps are added with medicinal properties.

 Deodorant is added to some soap.

v) Beard Soap

 They contain glycerol to prevent beard soap from drying out quickly.

 When making this soap, the glue called rosin is applied.

 This makes sodium rosinate, which produces foam well.

vi) Washing Soap

 Washing soaps include supplements such as sodium rosinate, sodium silicate, borax and sodium
carbonate.

 To make the soap shavings, a layer of melted soap is mounted on a cold cylinder and scraped into
broken pieces.

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 Granular soap is small dried soap bubbles.

 Soap powders and cleansing soaps contain some soap, abrasives such as powdered pumice or fine
sand and builders such as sodium carbonate and trisodium phosphate.

Why do soaps not work in Hard Water?

 Hard water contains calcium and magnesium ions.

 These ions convert sodium or potassium soap into hard water into insoluble calcium and magnesium soap,
respectively.

 These insoluble soaps are separated from water like Scum and are useless for the purpose of purification
reagent.

 Due to this viscous substance in clothes washed with hard water and soap, the dye is not absorbed evenly.

2. Synthetic Detergent
 Synthetic scavengers are purification reagents that have all the properties of soap, but which are not
actually soap.

 It can be used in both soft and hard water, as it also forms foam in hard water.

 Some scavengers also foam in icy water.

 Synthetic detergents are divided into three classes

 Anionic Detergent

 Cationic Detergent

 Non-ionic Detergent

A. Anionic Detergent

 By reacting long chain alcohols with concentrated sulfuric acid, alkyl hydrogen sulfates are formed which
become neutral detergents when neutralized with alkali.

 Sodium salts of alkyl benzene sulfonates are important classes of anionic detergents.

 They are mostly used in domestic use.

 Anionic scavengers are also used in dentistry.

B. Cationic Scavengers

 Cationic scavengers are quiescent salts made with acetate, chloride or bromide anions of amines.

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 These have long hydrocarbon chains in the cationic part and a positive charge on the nitrogen molecule.

 Therefore, they are called cationic detergents.

C. Non-Ionic Scavengers

 There are no ions in the structure of non-scavengers.

 One such detergent is formed by the reaction of stearic acid and polyethylene glycol.

 The liquid scavengers used to wash dishes are anaerobic.

 The purification mechanism of such detergents is the same as that of soap.

 They also expel oil and fat by making them micelles.

 The major problem in the use of synthesized detergents is that if they contain more branched hydrocarbon
chains, bacteria cannot easily degrade them.

 They remain in the water even after sewage management and produce foam in river ponds and springs
and their water becomes polluted.

 Nowadays, shaking in the hydrocarbon chain is controlled and kept to a minimum.

Glass
 Glass is a very useful substance in daily life.

 It is used to make glass bottles, light bulbs, glass of windows and doors, mirror of eyeglasses, mirrors for
face view and other equipment used in cars and buses etc.

 Glass is often a homogeneous mixture of different Silicates.

 There is no definite melting point or composition of Glass.

 Glass is not a compound but a mixture.

 It can be represented by the following formula

 xR2O.yMO.6SiO2

 Here R expresses the number of alkaline metals Na & K

 M expresses bisector metals Ca, Pb & Zn

 x and y express number of molecules

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 Ordinary glass is also called soda glass.

 The adjacent composition of this is Na2O.Cao.6SiO2

 Some glass may also have alumina, Al2O3 and borate (B2O3) in place of silica, SiO2.

 The following are the common features of glass

 It is amorphous.

 It does not have a fixed melting point.

 It is a transparent or an atopic solid material.

 It is the non-conductor of electricity.

 It does not react with air, water and acids.

 An exception to this is HF which transforms silica into SiF4.

 It is affected by Alkalis.

 It is brittle.

 It melts and becomes soft on heating.

 It has high compressive strength.

 Objects of different shapes can be made from it.

Glass Components or Raw Materials

 The raw materials used in the manufacture of glass, called its components.

 It contain the following substances,

 Silica (SiO2) - In the form of sand

 Alkaline Metal Oxides - Soda in the form of Na2CO3 (soft glass), Potash as K2CO3

 Calcium oxide - CaCO3 in the form of chalk, limestone and lime

 Lead Oxide - As litharge, PbO or red lead, Pb3O4 (flint glass)

 Zinc Oxide - Heat and Shock Proof glass

 Borate - In the form of borax or boric acid

 Cullets - To reduce the melting point of the glass

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Coloring Material
 Oxides or salts of some metals are added to the collected glass to make colored glass.

 The substance to be added

 Cupric oxide, CuO or covalt oxide : Blue Color

 Cuprous oxide, Cu2O or selenium oxide : Red Color

 Chromic oxide, Cr2O3 or ferrous salts : Green Color

 Sodium uranate or ferric salt : Yellow Color

 Cadmium sulfide, CdS : Lime-like yellow Color

 Manganese dioxide, MnO2 : Violet or Pink Color

 Fe2O3 or excess quantities of CuO : Black Color

 Stannic oxide, SnO2 : Milky Color

 Carbon : Amber Color

 Potassium dichromate, K2Cr2O7 : Green or Green-Yellow Color

Glass Classification or types of Glass

Industrial glass can be classified as follows

1. Soft glass or soda lime

2. Hard glass or potash lime

3. Flint glass or lead glass

4. Pyrex glass or Jaina glass

5. Optical or crux glass

6. Silica glass or vitreosil

7. Wired glass

8. Safety glass

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Uses of different Glass

1. Soft Glass
 It is a mixture of sodium and calcium silicates.

 Adjacent composition of ordinary glass is Na2O.CaO.6SiO2

 It is used in making glass mirrors, bottles, jars and electric bulbs etc.

2. Hard Glass
 It is a mixture of silicates of potassium and calcium.

 Its approximate composition is K2O.CaO.6SiO2.

 It is specially used in making hollow equipment of various sizes in the laboratory.

3. Flint Glass
 This is also called lead glass.

 It is a mixture of potassium and land silicates.

 Its approximate composition is K2O.PbO.6SiO2.

 It is used in making electric bulbs, prisms and lenses of optical instruments, cathode ray tubes and neon
sign tubes etc.

4. Pyrex Glass
 It is also called borosilicate. It is heat resistant.

 It is used for making excellent laboratory equipment, kitchen utensils and television tubes.

5. Crookes Glass
 It contains phosphorus, lead silicate and some cerium oxide.

 CeO2 has the ability to absorb ultraviolet (UV) light.

 Therefore, this glass is also called optical glass. It is used to make lense.

6. Silica Glass (Vitreosil)

 It contains 95% silica.

 It is used in making chemical equipment, laboratory equipment, electric heaters and funces etc.

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7. Wired Glass
 This is made by placing a wire mesh in the middle of the glass sheet.

 It does not break into pieces when broken.

 It is used in making fire-resisting doors, windows and roofs.

8. Safety Glass
 It is prepared by placing a thin layer of vinyl plastic between two or three sheets of glass.

 It does not break and fly into pieces.

 It is useful in protecting against strong wind in vehicles and aircraft

9. Fiberglass
 The glass produced in the form of fibers by passing the collected glass into fine nozzles is called fiberglass.

 It is used as a highly insulating material for heat, electricity and sound.

10. Glass Wool

 It is a fibrous material like wool.

 It is completely heat-proof.

 It is used as a heat-resistant oven, motor, wall and roof in homes and industries.

 It is also used for electrical and noise resistance.

Manufacturing Process of Glass

Glass manufacturing process consists of the following terms,

1. Melting
 Bring silica, soda ash, limestone and glass pieces in proper proportions and grind them.

 They are heated to 1800°C with a mixture of producer gas and air in a furnace made of fire-clay.

 At this temperature, these substances melt and become glass.

 When whole CO2 is released, then this liquefied substance is decolorized by adding MnO or niter.

 Now add the appropriate dye material to make colored glass.

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 When the liquid substance stops forming bubbles, it is cooled to about 800°C.

2. Forming and Shaping

 Forming desired objects of different shapes by pressing the liquefied glass in rollers or by molding it or
islowing it.

3. Annealing
 Glass is a bad conductor of heat.

 Therefore, glass items become extremely brittle (breakable upon rapid cooling.

 They are cooled slowly by sending them to various decreasing temperature chambers to prevent them
from rupturing quickly.

 This process is called cooling the temperature of glass.

4. Finishing
 All the glass items obtained after heating are processed for cleaning, rubbing, polishing, cutting or
imprinting them, etc. to finalize the glass

Tempering of Glass
 When a hot glass vessel is immersed in cold oil, the outer surface of the vessel shrinks and hardens, while
the inner layer is stretched.

 This process is called glass tempering.

 Tempered Glass is used in automatic doors, large showrooms, cars, trucks and aircrafts, etc.

Industrial Application of Glass

Glasses are used in many industries i.e.,

 Making many devices used in various laboratories.

 Making bottles and vials for placing medicines in the pharmaceutical industry and making thermometers
devices.

 To make the glass to be used in transport vehicles i.e. cars, buses, rail and aircraft.

 Making eyeglasses, face mirrors and lenses.

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 Making windows and doors in building construction.

 Making glass used in kitchen items, decoration items, clock and furniture.

Ceramics Materials
 Those all things made of clay come under Ceramics, which after giving desired shape, are heated in fire to
make it hard.

 These contain inorganic and non-metallic substances which are treated or used at high temperatures.

 Ceramics include

 Ceramic cans

 Dinnerware

 Tea cups

 Plates and kettle

 Building bricks

 Tiles

 Sinks

 Sewer pipes

 Various types of refractory bricks

 Sanitary Fittings

 Industrial utensils

Classification of Ceramics Materials

It can be classified into two classes,

1. Heavy Clay Products

 These include bricks, roof tiles, drains tiles and or stone wares etc.

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2. Pottery Products
 Various characters made of terracotta, porcelain and clay come under this category.

 It can be classified in four categories,

A. Terracotta

 It consists of veins made of simple clay. They are porous.

 They are not heated to high temperatures.

B. Earthen Wares

 The shiny vessels of red and white clay come under it.

 They are considered permeable.

 They can be heated to high temperatures.

C. Stonewares

 These are impermeable for hard and fluid.

 They are made at high temperatures.

 They are not affected by gases and chemicals.

 These are used in making drainage pipes, carboys and wash basins.

D. Porcelain

 These utensils of clay are white and impermeable.

 They are tougher than glasses.

 They are more resistant to chemical reactions. These are the best items to buy.

 When they are heated at high temperatures, they become Translucent.

Constituents of Ceramics
 The main ingredients of Ceramics are clay, china-clay, feldspar and sand.

 Hence these products are used as Raw material in the formation of Ceramic products.

1. Clay

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 The soil which drenched behaves like plastic and when heated red, the plasticity ceases to be a hard
substance which does not have any effect of water, is called clay.

 Clay is aqueous aluminum silicate which is formed from the contamination of igneous and feldspar rocks.

2KAlSi3O8 + 2H2O + CO2 → K2CO3 + Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O + 4SiO2

Potash feldspar Clay

2. China Clay
 This is the primary quay if clay remains in its original place. This is pure and concentrated clay.

 Its color is white. It has very low iron content.

3. Feldspar
 Ceramic uses the following three types of feldspar

A. Potash feldspar - K2O.Al2O3.6SiO2

B. Soda feldspar - Na2O.Al2O3.6SiO2

C. Lime feldspar - CaO.AI2O3.6SiO2

 Feldspar is rapidly liquefied at about 1150°C.

 These ceramics act as flux and mortar in substances.

4. Sand
 Sand in nature is often in the form of Quartz, Flint and Sand stone etc.

 It is non-repellent and non-plastic.

Polymers
1. Polymers
 Interconnected Monomers with very high molecular weight are called Polymers.

 For example- Polythene, Polypropylene and Polystyrene, Tarylene, Teflon

2. Monomers
 The compound or compounds of which many of their molecules combine to form polymers with very high
molecular weight are called Monomers.

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 Therefore, the repeating units of ordinary molecules forming polymers are called repeating units.

 Only unsaturated compounds are Monomers.For example, Ethylene, Propylene, Styrene and
tetrafluoroethylene

3. Polymerisation
 The process in which several simple molecules of a Monomer interconnect to form a Polymer is called
Polymerisation.

4. Condensation
 The chemical actions in which molecules of the same compound or of different compounds often separate
water, HCI or NH3, and form compounds with high molecular weight, is called Condensation.

 For example Nylon is produced by condensation of Hexa-methylene Di-emine and Adipic Acid.

5. Homopolymer
 The polymer that is formed from the same type of monomer is called Homopolymer. For example
Polyethylene is equivalent to ethylene monomer.

6. Copolymer
 The polymer, which is made up of two or more different monomer molecules, is called Copolymer.

 Nylon is a copolymer of Hixa-methylene Di-emine and Adipic Acid.

 Terylene is a copolymer of Ethylene Glycol and Terephthalic acid.

7. Biopolymer
 Many carbohydrates and proteins which are also biomolecules are called Biopolymer.

8. Polyolefins
 Those sum polymers that are formed from ethylene or its derivative are called Polyolefins. For example
Polythene, Polystyrene.

9. Polydienes
 The aggregate polymers that are formed from two double bound dyes are called polydienes. For example
Neoprene or synthesized rubber, Buna – S.

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10. Polyacrylates
 Polymers made of esters of acrylic acid and CH2 = CH - COOH, are called Polyacylates. For example
Polyaconitrile (PAN), Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA).

11. Polyhalo-olefins
 The polymers made of halogen substituted olefins are Polyhalo-olefins. For example Poly vinyl chloride
(PVC), Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon)

12. Polyesters
 The condensation polymers that hold esters (-C00-) are called Polyesters. For example Terrylene or
Dacron, Glyptal

13. Polyamide
 The condensation polymers that hold amide (-CONH-) are called Polyamide. For example Nylon-6, Nylon-
66.

Characteristics of Polymers
The main characteristics of polymers are the following:

 Polymers are crystalline and amorphous.

 For example Bakelite is crystalline polymer while polyvinyl acetate, polyastane and PMMA are
Acrystalline polymers.

 In crystalline polymers, the molecules of the monomer are arranged in a particular order.

 In Acrystalline polymers, there is no systematic sequence of monomer molecules.

 Crystalline polymers are hard but amorphous polymers are soft.

 The density of crystalline polymers is high while the density of amorphous polymers is low.

 Polymers with higher molecular weight have higher viscosity.

 Crystalline polymers have greater chemical resistance due to their densification.

 Polymers at low temperatures exist as glassy substances.

 Acrystalline polymers do not have a definite drug as they become soft on heating.

 Polymers in flexible crystals are flexible.

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Difference between Polymerisation and Condensation

1. Polymerisation
 In Polymerisation, molecules of the same monomer combine together to form aggregating polymers.

 Small molecules such as water are not isolated from the participating molecules.

 There is no new C-C or C-N bond installed.

 In Polymerisation, the molecular weight of the polymer is the absolute multiple of the monomer.

 Polymerisation is often reversible.

2. Condensation
 In condensation, the same monomer or different monomer molecules combine to form condensed
polymers.

 In Condensation, the atomic molecules are usually isolated small molecules like water, HCI or NH3.

 New C-C or C-N bonds are installed in it.

 The molecular weight of the condensed polymer may or may not be the absolute multiplier of the
molecular weight of the original monomers.

 Condensation action is often irreversible.

Classification of Polymers
1. On the Basis of Origin
A. Natural Polymers

 These polymers are derived from natural means such as fauna and flora. For example Natural
rubber,Starch,Cellulose,Protein

B. Synthetic Polymers

 These polymers are made by humans in laboratories. For example Polydin, Nylon, Synthetic rubber,
PVC

2. On the basis of structure

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A. Linear Chain Polymers

 In these polymers, monomer units have interconnected and make a long linear series.

 These chains are arranged on top of each other.

 The strength of liquids, densities and stretches of these polymers are very high. For
example Polythene, Nylon, Polyestar

B. Branched Chain Polymers

 Monomer units are interconnected in such series with such long chain in which branched series of
different lengths are also studded.

 Their liquidity, density and tensile strength are low due to irregularly studded. For example
Starch, Glycogen

C. Cross Linked Polymers

 In these polymers, monomer units are joined crosswise. They form three dimentional networks.

 These polymers are brittle. For example Backelite, Malamine – formaldehyde, Resin

3. On the Basis of Synthesis

A. Addition Polymers

 These polymers are formed by repeatedly interconnecting monomer units without separating any
small molecules.

 For example Polyethylene, Polypropylene

B. Condensation Polymers

 These are formed on the separation of small molecules such as H2O, NH3, HCI etc.

 For example Nylon-66, Tarylene, Backelite

4. On the basis of Molecular Forces

A. Elastomer

 In these polymers, the elastic character is like a rubber.

 Weak inter molecular force works in the chains of these polymers. For example, Natural
rubber

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B. Fibers

 In these chains of polymers, there are some differential molecular rings in the form of hydrogen
bonding. They are long, thin and similar to threads. They are used in waving. For example Silk,
Dacron, Nylon-66

C. Thermoplastics

 Inter molecular force in these polymers are stronger than elastomer but weaker than fibers.

 They are soft on heating and hard on cooling.

 Therefore, by heating and cooling the wires repeatedly, various shapes can be molded. For
example Polyethylene, Polystyrene, Taflon, Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC)

D. Thermosetting Polymers

 These polymers undergo a complete transformation when heated.

 These, when heated, become highly crosswise, rigid and infusible. For example Backelite,
Melamine formeldehyde

Addition Polymers and their Industrial Application

1. Polyethylene
 It is also known as polythene.

 Its monomer is ethylene, whose 100 to 1,000 units combine to form a long chain solid.

 Industrial applications,

 Being an insulator, in the insulation of wires, making equipment

 As packing materials of various things

 Household goods such as toys, glasses and buckets, and unbreakable bottles, Apron and beakers
etc.

2. Polystyrene
 Its monomer is styrene.

 Polystyrene is made by free radical multiplication with presence of benzoyl peroxide.

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 Industrial applications- It is used in making toys and household items like combs, roof tiles, refrigerators
and television parts etc.

3. Poly Vinyl Acetate (PVA)

 Its monomer is vinyl acetate which is obtained by the action of acetic acid in the presence of HgSO 4 on
acetylene.

 Polyvinyl acetate is formed by the free radical multiplication of vinyl acetate in the presence of benzoyl
peroxide.

 Industrial applications,

 It is used in the manufacture of paints, varnishes, yarn, leather, cardboard and wrapping paper etc.

4. Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC)

 Vinyl Chloride is its monomer.

 Poly vinyl chloride is a hardened resin that is formed upon polymerization of vinyl chloride, which is
unaffected by acid, alkali and moisture.

 Industrial applications,

 It is used in making raincoats, hand bags, bicycle and motorcycle mudguards, toys, flooring and
curtains etc.

5. Poly Methyl Meth Acrylate (PMMA)

 It is also called Plexi glass.

 Its monomer is methyl methacrylate.

 Industrial applications,

 It is used as a glass replacement and cork is used in making decorative items.

 It is used in making lenses, television screens, aircraft windows, plastic ornaments and sinewars
etc.

6. Buna – S
 It is also called styrene butadiene rubber. The monomers of this co-polymer are styrene and butadiene.

 Industrial applications- It is used in making rubber soles, vaults, hose pipes and vehicle tires etc.

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7. Buna – N
 It is also called nitrile rubber. The monomers of this co-polymer are butadiene and acylonitrine.

 Industrial applications- It is used in making aircraft industry, conductor belts, printing rollers and oil
resistant fans.

8. Teflon
 The monomer of this polymer is tetrofluoroethylene.

 Industrial application,

 It is used as an insulator in electrical equipment and in making only wire.

 Non-stick utensils, chemicals containing utensils and chemicals carrying pipes are made from this.

Condensation Polymers and their Industrial Applications

1. Nylon-6
 Its monomer is caprolactam.

 Industrial applications-It is used in making synthetic fabrics, ropes, carpets and teeth brushes etc.

2. Nylon-66
 The monomer of this co-aggregator is hexamethylene damine and adipic acid.

 Both of these monomars contain six atoms of carbon.

 This is the reason that the polymer formed by their polymerisation is called Nylon-66.

 Industrial applications, it makes garments, ropes, carpets and taps etc.

3. Backelite
 Its monomers are formaldehyde and phenol.

 Industrial applications,

 This makes insulated plugs, switches and handles etc.

 Records of gramophones, combs, radio, telephone and television etc. are made by casting it in
appropriate molds.

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4. Melamine Formaldehyde
 Its monomers are melamine and formaldehyde.

 Industrial applications,

 This makes plastic crockery and non-rupture cups and panettes.

5. Urea Formaldehyde
 Its monomers are urea and formaldehyde.

 Industrial applications,

 It is used to make unbreakable cups, toys, fancy items, radio cabinets, telephones and upper
shining surface of tables.

6. Terylene or Dacron
 Its monomers are Ethylene Glycol and Terthalic Acid.

 Industrial applications,

 It is used in making 'Wash and Wear' clothing, seat belts, tire cords and tents.

7. Polyurethanes
 Its monomers are Ethylene Glycol and Ethyl Di-isocyanate.

 Industrial applications,

 Due to good resistivity to heat and chemicals, it is used in making films, foams, tires, soles and heels.

Biodegradable Polymers
 Polymers that degrade into non-toxic substances by bacteria or microorganisms are called Biodegradable
polymers.For example Paper, Cotton, Silk, Wool, Jute.These polymers do not pollute the atmosphere.

 Various types of plastics are not decomposed by microorganisms into toxic substances and pollute the
atmosphere. Hence plastic is a non-biodegradable polymer.

 Some of the main biodegradable polymers are

1. Poly Hydroxyl Butyrate–Co-2-Hydroxyvelerate (PHBV)

2. Poly Glycolic Acid (PGA)

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3. Poly Lactic Acid (PLA)

4. Poly Capro Lactone (PCL)

Use of PHBV
 It is used in the treatment of bones (Orthopaedic) plants.

 It is useful in controlled drug release. The drug in the PhBV capsule is released after degradation by its
enzyme. It is also degraded by bacteria.

Biomineralized polymers are mostly used in tailoring wounds and injuries. The main uses of biodegradable
polymers are,

 In surgical post-stiches

 In covering the agricultural products such as film and seeds

 In food packings and personal hygiene products

Inorganic Polymers
 Silicones Silicon resins whose composition consists of silicon and oxygen combined in alternate form and
organic atoms, R are connected with silicon atoms, are called Silicones.
 Silicones are inorganic polymers with repeating units R2SiO.

The main characteristics of Silicones

 Silicon is found as fluid, thick fluid, semi-solid and solid like rubber.
 These are resistant to permanent oxidation at high temperatures and good water resistance due to Si-O
bonding.
 The following are their main characteristics,
 They are strong insulators, chemically inert and water repellent, resistant to oxidation and heat,
elastic.

Uses of Silicon
 They are used in making waterproof fabrics, electrical equipment and container containers, and lubricant
and cable business, making tires of aircraft.

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Fats and Oils

 All substances related to fats and oils are collectively called lipids or lipides.

 Lipids have the following properties,

 They are insoluble in water but soluble in ether, vangein and chloroform.

 They are compounds similar to esters made of fatty acids or have the ability to form such esters.

 It can be used by living organisms.

Classification of Lipids
1. Simple Lipids
 These are esters made with alcohols of fatty acids. For example, Neutral Fat, Oil, Wax.

2. Compound Lipids
 These are esters of fatty acids with alcohol and any other group.

 They include phospholipid, glycolipid, chromolipid and aminolipid.

3. Derived Lipids
 These include fatty acids present in high fatty acids, sterols, cholesterol and high molecular weight lipids.

Lipids contain some saturated and unsaturated fatty acids:

 Saturated higher fatty acids are mainly pamitic acid, C15H31COOH and stearic acid, C17H35COOH.

 The unsaturated higher fatty acids are oleic acid, C17H33COOH and linolenic acid, C17H29COOH.

Formation of Fats and Oils

 Fats and oils are esters (triglycerides) made with glycerol of high fatty acids.

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Difference between Fats and Oils

1. Fats
 Fats are esters, made with glycerol of high fatty acids, i.e. tri glycerides, which have a high content of
saturated fatty acids.
 Fat contains glyceryl pemetate and glyceryl stearate. For example – Desi Ghee, Vegetable Ghee (Dalda,
Chariot).

2. Oils
 Oils are triglycerides made with glycerol of high fatty acids which have high unsaturated high fatty acid
portions.
 The oil contains glyceryl trioliate and glyceryl linoleate. For example, mustard, soybean and groundnut oil.

Saponification
 Fats and oils are decomposed by caustic bases (caustic soda, NaOH or caustic potash, KOH) to form sodium
or potassium salts of gluten and high fatty acids.

 These salts are called soaps and the process of making soap from fats and oils is called saponification.

 Sodium stearate and sodium pamitate, C15H31COONa are harsh soaps that are often used in laundry.

 Potassium salts such as potassium linoleate, C17H31COOK are soft soaps that are used for bathing.

Manufacturing of Soap
For making soap, mainly the following two substances are required,

1. Fats and Oils

 Fats are found from the fat of pig and buffalo etc. and oils from coconut, mahua and olive etc.

2. Caustic alkali
 Sodium hydroxide, NaOH is used for making hard soap and potassium hydroxide, KOH to make soft soap.

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Explosives
 Substances that decompose as a result of heat, friction or thrust and produce a large amount of gases and
heat and produce intense explosions are called explosives.

 For example Trinitro Tolchine (TNT), RDX, Dynamite.

 Explosives are often used in Blasting and Excavation processes. They are used in military operations to
make bombs, rockets, grenades and missiles. Fireworks and fireworks items are also made from them.

1. Trinitrotoluene (TNT)
 Nitrification of trinitrotoluene is done by 1:1 solution of conc. HNO3 and conc. H2SO4, then we get 2, 4, 6 -
Trinitrotoluene (TNT).

 Light yellow crystals of TNT are formed only after cooling the obtained fluid in cold water.

 The melting point of TNT is 81oC. It forms gaseous products upon detonation.

 TNT explodes and gives black smoke. TNT is a permanent high explosive that is less susceptible to fire and
shock.

 Before its use, a highly sensitive substance called a detonator is used with it. The detonator is a primary
explosive that encourages detonation of TNT.

 Uses:

 Used to fill TNT bombs and grenades etc.

 It is used to make amatol explosives by mixing with ammonium nitrate which is used to break old
buildings and rocks etc.

2. RDX
 It is also known as Cyclonite or Cyclo Methylene Trinitroamine.

 It is made by reaction of hexamethylene tetramine with concentrated nitric acid.

 RDX is a strong explosive substance because its decomposition results in the formation of all gaseous
products.

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 Uses:

 RDX is used in bombs and rockets etc.

3. Dynamite
 The major ingredient in dynamite is the explosive organic matter glyceryl trinitrate (nitroglycerin).

 Glycerol is reacted with a mixture of concentrated HNO3 and concentrated H2SO4 at 20°C to form glyceryl
trinitrate.

 Glyceryl trinitrate is a colorless oily liquid that is insoluble in water.

 Glycery trinitrate is absorbed on wood sawdust to make dynamite.

 Ammonium nitrate or sodium nitrate is added to it so that it becomes in solid state.

Paints and Varnish

Paints
 Paints are the mixture of one or more pigments and drying oil.

 By spreading the paint on a surface, it transforms into a solid state and forms a sticky layer of adhesive.

 This provides protection and decoration to the surface of the objects.

Ingredients of Paints
A. Drying Oils

 These include Linseed Oil, China Wood Oil, Cotton Seed Oil and Soyabean Oil etc.

 Lead or manganese salts are also added to reduce the drying time of the oil.

B. Pigments

 They contain white lead (basic lead carbonate), 2PbCO3.Pb (OH)2, Zinc Oxide and Lithopone
(analogous mixture of BaSO4 + ZnS) etc. are white colored substances and other coloring
substances.

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C. Thinner

 Turpentine oil is used to dilute the thickener as needed to make it suitable for coating.

 In addition, ceramic, silica and talc are also added in the paint for its good grip on the surface of the
object.

Characteristics of a Good Paint

 Paint should be beautiful, shiny and durable. It should be quick drying.

 It should be opaque and inert to chemicals. Its covering capacity should be high.

 Cracks should not come after drying. It should be non-toxic.

Types of Paints
A. Readymade Paints

 These are powdered or thickened liquids in which turpentine oil is mixed and used.

B. Enamel Paints

 These paints are also readymade. They are made by mixing varnish in safeda or white-zinc.

C. Cement Paints

 These are made by mixing salt, extinguished lime and various colors in white cement.

4. Aluminum Paints

 They are made by mixing fine aluminum powder with varnish. It is shiny and corrosion resistant.

5. Plastic Paints

 The surface made of this paint is strong and shiny. The spots on it can be cleaned by washing with
water.

6. Distemper

 They are made by mixing chalk, essential color and water. They have no effect on the weather.

Varnish
 Varnish is the solution of natural or synthesized resins in spirit or oil.

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 The main components of a varnish are as follows:

1. Natural Resin
 These include Shellac, Resin and Damar etc.

2. Synthetic Resin
 These include phenol-formaldehyde resins, urea-formaldehyde resins, alkyl resins and vinyl resins etc.

3. Vehicle
 Linseed, Tung or Perrila oil as a carrier by providing fluidity to apply oil resins to any surface.

4. Drier
 Litharge and linoleate of lead & manganese are helpful in quick drying of varnish.

5. Tinting Agents
 They are added to the varnish to produce Tint.

Properties of Good Varnish

1. It should be quick drying. Its layer should be shiny and permanent.

2. After drying it should not have cracks on its surface.

3. Its layer should be resistant to air, moisture, heat or sunlight. It should be non-toxic.

Types of Varnish
1. Spirit varnish
 It is made by dissolving the shellac in the methylated spirit.

 It is often used in furnitures. It is affected by the environment.

2. Oil varnish
 It is made by mixing resin or copal linseed oil.

 Turpentine oil is also added to it. It does not dry our quickly.

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3. Turpentine Varnish
 It is made by dissolving damper glue or other natural resins in turpentine oil. It dries quickly.

4. Laquers
 These shells are made by mixing lacquer with methylated spirit and pigment. It polishes motor cars etc.

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Important Fuels
& Composition
CHEMISTRY

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Important Fuels & Composition

What is a Fuel ?
 According to the law of conservation of energy, it can neither be created nor be destroyed, it can only be
changed from one form to another.

 Thus, we cannot produce energy to do certain work.

 Therefore, we use certain substances, which help us transform one form of energy to another form.

 For example, When we burn paper with a matchstick, light is produced by the flame.

 If we analyze this closely, light energy is not created over there, it has just been produced due to the
transformation of heat energy provided by the matchstick into light energy.

 Thus, we always need a certain substance to convert one form of energy into another for accomplishing
various jobs.

 We call such materials as fuels.

 In other words, any substance which upon combustion produces a usable amount of energy is known as
fuel.

 Example: fossil fuels, biogas, nuclear energy, etc.

Classification of Fuels
1. Renewable source of energy: one which is inexhaustible. Example: Solar energy.

2. Non-renewable source of energy: one which is exhaustible. Example: Fossil Fuels.

 Now, the energy produced by burning paper is not enough to run cars, but energy produced by burning
petrol is enough to do so.

 Thus, we can say that each fuel releases its own set of energy i.e. all of them do not release the same
amount of energy upon combustion.

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 The energy produced by combustion of one kg of fuel is known as its calorific value.

 Thus, we can differentiate different fuels based on their calorific value for their efficient usage.

 Furthermore, each of them has a different cost with respect to another.

 Some are cheaper while others are expensive.

 Therefore, we categorize fuel as an ideal based on different criteria.

Important Properties of Ideal Fuel

 An ideal fuel is readily available.

 An ideal fuel is cheap.

 An ideal fuel burns easily in the air at a moderate rate.

 It releases a large amount of energy.

 It should not leave behind any undesirable substances which can be harmful to us.

 It should not affect the environment adversely.

Types of Fuel
 Fuels can be generally classified into two factors:

1. On the basis of their fuels state

 Solid Fuels

 Liquid Fuels

 Gaseous Fuels

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 The energy produced by combustion of one kg of fuel is known as its calorific value.

 Thus, we can differentiate different fuels based on their calorific value for their efficient usage.

 Furthermore, each of them has a different cost with respect to another.

 Some are cheaper while others are expensive.

 Therefore, we categorize fuel as an ideal based on different criteria.

Important Properties of Ideal Fuel

 An ideal fuel is readily available.

 An ideal fuel is cheap.

 An ideal fuel burns easily in the air at a moderate rate.

 It releases a large amount of energy.

 It should not leave behind any undesirable substances which can be harmful to us.

 It should not affect the environment adversely.

Types of Fuel
 Fuels can be generally classified into two factors:

1. On the basis of their fuels state

 Solid Fuels

 Liquid Fuels

 Gaseous Fuels

CHEMISTRY | Important Fuels & Composition PAGE 4

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Based on their occurrence

 Natural Fuels

 Artificial Fuels

Examples of Fuels

Natural Fuels Artificial Fuels State

Tanbark
Bagasse

Solid Fuels

Liquid Fuels

Coal gas
Producer Gas
Water Gas

Gaseous Fuels
Blast Furnace Gas
Oil Gas

Solid Fuels
 Fuels which are found in their solid state at room temperature are generally referred to as Solid Fuels.

 They were the first kind of fuel known to be used by man, basically wood to create fire.

 Coal was another one of the influential fuels known to man as it leads the way for the industrial revolu-
tion, from firing furnaces to running steam engines.

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Advantages
 Easy to transport and store.

 Low production cost.

 Moderate ignition temperature.

Disadvantages
 Large portion of energy is wasted.

 Cost of handling is high, and controlling is also hard.

 Ash content is high & burn with clinker formation.

Coal
 Also called black gold.

 Found in sedimentary strata [layers of soil].

 Contains carbon, volatile matter, moisture and ash [in some cases Sulphur and phosphorous]

 Mostly used for power generation and metallurgy.

 Coal reserves are six times greater than oil and petroleum reserves.

 Peat, Lignite, Bituminous & Anthracite Coal.

 This division is based on carbon, ash and moisture content.

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Peat
 First stage of transformation.

 Contains less than 40 to 55 per cent carbon more impurities.

 Contains enough volatile matter and lot of moisture

 [more smoke and more pollution].

 Left to itself, it burns like wood, gives less heat, emits more smoke

 and leaves a lot of ash.

Lignite
 Brown coal.

 Lower grade coal.

 40 to 55 per cent carbon.

 Intermediate stage.

 Dark to black brown.

 Moisture content is high (over 35 per cent).

 It undergoes SPONTANEOUS COMBUS- TION [Bad. Creates fire accidents in mines]

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Bituminous Coal
 Soft coal; most widely available and used coal.

 Derives its name after a liquid called bitumen.

 40 to 80 per cent carbon.

 Moisture and volatile content (15 to 40 per cent)

 Dense, compact, and is usually of black colour.

 Does not have traces of original vegetable material.

 Calorific value is very high due to high proportion of carbon and low moisture.

 Used in production of coke and gas.

Anthracite Coal
 Best quality; hard coal.

 80 to 95 per cent carbon.

 Very little volatile matter.

 Negligibly small proportion of moisture.

 Semi-metallic lustre.

 Ignites slowly less loss of heat

 highly efficient.

 Ignites slowly and burns with a nice short blue flame. [Complete combustion

 Flame is BLUE little or no pollutants. Example: LPG]

 In India, it is found only in Jammu and Kashmir, but in small quantity.

Liquid Fuels

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 Most liquid fuels are derived from the fossilized remains of dead plants and animals by exposure to heat
and pressure in the Earth’s crust.

 The fumes of the liquid fuel are flammable instead of the liquid.

Advantages
 Higher calorific value per unit mass.

 Burn without ash, clinkers, etc.

 Controlling the combustion is easier.

 Transportation easier through pipes and stored indefinitely without loss.

 Loss of energy is comparatively lower.

 Require less furnace space for combustion.

Disadvantages
 Cost of liquid fuel is much higher compared to solid fuel.

 Storage methods are costlier.

 Greater risk of fire hazards.

 Special burning equipment required for more efficient combustion

Petrol

 The color and viscosity of petroleum vary markedly from one place to another.

 Most petroleum is dark brown or blackish in color, but it also occurs in green, red, or yellow.

 Although there is considerable variation between the ratios of organic molecules, the elemental compo-
sition of petroleum is well-defined:

 Carbon - 83 to 87%

 Hydrogen - 10 to 14%

 Nitrogen - 0.1 to 2% 4. Oxygen - 0.05 to 1.5% 5. Sulfur - 0.05 to 6.0%

 Oxygen - 0.05 to 1.5% 5. Sulfur - 0.05 to 6.0%

 Sulfur - 0.05 to 6.0%

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 Metals - < 0.1%

Refining of Petrol
 Products produced in Petroleum Refining Process

 Petroleum Gas: Generally, liquefied petroleum gas is useful for domestic fuel.

 Gasoline: Procuration of petrol occurs from this fraction.

 Kerosene: It is used as domestic fuel and as fuel in jet engines.

 Diesel oil or light oil: It is useful in the automobile industry.

 Heavy Oil or Lubricating Oil: This type of oil is used in making lubricating oils.

 Fuel Oil: It is essential for ships, central heating, and factories.

 Residue: We can procure products like paraffin wax, bitumen from this residue. It is useful for making
roads and roofing.

Gaseous Fuels
 Gaseous fuels occur in nature, besides being manufactured from solid and liquid fuels.

 Most gaseous fuels are composed of hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, hydrogen or a mixture of them all.

Advantages
 Transportation through pipes is easy.

 Sparking combustion is really easy.

 They have a higher heat content.

 Clean after use.

 Do Not require any special burner technology.

Disadvantages
 Large storage tanks required.

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 As they are highly inflammable, the chance for fire hazards are extremely high and strict safety
measures need to be followed.

What are fossil fuels?

 Fossil fuels are the dead and decayed remains of plants and animals subjected to decades of pressure
and temperature under the earth’s crust.

 Primarily fossil fuels are hydrocarbons.

 They are convenient and effective.

 They provide the calorific value required to fulfill our needs.

 Even though they are available in plenty right now, they are a non-renewable source of energy.

 The burning of fossil fuels is responsible for a large section of the world’s pollution index.

Types of Fossil Fuels

 Coal

 Oil

 Natural Gas

Fuels and its Composition

Fuel Composition Sources

By passing stream overred

Water Gas Carbon monoxide (co) + Hydrogen (h2) hot coke

Producer Gas Carbon monoxide (CO) + Nitrogen ( N2)

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Coal Gas
+ Acetylene + CO + Nitrogen

Methan (83%) + Ethane From Petroleum

Liquefied PetroleumGas
(LPG) Butane (C4H10) 95% From Petroleum

Compressed Natu-ral
Gas (CNG) Methane (CH4) 95% From Petroleum

Biogas or Methane (CH4) + Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Gobar Gas From organic wastes

CHEMISTRY | Important Fuels & Composition PAGE 12

Metals &
Non-Metals
CHEMISTRY

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Metals & Non-Metals

Differences between Metals and Non-Metals

Elements are classified as metals and non-metals based on different properties. The prop- erties of metals and
non-metals are given in the form of table below-

Metals Non - Metals

They
are

All are generally soft.

Except for Diamond.

They -ductile.

They are non-malleable

Exception - Lead and mercury.

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Chemical Properties of Metals

Metal + O2 → Metal oxide

2Cu + O2 → 2CuO
4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3

2.

3. Such oxides are known as Amphoteric Oxides.

Al2O3 + 6HCl → 2AlCl3 + H2O

4.

5.

2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + 1H2

2Al + 3H2O → Al2O3 + 3H2

6. Metals also reacts with dilute acids to form salt and hydrogen.
For example, magnesium reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to form magnesium chloride and
hydrogen.
Metal + Acid → Metal Salt + Hydrogen
Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2

Chemical Properties of Non-Metals

1.
Non-metal + Oxygen → Non-metal oxide
C + O2 → CO2

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2.

3.

2 NaBr (aq) + Cl2(aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + Br2 (aq)

4.
H2(g) + S(l) → H2S(g)

Reactivity Series
The series in which metals are arranged in the decreasing order of reactivity, (most reactive to least reactive)

it is known as Reactivity Series

Metal Ion

1. Caesium Cs Cs+

2. Francium Fr Fr+

3. Rubidium Rb Rb+

4. Potassium K K+

5. Sodium Na Na+

6. Lithium Li Li+

7. Barium Ba Ba2+

8. Radium Ra Ra2+

9. Strontium Sr Sr2+

10. Calcium Ca Ca2+

11. Magnesium Mg Mg2+

12. Beryllium Be Be2+

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Metal Ion

13. Aluminium Al Al3+

14. Titanium Ti Ti4+

15. Manganese Mn Mn2+

16. Zinc Zn Zn2+

17. Chromium Cr Cr3+

18. Iron Fe Fe3+

19. Cadmium Cd Cd2+

20. Cobalt Co Co2+

21. Nickel Ni Ni2+

22. Tin Sn Sn2+

23. Lead Pb Pb2+

24. Antimony Sb Sb3+

25. Bismuth Bi Bi3+

26. Copper Cu Cu2+

27. Tungsten W W3+

28. Mercury Hg Hg2+

29. Silver Ag Ag+

30. Gold Au Au3+[5][6]

31. Platinum Pt Pt4

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Reactivity Series - Ionic Compounds

 Compounds formed due to the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal are known as Ionic
Compounds.

Reactivity Series - Covalent Bond

 Bond formed by sharing of electrons between the two atoms.

 They share their valence electrons to gain stability.

Properties of Ionic Compounds

 They are generally hard and solid.

 They have a high melting and boiling point.

 They are soluble in water but insoluble in inorganic solvents such as ether etc.

 They are conductors of electricity in molten and solution state.

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Occurrence of Metals
 Elements or compounds which occurs naturally in earth crust are known as Minerals.

 Minerals from which pure metals can be extracted are known as Mineral Ores.

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Steps for Extraction of Metals from its Ore

 The first step is enrichment of the ore.

 Second step includes extraction of metals

 Third steps involve refining of metal

 Gangue - Ores contain different impurities in it such as sand, soil etc.

 These impurities are known as Gangue.

Extracting Metals which are Low in Activity Series

 Metals which are low in activity series are unreactive.

 The oxides of such metals can be reduced to metals by heating alone. For Example, Cinnabar (HgS)

Extracting Metals in the middle of the Activity Series

 These metals are moderately reactive. They exist as sulphides or carbonates in nature.

 Before reduction, metal sulphides and carbonates must be converted into metal oxides.

 Sulphide ores are converted into oxides by heating strongly in presence of excess air, this is known as
Roasting.

 Carbonate ores are converted into oxides by heating in limited air.

 This is known as Calcination.

Roasting

Calcination

Reduction-metal oxides can be reduced to metals using reducing agent such as such as Carbon.

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Extracting metals towards the top of the activity series

 The metals are highly reactive.

 At cathode Na+ + e- → Na

 At anode 2Cl- → Cl2 + 2e-

Refining of Metals
 Refining of impure metal is done using electrolytic refining.

 Impure copper is used as anode and strip of pure copper is used as Cathode.

 Acidified copper sulphate is used as electrolyte.

 When electric current is passed through this, impure metal from

 the anode gets deposited in the electrolyte solution, whereas pure metal from the electrolyte is deposited
at cathode.

 Deposition of insoluble residue formed from the dissolution of anode during commercial electrolysis.

Electrolyte Refining

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Corrosion
 Metals when exposed to moist air for a long period of time, they become corroded.

 This is known as Corrosion.

 For Example, Silver reacts with moist air and becomes black in colour due to silver sulphide coating.

 Iron + oxygen → Iron (III) oxide

 Fe + O2 → Fe2O3

Prevention of Corrosion
 Rusting of iron can be prevented by oiling, galvanizing, painting, greasing etc.

 To protect steel and iron from rusting, a thin layer of zinc are coated on them, this is known as
Galvanization.

Alloy
 Mixture of two or more metals or metal and non-metal is known as Alloy.

For Example,

a. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.

b. Bronze in an alloy of copper and tin.

c. Solder is an alloy of lead and tin.

d. Amalgam is one metal is mercury.

Different uses of Metals

 Metals are usually very strong, most durable and highly resistant to everyday wear and tear.

 As such, they have been used since ancient times for a lot of things.

 Even today with advances in technology and a lot of other things the uses of metals have broadened
greatly.

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 Metals even play a key role in the economy.

 Let’s look at some of the important and popular metals uses.

 In the Construction Industry

 In electronics

 In medicine

 Machinery, Refractory and Automobiles

 Decorative products

 Other Uses

In the Construction Industry

 Metals are the main component in the construction industry.

 Metals like iron, steel amongst others are the main materials used in construction of buildings and even
homes.

In Electronics
 Another important application of metals are in electronics.

 As metals are good conductors of electricity, they are used to make

 wires and parts for equipments and gadgets that function on electrical current.

 Popular examples include, TV, mobiles, fridge, iron, computers etc.

In Medicine
 If you are wondering how, well from a biological perspective metals are found as micro-elements in our
bodies.

 Besides, the presence of metal elements is crucial for several functions

 like transmission of nerve impulses, oxygen flow, reaction between enzymes etc.

 Some medicines are therefore liaised with metal compounds to treat certain deficiencies or sickness.

 Metals like, iron, calcium, magnesium, potassium titanium, and aluminum are used commonly in medicine
in the form of antacids.

 Apart from this, most of the equipment and tools used are made from metals.

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Machinery, Refractory and Automobiles

 This is one of the most common use of metals.

 They are used extensively in manufacturing machines for industries, agriculture or farming and
automobiles which include road vehicles, railways, airplanes, rockets etc.

 Here, the commonly used metals are iron, aluminum and steel.

 Besides these, most of the utensils used in the kitchen are made from metals like steel, aluminum, and
copper.

 High temperature withstanding nature metals are preferred the most.

Decorative products
 Metals such as platinum, gold, and silver come under the category of precious metals and have high
economical value.

 These metals are widely used in making jewelry sets or for some decorative piece.

Other Uses of Metals

 Some of the other uses and applications of metals are, they play an important role in security as the metals
are used in making locks, strong safe, doors etc.

 Apart from this, furniture is made from metal these days.

 Metals also find their uses in the military where they are used to manufacture weapons and ammunitions.

 Some metals are used in galvanizing to protect from rusting.

Different uses of Non-Metals

 Amorphous form of carbon, charcoal is used for ultrafiltration in modern water filters.

 Also it is used in refrigerators to control bad odour.

 Below are the nonmetals uses in different fields:

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1. Uses of nonmetals in our daily life

2. Nonmetals used in fertilizers

3. Nonmetals used in crackers

Uses Of Non-Metals in our Daily Life:

Oxygen

 which is 21% by volume helps in the respiration process.

 It is also used for manufacturing of steel and provides high temperature in metal fabrication process.

 Oxygen cylinders are used in hospital.

Chlorine

 It is useful in removing stains and color patches as a bleaching agent.

 Various graded plastics and insecticides are made with chlorine.

 It helps in purification of water.

How? Adding chlorine to drinking water kills the bacteria.

Helium

 It is used as inert gas for scientific experiments.

 It is also used in weather balloons.

Iodine

 It helps from throat infections and is used as antiseptic on wounds and cuts.

Nonmetals used in fertilizers:

 Fertilizers contain nitrogen.

 It helps in plant growth.

 It enhances the rate of plant growth.

 Non-Metal phosphorus is also used for better plant growth.

 These two non-metals play a major role in plant growth.

Nonmetals used in crackers:

 Sulfur and phosphorus are used in fireworks.

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Allotropes
 Allotropes are different forms of the same element.

 Different bonding arrangements between atoms result in different structures with different chemical and
physical properties.

 The most notable examples of allotropes are found in groups 14, 15, and 16 of the periodic table.

 Gaseous oxygen, for example, exists in three allotropic forms:

 Monatomic oxygen (O),

 Diatomic molecule (O2), and

 Triatomic molecule known as ozone (O3).

 A striking example of differing physical properties among allotropes is the case of carbon.

 Solid carbon exists in two allotropic forms: diamond and graphite.

 Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring substance and has the highest melting point (more than 6,335°
F [3,502°C]) of any element.

 In contrast, graphite is a very soft material, the substance from which the "lead" in lead pencils is made.

 The allotropes of phosphorus illustrate the variations in chemical properties that may occur among such
forms.

 White phosphorus, for example, is a waxy white solid that bursts into flame spontaneously when exposed
to air. It is also highly toxic.

 On the other hand, a second allotrope of phosphorus known as red phosphorus is far more stable,

 It does not react with air, and is essentially nontoxic.

 Allotropes differ from each other structurally depending on the number of atoms in a molecule of the
element.

 There are allotropes of sulfur, for example, that contain 2, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 18, and 20 atoms per molecule
(formulas S2 to S20).

 Several of these, however, are not very stable.

CHEMISTRY | Metals & Non-Metals PAGE 14

Organic
Chemistry

CHEMISTRY

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Organic Chemistry
 "Organic chemistry" term was referred to those compounds which were obtained
from animals or plants and the substances obtained only from living organisms were
called organic substances.

 It is a separate branch of chemistry. According to the modern definition, organic

compounds are compounds that contain carbon as their essential constituent.
However, there are compounds like carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, metal
carbonates, and carbides that contain carbon but are arbitrarily studied along with
inorganic compounds.

 There are four electrons in the outermost shell of a carbon atom. It is difficult for the
carbon atom to lose or gain electrons to complete its octet. The carbon atom thus
shares its valence electrons with the electrons of other atoms of carbon or other
elements. For example, to form a molecule of methane (CH), a carbon atom bonds
covalently with four hydrogen atoms forming four covalent bonds. This property of
carbon atom is called tetravalency of carbon.

 The self-linking capacity of a carbon atom with other carbon atoms to form a giant
molecule is known as catenation. It is the property of catenation which is responsible
for the formation of a very large number of organic compounds carbon atoms can
combine with one another to form long chains or rings of different shapes and sizes,
such as-

(a) Straight chain

(b) Branched chain

(c) Closed chain

 Organic compounds that contain rings of atoms in their molecules are called cyclic
compounds. Open chain and acyclic organic compounds are called aliphatic
compounds.

Characteristics of Organic Compounds

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 All the organic compounds are covalent, i.e., all organic compounds are non-ionic in
nature.

 Most of the organic compounds are insoluble in water but soluble in organic
solvents.

 They have low melting and boiling points as compared to inorganic compounds.

 They possess the phenomenon of isomerism.

 When burnt in air, organic compounds produce carbon dioxide and water.

 The phenomenon by virtue of which two or more compounds having the same
molecular formula can be assigned different molecular structures is called
isomerism.

Isomerism

 A functional group is an atom or a group of atoms on which most of the properties of

the compound depend and which defines the structure of a particular family of
organic compounds.

 The chemical properties of the compounds containing the same functional group are
similar but their physical properties may be different

 A homologous series is a group, or a family, of organic compounds having similar

structures and similar chemical properties in which the successive members differ
by a CH2 group.

 Compounds that contain only the elements hydrogen and carbon are called
hydrocarbons. The molecular formula is CxHy.

Classification of Hydrocarbons

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 The system of the naming of organic compounds is called the nomenclature of

organic compounds. For aliphatic compounds, two systems of nomenclature are
used:

1) Common system or Trivial - distinguished by prefixes n, iso, and neo.

2) IUPAC system - consists of word root, suffix, and prefix.

Alkanes
 An alkane is a hydrocarbon that contains no multiple bonds. All the four valences of
carbon are satisfied by single bonds.

 General formula of alkanes is CnH2n+2, where n = 1, 2, 3... When n = 1, the alkane is

CH4; when n = 2, the alkane is C2H6 etc.

 Methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), Propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10) form the
homologous series of alkanes.

 A few of them also show isomerism.

 IUPAC system retains the common names for the first ten alkanes, but is used for
naming higher branched-chain alkanes.

Alkenes

 Alkenes are a homologous series of unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain carbon

carbon double bond.

 General formula for alkenes is CnH2n, where n = 2, 3, 4.... When n = 2, the alkene is
C2H4 when n= 3, the alkene is C3H6; when n = 4, the alkene is C4H8 etc.

 Their IUPAC names are derived from parent alkanes by replacing the suffix of
alkane by -ene, for example, Athene (C2H4), propene (C3H6), etc.

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Alkynes
 Alkynes are a homologous series of unsaturated hydrocarbons that contains carbon
carbon triple bond.

 General formula for alkynes is CnH2n-2, where n = 2, 3, 4..... When n = 2, the alkyne
is C2H2, when n = 3, the alkyne is C3H4 etc.

 Their IUPAC names are derived from parent alkanes by replacing the suffix ‘ane' of
alkane by -yne, for example, ethyne (C2H2), propyne (C3H4) etc.

Alcohols

 Alcohols form a homologous series of general formula CnH2n+1OH where ‘OH’ is the
hydroxy group and n is the number of carbon atoms for molecule of the alcohol.

 For naming the alcohols, the last letter 'e' of the parent alkane is replaced by the
ending ‘ol’ to indicate the presence of OH group. For example, methanol (CH3OH),
ethanol (C2H5OH), propanol (C3H7OH), etc.

 Ethanol when mixed with some quantity of methanol (about 5%) is called spurious
alcohol.

Aldehydes

 General formula for aldehydes is CH2n+1CHO where n = 0, 1, 2.... If n = 0, the

aldehyde is HCHO, when n = 1, the aldehyde is CH3CHO etc.

 Formaldehyde (HCHO), acetaldehyde (CH3CHO), propionaldehyde (C2H5CHO) etc.

form the homologous series of aldehydes.

 Their IUPAC names are derived from alkanes by replacing suffix 'e' of alkane by ‘-al'
for example, methanal (HCHO), ethanal (CH3CHO), etc.

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Carboxylic Acids
 General formula for carboxylic acids is R-COOH, where is an alkyl group having
formula.

 Carboxylic acids are classified as monocarboxylic acids, dicarboxylic acids, etc.,

according to the number of-COOH groups present in the molecule.

 Common names of carboxylic acids are derived from the name of source (plant or
animal) from which they were isolated, for example, formic acid (HCOOH), and
acetic acid (CH3COOH) propanoic acid (C2H5COOH) etc.

 Their IUPAC names are derived from parent alkanes by replacing suffixes of alkane
by -oic acid, for example, methanoic acid (HCOOH), ethanoic acid (CHCOOH),
propanoic acid (C2H5COOH), etc.

Methane
Occurrence

 Methane is the first member of alkanes having one carbon atom and four
hydrogen atoms. It has a tetrahedral structure.

 Methane is also called marsh gas because it is evolved in the marshy lands.

 It is also found in coal-mines, natural gas and coal gas.

Preparation

 In the laboratory, methane is prepared by heating a mixture of soda lime with

sodium acetate.

 Methane is also prepared by the loss of methyl iodide.

Physical Properties

 Methane is a colourless, odourless, tasteless and non-poisonous gas.

 Its melting point is 184°C and boiling point is 164°C.

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 It is sparingly soluble in water but readily soluble in organic solvents like ether
and alcohols.

 It is 1.8 times lighter than the air.

Chemical Properties

 Methane burns in excess of air with a blue, non-luminous flame forming

carbon dioxide and water.

 In a limited supply of air, methane burns with luminous flame forming carbon
monoxide and water

 Methane reacts with steam in the presence of nickel catalyst forming carbon
monoxide and hydrogen.

Uses:

 As a domestic fuel.

 For producing carbon black in automobiles as a fuel.

 For producing chloroform etc. by regulated chlorination.

 For manufacturing methanol, formaldehyde, etc.

Ethane
Occurrence:

 Ethane is the second member of homologous series of alkanes.

 It occurs in mineral oil and natural gas.

Preparation

 In the laboratory, ethane is prepared by heating soda lime with sodium

propionate.

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 Ethane is also prepared by the loss of ethyl iodide.

Physical Properties

 Ethane is an odourless, colourless and tasteless gas.

 Liquid ethane solidifies at -172°C and boils at 88.3°C.

 Ethane is slightly heavier than air.

 Ethane is partially soluble in water but highly soluble in ethanol.

Chemical Properties

 Ethane burns in excess of air to form carbon dioxide. In a limited supply of air,
it makes carbon monoxide and water.

 The oxidation of ethane with acidified potassium dichromate gives aldehyde,

alcohol, and acid.

 Ethane undergoes substitution reactions. It reacts with chlorine in diffused

sunlight giving chloro-derivatives.

Uses:

 As a gaseous fuel because of its high calorific value.

 As a fuel in automobiles.

 To prepare important compounds like acetaldehyde, ethanol, acetic acid, etc.

Ethene or Ethylene
Preparation

 By the dehydration of ethanol.

 Ethene is also prepared by dehydrohalogenation of alcoholic potassium

hydroxide with ethyl chloride.

CHEMISTRY | Organic Chemistry PAGE 8

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Physical Properties

 Ethene is a colourless gas with a very pleasant odour.

 It is sparingly soluble in water but dissolves readily in organic solvents.

 It is slightly lighter than air.

Chemical Properties

 Ethene burns in air with a sooty flame, but when burns in excess of oxygen, it
forms carbon dioxide and water.

 Ethene being unsaturated undergoes addition reactions.

 Ethene reacts with a large number of other ethene molecules to give a

compound of large molecular weight.

Uses:

 In the manufacturing of detergents.

 Artificial ripening and preservation of fruits.

 As general anaesthesia.

 Manufacture of synthetic chemicals, polymers.

Ethylene
Preparation:

 By the reaction of the water on calcium carbide.

 By boiling alcoholic potassium hydroxide solution with ethylene dibromide.

Physical Properties

 Ethyne is a colorless gas with a sweet smell.

CHEMISTRY | Organic Chemistry PAGE 9

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 It is lighter than air. It liquefies at 84°C under ordinary pressure and boils at -
75°C

 It is slightly soluble in water but dissolves readily in organic solvents like

acetone, etc

Chemical Properties:

 Ethyne burns in air to form water and carbon dioxide.

 Ethyne gives a number of addition reactions.

Uses:

 It can be used for illumination, especially in acetylene lamps.

 In the production of oxy-acetylene flame which is used for cutting and

welding,

 It can be used for artificial ripening of fruits.

 It can also use in the manufacture of organic compounds.

 Used as a starting material to prepare plastics, synthetic rubber, etc.

Ethanol
Preparation:

 Ethanol can also be prepared by ethene.

 Ethanol is prepared through hydrolysis of ethyl halides.

Physical Properties

 Ethanol is a colorless, inflammable volatile liquid, soluble in water.

 It is toxic in nature and lighter than water.

 Its boiling point is 78.3 °C

 It does not contain ions, that's why it is a non-conductor of electricity.

CHEMISTRY | Organic Chemistry PAGE 10

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 Chemical Properties

 Ethanol is a combustible liquid which bums in air to form carbon dioxide and
water.

 Ethanol reacts with acetic acid in the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid
at a high temperature to form ethyl acetate.

 Ethanol reacts with chlorides of phosphorus.

 Sodium reacts with ethanol displacing hydrogen.

 Ethanol reacts with sulphuric acid in two ways.

Uses: Ethanol is used:

 In the manufacturing of beer, wine, and other alcoholic beverages.

 Used as a solvent for paints, varnishes, oils, and dyes.

 It used as a fuel, a mixture of 20% ethanol and 80% petrol is known as power
alcohol.

 Used in the synthesis of many organic compounds.

Acetic Acid Or Ethanoic Acid(CH3COOH)

 Acetic acid is the second member of the carboxylic acid family. It is one of the
naturally occurring carboxylic acids

Preparation

 From Ethanol: In this method, fermented liquor of ethanol is oxidized by air

under the influence of bacterium acetic. The solution produced is called
vinegar.

Physical Properties

 It is a colourless pure acetic acid and corrosive liquid.

 It has a pungent vinegar smell. It tastes sour.

CHEMISTRY | Organic Chemistry PAGE 11

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 It is miscible with alcohol and water in all proportions.

 Its freezing point is 16.6°C and boiling point is 118°C.

Chemical Properties

 Acetic acid ionizes in aqueous solution, so it shows all properties of an acid.

 Acetic acid is neutralized by an alkali such as ammonium hydroxide or

sodium hydroxide.

 When treated with active metals like sodium, magnesium, and zinc, acetic
acid forms respective metallic ethanoates and hydrogen gas is evolved

 Acetic acid is reduced to ethanol by lithium aluminium hydride.

 When acetic acid reacts with alcohols like ethanol in the presence of ethyl
acetate, water is formed.

 Uses:

 It is used in the manufacture of white vinegar, acetone, esters,

pharmaceuticals, drugs, dyes, perfumes, cellulose, acetate, polyvinyl acetate,
and metal acetate,

 Used as a laboratory reagent.

CHEMISTRY | Organic Chemistry PAGE 12

Periodic Table

CHEMISTRY

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Periodic Table

Periodic Classification
 Johan Dobereiner grouped the elements in such a way that elements having similar
properties reappear at a regular interval.

 He noticed that the middle element of each of the Triads had an atomic weight
about half way between the atomic weights of the other two.

 Dobereiner’s Triads: Li, Na, K and Ca, Sr, Ba, And Cl, Br, I.

 John Alexander Newlands profounded the Law of Octaves.

 He arranged the elements in increasing order of their atomic weights and noted that
every eighth element had properties similar to the first element.

 Newland’s octaves: Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, Na.

Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

 Mendeleev stated that the properties of elements are the periodic function of their
atomic masses or atomic weights.

 Mendeleev arranged elements in horizontal rows and vertical columns, which were
called Periods and Groups respectively. There were 8 groups and 7 periods in this
table.

 In this table Mendeleev left some space for the elements which were not discovered
at that time e.g. Eka-boron, eka-aluminum and eka-silicon.

CHEMISTRY | Periodic Table PAGE 2

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Limitations of Mendeleev’s table:

 The place of Hydrogen was not fixed.

 Isotopes of all elements also posed challenge to this table.

 Atomic masses do not increase in a regular manner when we go from one element
to another.

 Metals and non-metals were not placed separately in this table.

Modern Periodic Table

 It was given by Moseley.

 According to this the physical and chemical properties of the elements are the
periodic function of their atomic numbers.

 The horizontal rows were called periods and the vertical columns are called groups.

 There are 18 groups and 7 periods in modern periodic table.

 The first period contains 2 elements and the subsequent period consists of 8, 8, 18,
18, 32 elements respectively and the seventh period is incomplete.

CHEMISTRY | Periodic Table PAGE 3

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Characteristics of Periods
Valency
 On moving from left to right in each short period, the valency of elements increases
from 1 to 4 and then decrease to 0 (Zero).

 Elements in the same period have different valencies.

 The valency of an element is determined by the number of valence electrons

present in the atom of the element.

 The number of electrons lost or gained by one of an element to achieve the nearest
inert gas electron configuration, gives us the valency of the element.

Valence Electrons
 On moving from left to right in a period, the number of valence electrons in elements
increases from 1 to 8.

 The first element in every period has 1 valence electron and the last element in
every period has 8 valence electrons.

 The elements in a period have consecutive atomic numbers.

Size of Atoms
 On moving from left to right in a period of the periodic table, the size of atoms
decreases or we can say that atomic size (Atomic radius) decreases.

 In the third period Sodium atom is the biggest whereas chlorine atom is the smallest
in size.

 As we move from left to right, the atomic number increases (Number of protons and
electrons increases). Due to large positive charge on the nucleus, the electrons are
pulled in more close to the nucleus and the size of atom decreases.

CHEMISTRY | Periodic Table PAGE 4

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Metallic Character
 On moving from left to right in a period, the metallic character if elements decreases
(but the non-metallic character increases).

 The greatest metallic character is found in the elements on the extreme left side of a
period and the greatest non-metallic character is found in the elements on the right
side of a period.

 Metals lose electrons and form positive ions, so metals are also called
electropositive elements. And on the other hand non-metals are called
electronegative elements.

 On moving from left to right in a period, the electropositive character of elements

decreases, but the electronegative character increases.

Chemical Reactivity
 On moving from left to right in a period, the chemical reactivity of elements first
decreases and then increases.

 In the third period, we see Sodium is very reactive but magnesium is less reactive.

 In the third period, the first element, sodium has 1 valence electron which it can lose
easily, so it is very reactive. But as we move to right side the reactivity decreases to
silicon, but after that from phosphorus it again increases.

Nature of Oxides
 On moving from left to right in a period, the basic nature of oxides decreases and
the acidic nature of oxides increases.

 As we take example of third period, Sodium is highly basic, whereas calcium is

highly acidic.

CHEMISTRY | Periodic Table PAGE 5

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Characteristics of Groups
Valency
 Since the number of valence electrons is same in a group, all elements have the
same valency.

 The valency of an element is determined by the number of valence electrons

present in the atom of the element.

 The number of electrons lost or gained by one of an element to achieve the nearest
inert gas electron configuration, gives us the valency of the element.

Valence Electrons
 All the elements of a group have the same number of valence electrons.

 Group 1 elements (Li, Na, K) are monovalent i.e. having one valence electron.

 All the elements in group 2 have 2 valence electrons and so on. Group 13 have 3
valence electrons and similarly group 14, 15, 16, 17.

 All the elements in group 18 have 8 valence electrons (except helium- 2 valence
electrons), and are called inert gases.

Size of Atoms
 On going down in a group of the periodic table, the size of atoms increases.

 The smallest atomic size is found at the top of the group whereas the largest atomic
size is found in the lowest part of the group.

 When we move from top to bottom in a group, a new shell of electrons is added to
the atoms, due to this the size of the atom also increases.

 In group 17 of Halogens, the atomic size increases on going down from fluorine to
iodine.

CHEMISTRY | Periodic Table PAGE 6

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Metallic Character
 On going down in a group of the periodic table, the metallic character of elements
increases.

 Metals lose electrons and form positive ions, so metals are also called
electropositive elements. And on the other hand non-metals are called
electronegative elements.

 On moving down in a group, the electropositive character of elements increases, but

the electronegative character (non-metallic) decreases.

Chemical Reactivity
 All the elements in a group have similar electronic configuration, so all the elements
of a group show similar chemical properties.

 The chemical reactivity of metals increases on going down in a group of the periodic
table.

 The chemical reactivity of non-metals decreases on going down in a group of the

periodic table. Example: The chemical reactivity in group 17, decreases from fluorine
to iodine.

Nature of Oxides
 On going down in a group of periodic table, there is no change in the nature of
oxides of elements.

Types of Elements
 Depending upon the type of orbital receiving the valence electrons, the elements
can be classified into four following blocks:

CHEMISTRY | Periodic Table PAGE 7

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s- Block Elements
 In these elements, valence electron enters in s-orbital.

 The elements of Group 1 (alkali metals) and Group 2 (alkaline earth metals) which
have ns1 and ns2 outermost electronic configuration belong to the s-Block
Elements.

 They are all reactive metals with low ionization enthalpies.

 These elements are soft metals, electropositive and form basic oxides.

 Because of high reactivity they are never found pure in nature.

 The compounds of the s-block elements, with the exception of those of lithium.

CHEMISTRY | Periodic Table PAGE 8

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p-Block Elements
 Valence electron enters in p-orbital.

 The p-Block Elements comprise those belonging to Group 13 to 18 and these

together with the s-Block Elements are called the Representative Elements or Main
Group Elements.

 The outer electronic configuration of these elements is ns2 np1.

 It is interesting to note that the non-metals and metalloids exist only in the p-block of
the periodic table.

 The non-metallic character of elements decreases down the group. In fact the
heaviest element in each p-block group is the most metallic in nature.

 At the end of each period is a noble gas element with a closed valence shell ns2np6
configuration.

d-Block Elements
 These elements are called transition elements.

 In d-block elements, valence electron enters in d-orbital.

 Valence shell electronic configuration is (n-1)d1-10 ns1-2.

 This block contains the elements of group 3 to 12 of the periodic table.

 The three series of transition metals are known 3d series, 4d series and 5d series.

f-Block Elements
 The f-block consists of two series lanthanides and actinides of the periodic table.

 Electronic configuration of actinides are irregular.

 Electronic configuration of lanthanides is 6s25d0-24f1-14.

 Elements of this block are also called inner-transition elements.

CHEMISTRY | Periodic Table PAGE 9

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Metals, Non-metals and Metalloids

Metals
 Metals comprise more than 78% of all known elements and appear on the left side
of the Periodic Table.

 Metals are usually solids at room temperature, and have high melting and boiling
points. They conduct heat and electricity.

 They are malleable (Can be flattened into thin sheets) and ductile (Can be drawn
into long wires).

 Exception:

1. Mercury is a metal that is liquid at room temperature.

2. Gallium and cesium have very low melting points (303K and 302K,
respectively).

Non - Metals
 Non-metals are located at the top right hand side of the Periodic Table.

 In a horizontal row, the property of elements change from metallic on the left to non-
metallic on the right.

 Non-metals are usually solids or gases at room temperature with low melting and
boiling points.

 They are poor conductors of heat and electricity. Most non-metallic solids are brittle
and are neither malleable nor ductile.

 The nonmetallic character increases as one goes from left to right across the
Periodic Table. The only liquid non-metal is Bromine.

 Exception:

1. Boron and carbon has high melting points

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Metalloids
 These elements show properties that are characteristic of both metals and
nonmetals are called Semi-metals or Metalloid.

 There are 7 metalloids i.e. Boron, Silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium
and polonium.

 From left to right the order of increasing metallic character is: P<Si<Be<Mg<Na.

Halogens
 The general electronic configuration of halogens is ns2np5.

 Being highly reactive, these elements always occur in combined form, these are all
colored elements as they absorb visible light.

Fluorine (F):

 It is a pale yellow gas, it is the most reactive element in halogens. It is the most
electronegative element.

CHEMISTRY | Periodic Table PAGE 11

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Chlorine (Cl):

 It is also called Oxymuriatic acid. It can be manufactured by the electrolysis of Brine.

 It is a greenish yellow gas with pungent and suffocating odour. It is soluble in water
and is heavier than air.

 It is used in making bleaching powder (CaOCl2), extraction of gold and platinum,

making of poisonous gases such as phosgene, tear gas, mustard gas etc.

 It is also used in making dyes, drugs, compounds such as CCl4 (Tetra

chloromethane), DDT (Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane) etc.

Bromine (Br):

 It is a reddish brown liquid, it is found in sea water (nearly 0.068%).

 In India, it is found in Rann of Kutch (Gujarat) in the form of brine.

 It acts as an oxidizing agent and bleaching agent, it is used in the manufacturing of

bromide, bromate etc.

 AgBr (Silver Bromide) is used in photography, KBr (Potassium Bromide) is used in

sleeping drugs, and pain reliever, it is also used in making tear gas.

Iodine (I):

 It is found in seawater and seaweeds as iodides, it is non-metallic shining solid.

 In human body it exists in the form of thyroxine, which is secreted through thyroid
gland.

 It is used in laboratory reagent, as disinfectant and in antiseptic medicines.

Nobel Gases
 Group 18 of the modern periodic table consists of noble gases.

 Examples: Helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon.

 These gases are inert under normal conditions and that’s why are called Noble
gases.

CHEMISTRY | Periodic Table PAGE 12

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 The valence shell of the inert gases is completely filled that’s why they do not react
with any element.

Helium (He):

 The main source of He is natural gas. Helium and neon are found in minerals of
radioactive origin.

 It is non-inflammable, non-volatile light gas, so it is used in filling balloons and in

aircraft tyres.

 Liquid He is used in maintaining very low temperature in research. Mixture of

Hydrogen and Helium is used by divers for respiration as helium is soluble in blood
at very high temperature.

Neon (Ne):

 It is used in discharge tubes and fluorescent bulbs for advertisement display

purpose, neon gas is used in green houses.

 It is also used in neon lamp which are used to give symbolic indication to the
aircrafts pilot at the airport.

Argon (Ar):

 It is used to provide inert atmosphere in high temperature metallurgical process, arc

welding of the alloys and for filling electric bulbs.

Krypton (Kr):

 It produces characteristic lines in the yellow and green region of the spectrum, it is
used at airport runway and approach light.

Xenon (Xe):

 Xe-Kr is used in high intensity photographic flash tubes.

Radon (Re):

 Radon is a radioactive noble gas, which is used for the treatment of cancer.

CHEMISTRY | Periodic Table PAGE 13

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Periodic Trends in Physical Properties

Atomic Radius
 Atomic radius of an atom is defined as the distance between the centre of its
nucleus and the outermost shell containing the valence electron.

 It is not possible to measure the radius of an atom directly.

Covalent Radius
 It is one-half of the inter-nuclear distance between two identical atoms linked
together by a single covalent bond.

 The formation of covalent bond involves the overlapping of atomic orbitals and it
reduces the expected inter-nuclear distance. Therefore covalent radius is always
shorter than the actual atomic radius.

CHEMISTRY | Periodic Table PAGE 14

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Ionic Radius
 It is defined as the distance from the centre of nucleus of the ion up to which it
exerts its influence on the electron cloud of the ion.

 Ions are formed when an atom loses or gains electrons.

 When an atom loses an electron it becomes cation and when it accepts an electron
it becomes anion.

Ionization Energy
 It is defined as the minimum amount of energy required to remove the most loosely
bound electron from the valence shell of the isolated neutral gaseous atom in the
isolated neutral gaseous atom in its ground state.

 It generally increases along a period from left to right due to increase in effective
nuclear charge.

 The Ionization energy decreases along a group on moving downwards due to

increase in atomic size.

Electron Gain Enthalpy

 It is defined as the enthalpy change accompanying the process when an extra
electron is added to neutral gaseous atom to convert it into an anion.

 The energy released during the process is called electron affinity (EA).

 EA increases across a period from left to right but EA of group-2, group-0 and group
-15 is zero or positive.

 EA decreases on moving down the group, it is highest for chlorine.

CHEMISTRY | Periodic Table PAGE 15

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Electronegativity
 It is defined as the relative tendency of an element present in a covalently bonded
molecule, to attract the shared pair of electrons towards itself.

 It is not a measurable quantity.

Variation of Electronegativity in a Group

 The electronegativity generally decreases down a group. As we move down in a
group the atomic radius increases and the nuclear attractive force on the valence
electron decreases, hence the electronegativity decreases.

 Noble gases are assigned zero electronegativity.

Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties

Valence or Oxidation States
 The valence of an atom is the combining capacity relative to hydrogen atom.

 It is generally equal to the total number of electrons in the valence shell or equal to
eight minus the number of valence electrons.

Periodicity of Valence or Oxidation States

 The valence of an atom primarily depends on the number of electrons in the valence
shell.

 As the number of valence electrons remains same for the elements in same group,
the maximum valence also remains the same.

CHEMISTRY | Periodic Table PAGE 16

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Properties of Second Period Elements

 The elements of the second period have only four orbitals (2s & 2p) in the valence
shell and have a maximum co-valence of 4, whereas the other members of the
subsequent periods have more orbitals in their valence shell and shows higher
valences.

 On moving diagonally across the periodic table, the second and third period
elements show certain similarities.

Periodic trends and Chemical Reactivity

 The physical and chemical properties of elements depend on the valence shell.

 The elements on the left side of the periodic table have less ionization energy and
readily lose their valence electrons.

 The elements on the right side of the periodic table have high electron affinity and
readily accept electrons.

 As a consequence of this, elements of these extreme ends show high reactivity

when compared to the elements present in the middle.

 The noble gases having completely filled electronic configuration neither accept nor
lose their electron readily and hence they are chemically inert in nature.

Hydrogen
Position of Hydrogen in Periodic Table
 Hydrogen element has been placed at the top of group 1, above the alkali metals
because the electronic configuration of hydrogen is similar to those of alkali metals.

 Both hydrogen and alkali metals have 1 valence electron.

CHEMISTRY | Periodic Table PAGE 17

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 Since hydrogen atom is very small in size, many properties of hydrogen are different
from those of alkali metals. Therefore, while discussing the alkali metals of group 1,
hydrogen is never included.

 Hydrogen resembles with alkali metals as well as with halogens in some properties,
so it is best placed separately in the periodic table.

Isotopes of Hydrogen
 Hydrogen has three isotopes, namely Protium, Deuterium, Tritium.

Preparation of Hydrogen
 High purity hydrogen is obtained by the electrolysis of water containing traces of
acid and alkali or the electrolysis of aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide or
potassium hydroxide using a nickel anode and iron cathode.

 Hydrogen can be prepared in laboratory by the reaction of metals, such as zinc, iron,
tin with dilute acid.

Properties of Hydrogen
1. Physical properties:

 Hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, lightest and highly flammable

gas.

 It can be liquefied under low temperature and high pressure, hydrogen is a

good reducing agent.

2. Chemical properties:

 Hydrogen reacts with oxygen to give water. Hydrogen itself acts as a reducing
agent.

 Hydrogen reacts with halogens to give halides.

 Deuterium reacts with oxygen in order to give heavy water.

CHEMISTRY | Periodic Table PAGE 18

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Uses of Hydrogen
 Majorly hydrogen is used in synthetic application, one such process is Haber
process which is used to synthetic ammonia in large scales.

 Ammonia is used for the manufacture of chemicals such as nitric acid, fertilizers and
explosives.

 Liquid Hydrogen is used in rocket fuel.

 Hydrogen is also used in fuel cells for generating electrical energy. The reversible
uptake of hydrogen in metals is also attractive for rechargeable metal hydride
battery.

Points to Remember
 Only 63 elements were discovered at the time of Mendeleev when he was
composing the periodic table.
 Inert gases were not found at Mendeleev’s time.
 Hydrogen is the only element which exists without neutrons.
 Hydrogen is very light gas and is not held by the earth’s gravity. Thus no free
hydrogen is present on earth.
 Solar energy of sun is due to the conversion of hydrogen into helium.
 Hydrogen is not used in balloons as it is inflammable.
 Majority of elements in periodic table are metals.
 There are 7 periods and 18 groups in modern periodic table.
 Group 18 elements are called noble gases.

CHEMISTRY | Periodic Table PAGE 19

 Useful Links

SYNTHETIC
FIBER & PLASTIC

1
  Useful Links

Synthetic Fiber and Plastic

I N T H I S C A P S UL E
SYNTHETIC FIBER AND PLASTIC .............................................................................................................. 2

SYNTHETIC FIBER ........................................................................................................................................ 3

TYPES OF SYNTHETIC FIBER 3

CHARACTERISTICS OF SYNTHETIC FIBERS 4

POLYMERS .................................................................................................................................................... 4

POLYMERIZATION 4

BASIC TYPES OF POLYMERIZATION 5

SOME IMPORTANT POLYMERS ............................................................................................................... 6

A. NATURAL RUBBER 6

B. SYNTHETIC RUBBER: (POLYCHLOROPRENE) OR NEOPRENE) 6

C. BUNA RUBBERS 7

D. TEFLON7

E. NYLON -66: 8

F. NYLON 6 OR PEROLON – 8

G. DACRON 8

H. PHENOL-FORMALDEHYDE POLYMER 9

I. POLYESTER 9

J. PHENOL 9

K. MELAMINE 9

PLASTICS ..................................................................................................................................................... 10

TYPES OF PLASTICS 10

CHARACTERISTICS’ OF PLASTICS 10

2
  Useful Links

Synthetic Fiber
There are two types of fibers
– One is natural fibers which are obtained from natural sources
Example – Cotton, silk, wool
– The other is synthetic fibers which are man-made
Example – rayon, nylon, acrylic etc.
• A Synthetic Fiber is a chain of small units of chemical substance
joined together.
• Many such single units combine to form single unit called Polymer.

Types of Synthetic Fiber

Rayon
• Rayon is synthesized from wood pulp.
• Rayon resembles silk, so it is also known as artificial silk.
• Rayon can be dyed in different colors and is much cheaper than silk.

Nylon
• Nylon was first commercially synthesized fiber.
• Nylon is synthesized from coal, water and air.
• Nylon is very strong, and its fabric is like silk.

Polyester
• Polyester, one of the most popular man-made fibers.
• It is made of repeating unit of a chemical called ester.
• It is widely used to make clothes.

Acrylic
• Acrylic is a man-made fiber.
• Acrylic is known as artificial wool or synthetic wool because
it resembles wool.
• Acrylic is cheaper than natural wool and can be dyed in various color.
• This makes acrylic is very popular among other fabrics.

3
  Useful Links
Characteristics of Synthetic Fibers
a) Synthetic fibers are cheaper than natural fiber.
b) Synthetic fibers are stronger than natural fiber.
c) Synthetic fibers are more durable than natural fiber.
d) Synthetic fabrics are dried up in less time.
e) Synthetic fibers are easy to maintain and wash.

Polymers
• A polymer is a large molecule, or macromolecule, composed
of many repeated subunits.
• Due to their broad range of properties, both synthetic and
natural polymers play essential and ubiquitous roles in everyday life.

Polymerization
• Polymers are produced through a process called Polymerization.
• Small sized molecules undergo chemical reactions which allows them to combine
with each other, and form a macromolecule (Polymer)
• The structure resembles a chain, or form a network that is three-dimensional.

4
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Basic Types of Polymerization
a) In chain-reaction polymerization

Rad. + CH2 = CH2 → RadCH2CH2→ RadCH2CH2CH2CH2× → etc.

b) In step reaction polymerization,

c) Free-radical vinyl polymerization:

At the doubly bonded carbons — the vinyl groups — and is called vinyl polymerization.

A wide variety of unsaturated monomers may be used, to yield polymers with differ-
ent pendant groups (G) attached to the polymer backbone. For example.

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Some Important Polymers

A. Natural Rubber

• Addition polymer of isoprene (2-methyl-1,3-butadiene)

• An average chain length of 5000 monomer units of isoprene.
• The rubber in which the arrangement of carbon chain is trans
with respect to the double bond is known as Gutta Percha
• This is the natural rubber obtained from bark of various trees.

Vulcanization
• 'Vulcanization of rubber involves addition of Sulphur to rubber and
heating the mixture to increase the strength of natural rubber.
• Sulphur forms short chains of Sulphur atoms that link two hydrocarbon
(isoprene) units together.

Vulcanized rubber is thus stronger and less sticky than the natural rubber.

B. Synthetic rubber: (Polychloroprene) or Neoprene)

• It is obtained by free radical polymerization of chloroprene in

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• A thermoplastic and need not to be vulcanized.

• It is a good general-purpose rubber and superior to natural rubber
as it is resistant to the reaction of aire, heat, light chemicals, alkalis and
acids below 50% strength.
• It is used for making transmission belts, printing rolls and flexible tubing
employed for conveyance of oil and petrol.

C. Buna Rubbers

1. Buna - N or GRA:
• it is synthetic rubber obtained by copolymerization of one part
of acryl nitrile and two parts of butadiene.

• It is more rigid responds less to heat and very resistant to

swelling action of petrol, oils and other organic solvents.

2. Buna -S or GRS (General purpose Styrene rubber)

• It is a copolymer of three moles of butadiene and one mole of styrene
and is an elastomer. It is obtained as a result of free radical copolymerization
of its monomers.

• It is generally compounded with carbon black and vulcanized with Sulphur.

• It is extremely resistant to wear and tear and finds use in
manufacture of tyres and other mechanical rubber goods.

D. Teflon

• It is polymer of tetrafluoroethylene (F2C=CF2) which on polymerization

gives Teflon.

• It is thermoplastic polymer with a high softening point (600K).

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• It is very tough and difficult to work.
• It is inert to most chemicals except fluorine and molten alkali metals.
• It withstands high temperatures.
• Its electrical properties make it an ideal insulating material
for high frequency installation.

E. Nylon -66:

• A condensation polymer formed by reaction between

adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine.
• It is a thermoplastic polymer.

F. Nylon 6 or Perolon –

• L A Polyamide is prepared by prolonged heating of

caprolactam at 530- 540 K.
• The fiber is practically identical to Nylon in properties

G. Dacron

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H. Phenol-formaldehyde Polymer

E.g., Bakelite Novolac

I. Polyester
• Polyester fabrics and fibers are extremely strong.
• Polyester is very durable: resistant to most chemicals, stretching and
shrinking, wrinkle resistant, mildew and abrasion resistant.
• Polyester is hydrophobic in nature and quick drying.
• It can be used for insulation by manufacturing hollow fibers.

J. Phenol

• Phenol is an aromatic organic compound with the molecular formula C6H5OH.

• It is a white crystalline solid that is volatile.
• The molecule consists of a phenyl group (−C6H5) bonded to a hydroxy group (−OH).
• Phenols are widely used in household products and as
intermediates for industrial synthesis.
• For example, phenol itself is used (in low concentrations)
as a disinfectant in household cleaners and in mouthwash.
• Phenol may have been the first surgical antiseptic.

K. Melamine:

• Melamine is a chemical compound that has several industrial uses,

including the production of laminates, glues, dinnerware, adhesives,
molding compounds, coatings and flame retardants.
• Melamine is a name used both for the chemical and for the plastic made from it.

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Plastics
• Plastic is a polymer that can be recycled, colored, reused, mound or
drawn into wires or various other shapes.
• Units of some plastics have linear arrangement while
some plastics are formed by the cross-linked arrangement of their units.
• Thus, plastic is used in making toys, suitcase, bags, cabinets, brush, chairs,
tables, and many other countless items.
• Polythene is one of the most famous types of plastic, which is used
in manufacturing of carry bags.

Types of Plastics
1. Thermoplastic:

• Plastics which can be easily bent or deform on heating are known

as thermoplastic. PVC and Polythene are the examples of thermoplastics.

2. Thermosetting plastic :

• Plastics which do not get deformed or softened on heating when

mold once, are called thermosetting plastics.
• Bakelite and melamine are the examples of thermosetting plastics.

Characteristics’ of Plastics
• Plastic is a poor conductor of heat and electricity.
• Plastic does not react with air and water and with many of the chemicals.
• Plastics are light weight, durable, cheap, very strong, and does not rust.
• Plastics are non- biodegradable substances.
• It takes many years to get decomposed and sometimes does not
get decomposed at all. Thus, plastic is not environment friendly.

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