University Biology Notes: Evolutionary Biology
Introduction to Evolutionary Biology
Evolution is the process by which populations of organisms change over
generations. Genetic variations are passed from parent to offspring, and a
population's genetic makeup can shift due to various factors. Evolutionary
biology is a cornerstone of modern science, providing a unifying framework
for understanding the diversity of life on Earth. It explains how all life forms
are related and how they have adapted to their environments over vast
periods of time.
The most famous mechanism of evolution is natural selection, a concept
pioneered by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace. Their work
revolutionized our understanding of biology and laid the foundation for
modern evolutionary theory.
The Theory of Natural Selection
Charles Darwin's groundbreaking book, On the Origin of Species (1859),
introduced the world to his theory of evolution by natural selection. This
theory is built on several key observations about populations:
1. Variation: Individuals within a population exhibit heritable variation in
their traits. For example, some beetles are green, while others are
brown.
2. Overproduction of Offspring: All species are capable of producing
more offspring than their environment can support. This leads to
competition for limited resources.
3. Differential Survival and Reproduction: Due to the struggle for
existence, individuals with traits that are better suited to their
environment are more likely to survive and reproduce.
4. Heredity: The advantageous traits are passed on to the next
generation. Over time, these traits become more common in the
population, and the population's genetic makeup changes.
This process is often summarized as "survival of the fittest," though a more
accurate phrase is "differential reproductive success." It is the driving force
behind adaptive evolution, where organisms become better suited to their
particular ecological niche.
Mechanisms of Evolution
While natural selection is the primary mechanism of adaptive evolution,
there are other forces that can cause a population's gene pool to change.
1. Natural Selection
As discussed above, this is the process where individuals with favorable traits
are more likely to survive and reproduce, leading to a gradual increase in
those traits within a population over time.
2. Genetic Drift
Genetic drift is the change in the frequency of an existing gene variant
(allele) in a population due to random sampling of organisms. It is a major
evolutionary mechanism in small populations.
Bottleneck Effect: A sudden reduction in population size due to
environmental events (e.g., natural disasters, disease) that drastically
and randomly changes the gene pool.
Founder Effect: A new population is established by a very small
number of individuals from a larger population, resulting in a gene pool
that is not representative of the original population.
3. Gene Flow (Migration)
Gene flow is the transfer of alleles from one population to another. This can
introduce new genetic variation into a population or alter existing allele
frequencies. For example, when pollen from one population of flowers is
carried by wind to another, it introduces new alleles to the second
population.
4. Mutation
A mutation is a change in the DNA sequence. Mutations are the ultimate
source of all new genetic variation. While many mutations are neutral or
harmful, a small number can be beneficial and can be acted upon by natural
selection.
Evidence for Evolution
Evolutionary theory is supported by a vast body of evidence from multiple
scientific disciplines.
1. Fossil Record
The fossil record provides a timeline of life on Earth, showing the sequence of
life forms from simpler to more complex. It documents the existence of now-
extinct species and provides transitional fossils that link ancestral species to
their descendants (e.g., Archaeopteryx, a fossil showing a transition from
dinosaurs to birds).
2. Comparative Anatomy
Similarities in the physical structures of different species provide evidence of
a common ancestor.
Homologous Structures: Structures that have a similar underlying
anatomy but serve different functions (e.g., the forelimbs of humans,
cats, whales, and bats). These are a result of shared ancestry.
Analogous Structures: Structures that serve a similar function but
have different underlying anatomies (e.g., the wings of a butterfly and
the wings of a bat). These are a result of convergent evolution, where
different species adapt to similar environmental pressures.
Vestigial Structures: Remnants of structures that were important in
ancestral organisms but have lost their function over time (e.g., the
human appendix, the pelvic bones in whales).
3. Biogeography
The geographic distribution of species provides evidence of how species
have evolved in different regions. Islands, in particular, often have unique
species that have evolved from a mainland ancestor.
4. Molecular Biology
The genetic code is nearly universal across all life. The more closely related
two species are, the more similar their DNA and protein sequences will be.
For example, humans and chimpanzees share about 98% of their DNA.
Speciation
Speciation is the evolutionary process by which new species arise. It typically
occurs when a single population is divided into two or more groups that no
longer interbreed. Over time, genetic differences accumulate, and the groups
become so different that they can no longer produce fertile offspring. This is
known as reproductive isolation.
Speciation can occur in different ways:
Allopatric Speciation: A population is geographically separated by a
physical barrier (e.g., a mountain range, a river), leading to the
evolution of new species.
Sympatric Speciation: New species evolve from a single ancestral
species while inhabiting the same geographic region. This can be
driven by factors such as polyploidy (extra sets of chromosomes) or
habitat differentiation.
Summary of Evolutionary Concepts
Term Definition Example
Differential survival and
Natural The peppered moth's color
reproduction based on
Selection changing to match sooty trees.
heritable traits.
Random changes in allele A random disaster wiping out a
Genetic
frequencies, most impactful disproportionate number of one
Drift
in small populations. type of beetle.
Transfer of alleles between Pollen from one flower population
Gene Flow
populations. fertilizing another.
Structures with common
Homologou The arm of a human and the wing
ancestry but different
s Structures of a bat.
functions.
A finch population becoming
The process by which new
Speciation separated by a new volcanic
species arise.
island, leading to two new species.
