PERSPECTIVES

OF THE
What is psychology?
Psychology is the study
of human behavior and
mental processes.​
4 goals of psychology?
Describe – what the person
is doing.​
Explain - why is s/he doing
that?​
Predict - what is s/he
going to do?​
Modify – how can we change
the behavior?​
 Psychology is concerned with:
How individuals develop and mature at different
life stages. Concepts such as consciousness,
memory, and reasoning. ​

How the individual and his environment shape his

personality. How we think, behave and feel in
certain situations.​

Mental health and mental illnesses, character

strengths, coping, happiness, and well-being.​
William James (Me-Self & I-Self)

William James is considered to

be one of the most prolific
psychologists and philosophers
of the 20th century - a figure
commonly known as 'the father of
American psychology.'​
-Self (Pure Ego)
The "I" part of self was the
thinking self, which could not be
further divided. He linked this
part of the self to the soul of a
person, or what is now thought of
as the mind.
The "I" is the self that knows who
they are and what they have done
in their life.
 -Self (Empirical Me)
The "Me" can be thought of as a
separate object or individual a
person refers to when
describing their personal
experiences.
James further divided the "Me"
part of self into: a material, a
social, and a spiritual self.
 Dimensions of the ME Self
Material Self- consists of things
that belong to us or that we belong
to (e.g family, clothes, body, money)
​

Social Self- who we are in a given

social situation. For James, people
change how they act depending on
the social situation that they are
in.  ​
 Dimensions of the ME Self
Spiritual Self- who we are at
the core. The spiritual self is
more concrete and permanent
than the other two selves. The
spiritual self is our
subjective and most intimate
self. (e.g personality, core
values and conscience)
Carl Rogers (Self-Actualization)

Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was a

humanistic psychologist best
known for his views on the
therapeutic relationship and
his theories of personality
and self-actualization.
Carl Rogers (Self-Actualization)

According to Rogers (1967), the

human organism has an
underlying “actualizing
tendency”, which aims to develop
all capacities in ways that
maintain or enhance the organism
and move it toward autonomy.
Carl Rogers (Self-Actualization)

The basic idea of self-

actualization is straightforward.
It is a desire present in all living
things that pushes the organism
toward growth. In the case of
humans, we all want to express
ourselves creatively and reach our
full potential.
Categories of the Self

Real Self - indicates what

someone is in real life.

Ideal Self - what someone

wants to become in his life.
Carl Rogers (Self-Actualization)
Rogers focused on the idea that we
need to achieve consistency between
these two selves. We experience
congruence when our thoughts about
our real self and ideal self are very
similar—in other words, when our
self-concept is accurate.
High congruence leads to a greater
sense of self-worth and a healthy,
productive life.
Carl Rogers (Self-Actualization)

According to Rogers, people could

only self-actualize if they had a
positive self-view. This can only
happen if they have unconditional
positive regard from others – if they
feel valued and respected without
reservation by those around them
(especially their parents when they
were children).
Carl Rogers (Self-Actualization)
When people are raised in an environment
of conditional positive regard. They
must match or achieve those conditions
in order to receive the love or positive
regard they yearn for. Their ideal self
is thereby determined by others based on
these conditions, and they are forced to
develop outside of their own true
actualizing tendency; this contributes
to incongruence and a greater gap
between the real self and the ideal self.
Albert Bandura(Human Agency)
Albert Bandura was an influential
social cognitive psychologist who
was perhaps best known for his
social learning theory, the concept
of self-efficacy, human agency, and
his famous Bobo doll experiments.
Until his death on July 26, 2021, he
was a Professor Emeritus at
Stanford University and was widely
regarded as one of the most
influential psychologists in
history.
Albert Bandura(Human Agency)
Bandura (2009a) defined human agency
as “the human capability to exert
influence over one’s functioning and
the course of events by one’s actions”.
“Through cognitive self-guidance,
humans can visualize futures that act
on the present; construct, evaluate,
and modify alternative courses of
action to gain valued outcomes; and
override environmental influences”.
“To be an agent is to influence
intentionally one’s functioning and
life circumstances”.
 Core Properties of
Human Agency
Intentionality - refers to acts that
we do intentionally, and you know
already the possible outcome. for
example, you decided to not sleep
early, then you intentionally want to
wake up late.​

Forethoughts - enables the person to

anticipate of future outcomes.
example you noticed that is raining,
now you anticipate that the class
might be suspended or not.​
 Core Properties of
Human Agency
Self-reactiveness - involves making
choices and choosing, motivating, and
regulating appropriate courses of action
One good example is during an examination
you don’t know the answer, it is your
decision if you want to copy from your
classmate or not.​

Self-reflectiveness - gives us the ability

to reflect on our lack of thoughts and
actions. we are also self-examiners. we
give time to our self to think about our
experiences and decisions that we made​.
Sigmund Freud(ID, Ego,
& Superego)
Sigmund Freud, the
father of psychoanalysis,
was an Austrian
physiologist, medical
doctor, psychologist and
influential thinker of
the early twentieth
century.
Sigmund Freud(ID, Ego,
& Superego)
According to Sigmund Freud,
human personality is complex
and has more than a single
element. In his famous
psychoanalytic theory, Freud
states that personality is
composed of three elements known
as the id, the ego, and the
superego. These elements work
together to create complex human
behaviors.​
 Elements of Personality
The ID is the source of all psychic
energy, making it the primary component
of personality.​
The id is the only component of
personality that is present from birth.​
This aspect of personality is entirely
unconscious and includes instinctive
and primitive behaviors.​
The id is driven by the pleasure
principle, which strives for immediate
gratification of all desires, wants, and
needs.
 Elements of Personality
According to Freud, the EGO develops
from the id and operates based on the
reality principle, which strives to
satisfy the id's desires in realistic
and socially appropriate ways. The
reality principle weighs the costs
and benefits of an action before
deciding to act upon or abandon
impulses.
The ego functions in the conscious,
preconscious, and unconscious mind.
 Elements of Personality
In an attempt to maintain control over the
id, the ego employs defense mechanisms,
which are automatic, unconscious mental
strategies or coping styles, utilized to
reduce the anxiety and/or guilt associated
with the situation or unresolved conflict,
and protect the person from their own
dangerous impulses, unacceptable behavior,
and unpleasant thoughts or feelings. It
also helps mitigate the threat to the
individual’s self-esteem from the demands
of the superego and reality.
Some Defense Mechanisms of the EGO:
1. Repression: involves pushing painful or
unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or
memories into the unconscious mind. By
keeping these aspects of the psyche out of
conscious awareness, repression helps
prevent anxiety associated with
confronting them directly. However,
repressed thoughts and emotions may still
influence behavior indirectly. Repressed
thoughts or emotions may resurface in
dreams, slips of the tongue (Freudian
slips), or through psychological symptoms.
Some Defense Mechanisms of the EGO:

2. Denial: involves refusing to

acknowledge the reality of a situation
or the existence of a problem. It serves
as a way to avoid the anxiety or
discomfort associated with facing
unpleasant truths. For example, someone
diagnosed with a serious illness might
deny the severity of their condition as
a way to cope with the fear of illness
and mortality.
Some Defense Mechanisms of the EGO:

3. Projection: involves attributing

one's own unacceptable thoughts,
feelings, or impulses to others. By
projecting these undesirable qualities
onto others, individuals can avoid
acknowledging them in themselves and
maintain a more positive self-image.
For instance, someone who harbors
feelings of jealousy may accuse others
of being jealous instead.
Some Defense Mechanisms of the EGO:

4. Displacement: involves
redirecting one's emotions or
impulses from their original
source toward a less threatening
target. For example, someone who
is angry with their boss may vent
their frustration by arguing
with their spouse or kicking a
chair.
Some Defense Mechanisms of the EGO:
5. Sublimation: involves channeling
socially unacceptable impulses or
desires into socially acceptable
activities or pursuits. Rather than
directly expressing or acting on their
impulses, individuals channel them
into productive or creative endeavors.
For instance, someone with aggressive
tendencies might channel their energy
into competitive sports or artistic
pursuits.
Some Defense Mechanisms of the EGO:
6. Rationalization: involves creating
logical or plausible explanations to
justify or excuse one's thoughts, feelings,
or behaviors. By rationalizing their
actions, individuals can minimize feelings
of guilt or anxiety associated with
behavior that conflicts with their
internal standards or values. For example,
someone who cheats on a test might
rationalize their behavior by telling
themselves that everyone else does it too.
Some Defense Mechanisms of the EGO:
7. Undoing: involves engaging in
behaviors or rituals aimed at
canceling out or negating a previous
unacceptable thought, feeling, or
action. For instance, someone who
experiences guilt after having a
negative thought about a loved one
might engage in a series of rituals,
such as counting or tapping, to "undo"
the perceived harm caused by the
thought.
Some Defense Mechanisms of the EGO:
8. Regression: involves reverting to
earlier, more primitive stages of
psychological development in response to
stress or anxiety. This may involve
displaying behaviors characteristic of an
earlier stage of childhood development,
such as temper tantrums or clinging to
caregivers, speaking in baby talk, and
seeking comfort objects, like a stuffed
animal or blanket, that they had previously
outgrown. Regression provides temporary
relief from anxiety but can hinder effective
problem-solving.
 Elements of Personality
The SUPEREGO begins to emerge at
around age five.​
The superego holds the
internalized moral standards
and ideals that we acquire from
our parents and society (our
sense of right and wrong).​
The superego provides
guidelines for making judgments.​
 Elements of Personality
The superego has two parts:​
The conscience includes information
about things that are viewed as bad by
parents and society. These behaviors
are often forbidden and lead to bad
consequences, punishments, or
feelings of guilt and remorse.​
The ego ideal includes the rules and
standards for behaviors that the ego
aspires to.​
Relationship Conflict Resolution:
Id: During an argument with a partner, the id
might impulsively want to retaliate with
hurtful words or actions to assert dominance
or alleviate frustration.
Ego: The ego intervenes, recognizing the need
to resolve the conflict constructively by
communicating calmly and understanding the
partner's perspective.
Superego: The superego reinforces empathy
and compassion, urging the individual to
consider the impact of their words and
actions on the relationship's well-being.
Financial Decision-Making:
Id: The id may urge impulsive spending on
luxuries or indulgences, driven by immediate
desires for pleasure and gratification.
Ego: The ego evaluates the consequences of such
spending in the context of financial
responsibilities and long-term goals, balancing
desires with practical considerations.
Superego: The superego encourages responsible
financial behavior, advocating for savings,
budgeting, and investment to secure future
stability and ensure financial well-being for
oneself and potentially others.
What happens if there is an
imbalance?​
If the ego is able to adequately
moderate between the demands of
reality, the id, and the superego,
a healthy and well-adjusted
personality emerges. Freud
believed that an imbalance
between these elements would lead
to a maladaptive personality.
What happens if there is an
imbalance?​
Dominant ID: If the ID were to
dominate, the individual might act
impulsively, seeking immediate
gratification of desires without
considering consequences or social
norms. This could lead to impulsive
behaviors, lack of impulse control,
and potentially reckless or
antisocial actions.
What happens if there is an
imbalance?​
Dominant Ego: An overly dominant ego
might lead to excessive
rationalization, suppression of
emotions, or difficulty in expressing
one's authentic desires.
Dominant Superego: If the Superego were
to dominate, the individual might
exhibit perfectionistic and
judgemental tendencies, high levels of
guilt and self-criticism, and a strong
adherence to moral standards.
Gordon Allport (Trait
Theory)
Gordon Allport was an
influential American
psychologist. His significant
work was foundational in
shaping modern personality
psychology, particularly
through his development of
theories on personality
traits and his emphasis on the
uniqueness of individuals.
Gordon Allport (Trait
Theory)
Allport proposed a comprehensive
theory of personality that emphasized
the study of individual differences
through traits.
Traits are enduring dispositions that
influence an individual's thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors across various
situations and over time.
His trait theory contributed
significantly to our understanding of
personality by highlighting the
complexity and uniqueness of human
behavior.
 Levels of Traits
Cardinal Traits:
Cardinal traits are rare and pervasive
dispositions that exert a dominating
influence on a person's behavior.
These traits are so fundamental to an
individual's personality that they
shape almost every aspect of their life
and often define a person's identity and
are evident in virtually all of their
actions and behaviors.
Example: Mother Teresa is strongly
associated with goodness and kindness
and Hitler can be associated with
ruthlessness.​
 Levels of Traits
Central Traits:
Central traits are general
characteristics that make up the
basic building blocks of an
individual's personality.
While not as all-encompassing as
cardinal traits, central traits are
still highly influential in shaping
an individual's behavior across
different situations.
Example: You may be describe by your
friends as "friendly,"
"conscientious," or "outgoing."
 Levels of Traits
Secondary Traits:
Secondary traits are more
specific and situational than
cardinal or central traits.
These traits are relatively less
consistent and may only manifest
in certain contexts or
situations.
Example: You might display a
secondary trait of "nervousness
during public speaking."
Donald Woods Winnicott
(True and False Self)
Donald Woods Winnicott was a
British pediatrician,
psychoanalyst, and one of the
most influential figures in
developmental psychology and
psychoanalysis.
He made significant
contributions to the
understanding of child
development, object relations
theory, and the nature of the
self.
Donald Woods Winnicott
(True and False Self)

Winnicott proposed the

True and False Self Theory,
which describes how early
caregiving experiences
influence the development
of the authentic self and
the defensive persona.
Donald Woods Winnicott
(True and False Self)
Winnicott believed that the self
is a very important part of
mental and emotional well-
being. He thought that people
were born without a clearly
developed self and had to search
for an authentic sense of self as
they grew. For Winnicott, the
sense of feeling real, feeling in
touch with others and with one's
own body and its processes was
essential for living a life.
Donald Woods Winnicott
(True and False Self)
According to Winnicott, the
true self represents an
individual's authentic and
genuine sense of identity.
It develops when an infant
experiences consistent,
empathic, and attuned
caregiving from their primary
caregiver, typically the
mother.
Donald Woods Winnicott
(True and False Self)
When a child feels accepted,
understood, and valued by their
caregiver, they are able to
develop a secure sense of self
and trust in their own feelings
and experiences.
The true self is characterized by
spontaneity, creativity,
autonomy, and a sense of inner
security.
Donald Woods Winnicott
(True and False Self)
The false self, on the other hand,
develops as a defensive response
to early experiences of rejection,
neglect, or inconsistent
caregiving.
When a child's emotional needs
are not adequately met, they may
learn to suppress or hide their
true feelings and desires in
order to gain approval or avoid
rejection from caregivers.
Donald Woods Winnicott
(True and False Self)
The false self is a mask or facade
that the individual presents to the
world, hiding their authentic
thoughts, feelings, and desires
behind a persona that they believe
will be more acceptable to others.
While the false self may initially
serve as a protective mechanism,
allowing the individual to cope
with difficult or traumatic
experiences, it can ultimately lead
to feelings of emptiness, alienation,
and disconnection from one's true
self.