A

Report
On

Internship/Industrial Training on
Prasar Bharati, All India Radio, Kadapa
Submitted for the partial fulfillment of requirements for the award of the degree
of

BACHELOR OF
TECHNOLOGY IN
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Submitted by

N. Sahithya
21BF5A0405

SRI VENKATESWARA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(AUTONOMOUS)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi) Karakambadi Road, TIRUPATI – 517507

2022-23
 SRI VENKATESWARA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(AUTONOMOUS)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Autonomous)
TIRUPATI – 517507
2022-23

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this report is a bonafide record of the Internship/Industrial

training on Prasara Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa done and

submitted by

N. Sahithya
21BF5A0405

for the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of B.Tech Degree in

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING.

CO-ORDINATOR HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my gratefulness and sincere thanks to R. Subba Reddy,

M.Tech for his kind support and guidance during the course of my Industrial training

on Prasara Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa and in the successful

completion of the assigned project.

I would like to express my gratitude to K. Amala, Assistant Professor, Coordinator,

ECE Department for her continuous follow up and timely guidance in completing the task

effectively.

I would like to express my gratefulness and sincere thanks to Dr. D. Srinivasulu

Reddy, Head of the Department, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,

for his kind support and encouragement during the course of my study and in the successful

completion of the Internship/Industrial training on Prasara Bharati, All India

Radio (AIR), Kadapa.

I have great pleasure in expressing my hearty thanks to our beloved Principal

Dr.N.Sudhakar Reddy for his support and encouragement

N. Sahithya
21BF5A0405
 CERTIFICATE

/
 ABSTRACT

This report is to give a complete glance of four weeks of industrial training that had
undergone at All India Radio Station, Kadapa. The organization "PRASAR BHARATI"
[BCI], All India Radio: Kadapa gives me an opportunity to do a 4 week vocational training
on "Radio communication system or transmission systems of All India Radio". The total
system of transmission is too vast that it is very difficult to write a report on this, in limited
pages. Keeping in view of overall idea of AM & FM transmission systems, which I get from
the training of AIR, an attempt has been made to produce a report with full of information &
brief idea. The total report is divided into 4 main parts with several sub parts. The report also
contains so many necessary information as foot note. The first introductory part is given to
the report because; without clear idea of these topics it is difficult to me to understand the
broadcasting & transmission parts. All the topics have been illustrated with clear diagram or
block diagrams which I get from the manuals of AIR transmission system.
 CONTENTS
CHAPTER DESCRIPTION PAGE NO

List of Figures i

1 Introduction 1

1.1 Introduction to Communication 1–2

1.2 Modulation & its types 2–4

1.3 Comparision of AM & FM 4–5

2 Transmitter 6

2.1 Transmitter 6

2.2 First aid & Fire Extinguishers 7

2.3 Safety precautions 8

3 500 KVA station Transformer 9

3.1 Buchholz Relay 9

3.2 Breather 10

3.3 Make up tank 10

3.4 Transformer oil 10

4 Logarithmic Units 11

5 Air Conditioning 12 – 13

5.1 System types 13

6 AC plant 14 – 15

7 Diesel Generator (DG) 16

8 AVR (Automatic Voltage Regulator) 17 – 18

9 Station power distribution 19 – 20

10 ATU 21

10.1 Tuned Circuits 21 – 22

10.2 Antenna Tuning Unit 23

 10.3 ATU matching 24

11 Thales transmitter 25 – 26

12 DCC 27

13 Distortion and noise level 28

14 Conclusion 29

15 References 30
 LIST OF FIGURES

 Figure 1.1 Communication Process

 Figure 1.2 Types of Modulation
 Figure 2.1 Block diagram of transmitter
 Figure 6.1 Principle of AC Plant
 Figure 8.1 Circuit diagram of AVR
 Figure 9.1 Bel T/R Power distribution
 Figure 9.2 Filament Supplies
 Figure 10.1 Series tuned circuit
 Figure 10.2 Parallel tuned circuit
 Figure 10.3 ATU Network
 Figure 10.4 Feeder lines

i
Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa

1. INTRODUCTION

Introduction to Communication:

Telecommunication is the transmission of signals over a distance for the purpose of

communication. In modern times, this process typically involves the sending of
electromagnetic waves by electronic transmitters, but in earlier years it may have
involved the use of smoke signals, drums or semaphore. Today, telecommunication is
widespread and devices that assist the process, such as the television, radio and
telephone, are common in many parts of the world. There are also many networks that
connect these devices, including computer networks, public telephone networks, radio
networks and television networks, Computer communication across the Internet is one
of many examples of telecommunication. In a broadcast system a central high-
powered broadcast tower transmits a high-frequency electromagnetic wave to
numerous low- powered receivers. The high-frequency wave sent by the tower is
modulated with a signal containing visual or audio information. The antenna of the
receiver is then tuned so as to pick up the high-frequency wave and a demodulator is
used to retrieve the signal containing the visual or audio information. The broadcast
signal can be either analog (signal is varied continuously with respect to the
information) or digital (information is encoded as a set of discrete values).

Basic elements: Each telecommunication system consists of three basic elements:

 a transmitter that takes information and converts it to a signal
 a transmission medium over which the signal is transmitted
 a receiver that receives the signal and converts it back into usable information

For example, consider a radio broadcast: In this case the broadcast tower is the
transmitter, the radio is the receiver and the transmission medium is free space. Often
telecommunication systems are two-way, and a single device acts as both a
transmitter and receiver, or transceiver. For example, a mobile phone is a transceiver
Telecommunication over a phone line is called paint-to-point communication because
it is between one transmitter and one receiver. Telecommunication through radio
broadcasts is called broadcast communication because it is between one powerful

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 1

Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa

transmitter and numerous receivers. Point-to-point communication can be classified as

either simples or duplex communication. In simplex communication information
travels in only one direction across the communication channel. In duplex
communication information travels in both directions.

Communication is simply the process of conveying message at a distance or

communication is the basic process of exchanging information.
The block diagram of communication process is briefly shown below:

Fig1.1 Communication Process

Information source is to produce required message which has to be transmitted. Input

transducer is a device which converts one form of energy to another form of energy. It
converts information source to a electrical signal. Transmitter is a combination of
electronic devices which is used to process electrical signal from different aspects. It
is used to transmit the signal. Communication channel is the medium (eg. optical
fiber, free space etc.) through which the message travels transmitter to receiver. Noise
is unwanted signal which tend to interfere with the required signal. Receiver
reproduces the message signal in electrical form from distorted received signal.
Destination is the final stage which is used to convert an electrical message signal into
its original form.

Modulation and its types:

Modulation may be defined as a process by which some characteristics of a signal

known as carrier is varied according to the instantaneous value of another signal
known as modulating or base band signal.

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 2

Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa

The signals containing intelligence or information to be transmitted are called

modulating signal. The carrier frequency is always greater than base band signal
frequency.
Necessity of Modulation:
 To reduce antenna height: we know that when free space is used as
transmitting medium (ie. channel) then message is transmitted & received by
antenna. But antenna height must be practical. We know that antenna height
(1) = (wave length)/ 4 = velocity of light/(4*frequency). Now we know that
audio frequency which is transmitted from radio station that is near about 5
KHz & we know that velocity of light = 3*108mt/s, so antenna height becomes
5 km which is too big. So modulation is done where audio frequency is
transmitted to a radio frequency carrier of 4 MHz. so antenna height is reduced
by it.
 To remove interference: Another reason for not radiating modulating signal
itself is that the frequency range of audio signal is 20 Hz to 20 KHz. In radio
broadcasting, there are several radio stations. In case there is no modulation,
all these radio stations transmit audio signals in the range of 20 Hz to 20 KHz.
Due to this transmission over same range, as a result the programs of all
station will get mixed up.
 To reduce noise: The effect of noise can be minimized by using modulation
techniques.

Fig1.2 Types of Modulation

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 3

Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa

AMPLITUDE MODULATION:

Amplitude modulation may be defined as a system in which the maximum amplitude of the
carrier wave is made proportional to the instantaneous value of the modulating or base band
signal.

Modulation index (m) = base band signal / maximum carrier amplitude.

Several types of AM:

(i) DSB-SC (ii) DSB-FC (iii) VSB (iv) SSB

FREQUENCY MODULATION:

Frequency Modulation is that type of angle modulation in which the instantaneous

frequency(w) is varied linearly with a message or baseband signal x(t) about an unmodulated
carrier frequency.

Modulation index (m) = frequency deviation / modulation frequency.

COMPARISON OF AMPLITUDE MODULATION & FREQUENCY

MODULATION:

ADVANTAGE:

A. F.M broadcasts operate in the upper VHF & UHF frequency ranges at which there
happens to be less noise than in the MF & HF ranges occupied by AM broadcasts.

B. Standard Frequency allocation provides a guard hand between commercial FM stations.

Due to this, there is less adjacent-channel interference than AM.

C. It is possible to reduce noise still further by increasing the frequency deviation in case of
FM. But it is impossible to increase frequency deviation in case of AM.

D. The amplitude of the FM wave is constant. It is thus independent of modulation depth,

whereas in AM, modulation depth governs the transmitted power. This permits the use of low
level modulation in FM transmitter & use of efficient class-c amplifiers in all stages
following the modulator. Further since all amplifiers handle constant power, the average

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 4

Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa

power handled equals the peak power. In AM transmitter the maximum power is four times
the average power. Finally in FM all the transmitted power is useful whereas in AM, most of
the power is carrier power which does not contain any information.

E. FM receivers may be fitted with amplitude limiters to remove the amplitude variations
caused by noise. This makes FM reception a good deal more immune to noise than AM
reception.

DISADVANTAGE:

A. A much wider channel (200 kHz) is required for FM. Where AM broadcast can be done in
10 KHz.

B. FM transmitting & receiving equipment are more complex & costly than the equipment of
AM.

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 5

Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa

2. TRANSMITTER

Transmitter:

In AIR, Kadapa station there are two Transmitters, one of BEL make and another of Thales
make. Both are of 100KW power. Thales Transmitter is normally used for radiation and BEL
Transmitter used as standby. The overall station set-up is shown below. There are two 11KV
feeder lines from APTRANSCO as the power source, one from BUILT-UP sub station and
the other from MM PALLI sub station.

Any one of them can be used as power source. Thales Transmitter has the ability to
run on Diesel Generator also at 50KW power during power failures. Any one of the
Transmitters can be switched ON, and its O/P connected to the mast for radiation. Audio
information from control room is given to both the Transmitters for modulation.

DIESEL
GENERATOR

MAST
THALES 110 mts
T/R
BUILT-UP
FEEDER
) (
) ( 100KW
11K ) ( AM
V DSB
FEEDER LINES BEL
) (
T/R
) (
MM PALLI ) (
FEEDER

11KV/400V
AUDIO
STATION INFORMATION
FROM C/R

Fig2.1 Block diagram of Transmitter

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 6

Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa

First aid & Fire extinguishers:

The fire extinguishers used in any organisation, public places are not meant to deal with
large- scale fire accidents. Nevertheless, these are very valuable if used promptly and
efficiently in the early stages of fire. Because they are available readily at the place and fire is
small in the beginning, it can totally stop bigger accidents if used as first aid.

This usefulness depends upon the knowledge of the operating personnel also.

Location of Fire Extinguishers:

1. Should be kept in easily accessible places.

2. Should be kept in places, which would be easily noticed by persons following the
natural impulse to get out of danger. Eg. Fire exits, stair-cases, entrance of the
room etc.
3. If special risk is contained in a confined place, it is advisable to position the
extinguishers outside that place.
4. Wall mounted extinguishers should be kept at a height of 1m from ground and not
at too higher levels, so that any person can take it.
5. Suitable shades/covers should be constructed for extinguishers kept in open places.
6. When high capacity fire – extinguishers are used, consideration should be given to
the mobility of the extinguisher like door-width, passage ways etc.
7. Extinguishers should be kept away form the heat that may arise due to fire-accident.
8. A framed diagram showing the places of fire extinguishers in a building should be
displayed, preferably at the entrance of the building.

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 7

Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa

Safety Precautions:

The following few points give the precautions to be followed, for the safety of
personnel and equipment.

i) For personnel safety:

1. Always switch off the equipment before maintenance/servicing.

2. Using earth rods, discharge components wherever high voltages may be
stored, before maintenance servicing.
3. Presence/absence of supply may be confirmed using taster/test
lamps/multimeter.
4. Keep the earth-rod on the equipment/component until maintenance is over.
5. Wear insulating foot-wear.
6. Use hand-gloves wherever needed.
7. Keep safe-distance from HT & RF components.
8. Never bypass interlocks unless it is absolutely necessary, and authorized by a
competent authority.
9. Always give siren before switching ON T/R.
10. Make sure that all staff are present and safe, before switching ON T/R or the
supply to any equipment.
ii) For the safety of equipment:

1. Switch OFF power before opening or during maintenance of any equipment.

2. Never bypass interlocks unless you are sure it will not affect the health of the
equipment/device T/R.
3. Always replace fuses with correct rating & type.
11. Make sure that all staff are present and safe, before switching ON T/R or the
supply to any equipment.
ii) For the safety of equipment:

1. Switch OFF power before opening or during maintenance of any equipment.

2. Never bypass interlocks unless you are sure it will not affect the health of the
equipment/device T/R.
3. Always replace fuses with correct rating & type.

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 8

Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa

3. 500 KVA STATION TRANSFORMER

We need 400V / 3φ supply to run the Transmitter and its associated equipments. The station
KVA demand is 300KVA. So if we get direct 400V supply from electricity board, it would
give rise to a large loss of power in the transmission lines, because the current consumption
of the transmitting centre is around 200A normally. So we get 11KV supply from electricity
board and step-down to 400V, because in 11KV, the current is around 10A only. So a step
down transformer is needed. We use two nos of 500KVA step down transformers for this
purpose. They are called station transformers also.

 In this station transformer tapings are provided to adjust the output voltage to our
required value and to compensate for any incoming supply variations.
 Since secondary carries heavy current it is difficult to provide tapings in the
secondary. So tapings are provided in the 11KV primary side of the transformers.
 To increase or decrease the input voltage 9 tappings are present at the primary. For
each step, a 10V change can be achieved in the secondary side.
 It is an oil-cooled transformer.

Buchholz Relay:

During operation the transformers get heated due to core loss and copper loss. The oil in the
transformer is heated. Due to this heat, high pressure will be produced in transformer. If the
pressure is too much due to overloading or some fault in the load side, or due to lack of
ventilation of the transformers, chances are there that the transformers will burst.

To protect the transformers from any such untoward accidents, this pressure level is
monitored using a pressure sending device called Buchholz relay, mounted on the
transformer itself. This relay operates at a set pressure level, and an electrical contact is
closed. This contact can be used in a protective way, for example, the VCB can be tripped
and hence total supply to the transformer cut off immediately.

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 9

Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa

Breather:

To maintain the pressure inside the transformers constant at the atmospheric pressure,
there must be some way of connecting the inside of the transformers to the external
environment. But this will lead to direct contact of air with the transformer oil. This will
bring the moisture from the air into oil and hence the oil quality will deteriorate. To avoid it,
the transformer is connected to the atmosphere through one moisture removing arrangement
called the silica gel breather. Whenever air gets into the transformer the moisture is removed
from it by the silica gel.

Make up tank:

Due to leakage, the oil level inside the transformer decreases gradually. To make up for this
loss, one oil tank is fitted on top of the transformer and filled with oil and connected to the
transformer through a pipe. So oil keeps flowing from this tank whenever the oil level inside
the transformer is reduced. This tank is also provided with a glass oil level indictor to help the
maintenance personal.

Transformer Oil:

1. It is used for cooling and it acts as an insulator.

2. This oil should be checked yearly once for its acid content and breakdown capacity.

3. Acidity test — It should be <0.3mg.

Break down voltage — It should be >30KV.

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 10

Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa

4. LOGARITHMIC UNITS

1. In the field of broadcasting a vast range in the level of audio is handled. The broadcast
engineers have to handle very low level output from microphone (-0.1nW), to very high level
output from transmitter (100KW). To express these levels conveniently, we require a scale or
unit based on ratios rather than on the actual level in micro watts, milli watts, kilowatts, etc.

2. The human ear responds not to the actual sound pressure but to the sound pressure relative
with the ambient sound pressure prevalent at that time. For example, the movement of a leaf
or a squeak of a mouse can be heard sharply in the night or in a quiet room, but even a gun
shot may be missed in a noisy situation. Also, volume of sound perceived by human ear is not
proportional to the audio power but to the log of audio power, ie human ear response is
logarithmic.

3. Let us consider the following level changes in two different situations.

Case 1 Case 2

Initial level 5 kW 1000 kW

Final level 2 kW 997 kW

Change in level 3 kW 3 kW

Even though the level change in both the cases is same, the change in level in case 1, from 5
kW to 2 kW is more significant than that of 1003 kW to 1000 kW in case 2.

In order to facilitate measurements, which take account of these phenomena, a system was
introduced to allow power ratios to be expressed in a logarithmic manner.

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 11

Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa

5. AIR CONDITIONING

One of the primary functions of an air conditioning system is to maintain conditions that
are conductive to human comfort

The load of minimum requirements for comfort air conditioning. Sponsored by

ASHVE/ASRE has as fixed the scope of the system and it states comfort air conditioning for
purpose of the load is defined as the process by which simultaneously the temperature
moisture contacts, movement and quality of air in enclosed space, intended for human
occupancy may be with in required limits.

In order to satisfy the stipulated requirements as complete air conditioning system is

obliged to perform the following functions,

Cooling and dehumidification for summer conditioning.

Heating and humidification for winter conditioning.
Air filtration and proper ventilation the year round.
Necessary these functions involve control of temperature humidity and purity and
moment of air.

Mechanical refrigeration’s is achieved alternating compressing an expanding the

refrigerant. With the help of compressor and pressure reducing device. (Such as expansion
valve).

Compressor serves two purposes’ first it draws the refrigerant from the evaporated
(cooling coil) and forces it into the condenser and secondly it increases the pressure of the
refrigerant.

By sucking the refrigerant the compressors reduces the pressure on the cooling coil and
maintain it at a level low enough to permit. The refrigerant to (coil) or vaporize and
consequently absorb hear in the process. (Refrigerant coils at a relatively low temperature
when pressure is reduced).

By discharging refrigerant vapor into the condenser. The compressor increase vapor
pressure and temperature. The hot vapor flows to the condenser it is condensed into liquid at
high pressure up hear to atmosphere air or water depending upon in further condenser is air
cooled or water cooled.

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 12

Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa

The liquid refrigerant thus passes through a pressure reducing like an expansion valve (or
capillary tube).its pressure is reduced enabling it to start boiling and the evaporated resulting
refrigerant effect. Refrigerant vapor return to the compressor as the cycle is repeated.

System types:

Basically all air conditioning system can be divided into two broad categories.
Direct expansion or DX type and chilled water system. In DX system the air is cooled by
the refrigerant following inside the evaporator coil. In chilled water system air is cooled by
means of chilled water flowing inside the coil. DX type can be further classified as follows:

A. SELF CONTAINED
1. Windows type (or room
2. Air conditioners) commonly available are on 1.1.5 and 2TR capacities. These are
invariably air-cooled.
3. Package type commonly available both as air-cooled or water cooled models.
B. SPLIT TYPE
Further air-cooled or water-cooled. Capacities available, 3,5,7,5 and 10TR
C. Central or built up type, either air-cooled or water-cooled commonly available above
10TR up to 200TR.

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 13

Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa

6. AC PLANT
What is air conditioning:?

The meaning of AC differs slightly with respect to what for it is mainly.

If AC is used for cooling of equipments, then AC means controlling the temperature of the air
and its humidity content. If we control the temperature and humidity of air, that will do for
an equipment (computers, and other electronic/electrical equipment, transmitter etc)

But when AC is meant for human beings, other factors also come into picture. The
composition of air becomes more significant as it affects our breathing. If some persons are
present in a room, O2 goes on being used up, and CO2 goes on increasing. So it becomes
necessary to bring in fresh air.

Noise is also an important factor in some situations. Ex. In our studios, we can’t
provide window AC’s as they create lot of noise, and the microphone will pick it up easily.
So centralized AC becomes a necessity.

Also since studios are built to stop all noise from outside, it is completely enclosed
and is Air-tight. So circulating fresh air into studios becomes important as otherwise it will
lead to suffocation of staff.

In general, the requirements of AC, in particular to AIR set up, are as follows:

1. Temperature control of air

2. Humidity control of air
3. Should not generate any noise in the cooling area (studios)
4. Should circulate fresh air, to avoid suffocation.

Principle:

Ours being tropical eliminate, mostly AC means cooling of the air in a specified
area/room, that is it means to remove the heat from air in a room, and give it to the
atmosphere surrounding it. This would mean that the room area is in lower temperature and
surrounding in higher temperature.

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 14

Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa

hea
t

Hig
h te

low
temperatur
e

air-
conditioned

Fig6.1 Principle of AC Plant

Naturally, heat energy flows from higher temperature environment/matter to lower

temperature environment. But in case of AC, the room is in low temperature and outside
environment is in high temperature. So heat will flow from outside, into the room and not the
other way that we want. So we have to spend some energy to move heat from low
temperature room to its high temperature outside environment.

This is done by the AC equipment. It takes electrical energy to do this work. In actual,
AC-plant is a heat-pump, pumping heat energy from low-temperature region to high-
temperature region.

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 15

Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa

7. DIESEL GENERATOR

Diesel Generator mainly consists of 3 parts.

1. The Diesel Engine

2. The Alternator and
3. Control circuit
The Diesel Engine
This generates the mechanical energy from Diesel fuel and rotates the Alternator
(Dynamo). The DG capacity (KVA rating) depends upon the Horse-Power of this Diesel
Engine. This engine is designed to run with a constant rpm. Because the rpm of Engine
determines the frequency of the AC power generated (50Hz), it needs to the constant.

Alternator

Alternator is basically a AC dynamo which converts the rotary mechanical energy

into electrical energy. For our requirement it generates 400V, 3phase, 50Hz supply.

An alternator consists of magnets (permanent or temporary) and coils. When the

magnet or coil rotates, the changing flux linkages induce AC voltage in the coils.

There are two types of alternators

1. Brush type alternator

2. Brushless alternator
AC mains control

A control circuits senses the AC mains voltage, and adjust the dc current delivered to
the field coils so that the output mains voltage remains within tolerance from no load to full
load. In the start, the residual magnetism of the field coil core induces a small voltage even
through there is no current in the field coil. This voltage is feed back and soon rated voltage
is reached.

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 16

Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa

8. AVR (Automatic Voltage Regulator)

1. AVR is used to correct any voltage variations in the 400V/3phase mains supply.
2. It does this by adding or subtracting a voltage in series to the incoming mains voltage,
so that the O/P voltage remains within our required limits.
3. For this, a sample of the incoming mains voltage is taken, the voltage and phase of
which can be controlled.
4. If the input voltage is high, a voltage out of phase to the incoming is added to the I/P.
5. If the input voltage is low, then a voltage in phase to the input voltage is added.
6. AVR consists of an autotransformer, a series control transformer, and a sensing and
control unit.
7. Autotransformer is the unit, which supplies us with the required amount of voltage in-
phase or out of phase, to be added to the incoming voltage.
8. This autotransformer is a motorized unit, and by controlling the direction and position
of the motor, we can get the required voltage in the required phase.
9. This voltage is added to the incoming supply using a transformer called series control
transformer.
10. The control unit continuously senses the O/P voltage of the AVR, and using set
reference values decides whether the O/P voltage is more or less than our required
level.
11. The motor of the autotransformer is continuously rotated until the O/P voltage reaches
within our set range.
12. The wiper contact of the autotransformer will move on either side of the center-tap so
that the sampled voltage can be phase-reversed.
13. For BEL HMB-140 Transmitter, a 450KVA AVR is used. All the three phases are
controlled by a single motor and control circuit.
14. For Thales Transmitter, a 300KVA AVR present. In this three phases are controlled
by three control units and with three individual motors.
15. This gives control over all three phases individually, in case of any unbalance in the
incoming voltage.

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 17

Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa

SERIES CONTROL
TRANSFORMER
L1 L2

N
N
AUTO
TRANSFORMER

UNREGULATE
D REGULATED O/P
I/P
BIDIRECTION SENSING
AL AND
CONTRO

N N

Fig8.1 Circuit diagram of AVR

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 18

Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa

9. STATION POWER DISTRIBUTION

We get 11KV/3 phase AP Transco supply through two feeder lines, one from
BUILTUP and another from MM PALLI. Metering is in the outdoor structure called 6 pole
structure. Both the feeders are extended to indoor change over unit in VCB room, through
underground cables. Selection of any one of the feeder is done through VCB’s in each feeder.

There are two station transformers of 500KVA each which step down the incoming
11KV to 400V 3 phase supply. Selection of any one of the transformers is done by VCB’s in
the primary and 1000A ACB’s in the secondary. ACB’s and MCB’s in the LT panel
distribute this 400V 3 phase supply to all the loads in transmitter complex.

Station
transfromer -1
11KV/400V

VCB - VCB -
Built-up
N1N2

ACB 800A

BEL
T/R

MM-Palli N1N2
VCB - VCB -

11KV/400V
Station transformer -2
APSEB
ACB

From DG
LIGTING DG
& PWOER AC THALES ACB
PLANT ACB

Fig9.1 Bel T/R power distribution

BEL T/R is supplied through 800A ACB in LT panel. From there supply goes to
450KVA AVR. Regulated output of this AVR is given to t/r through 800A MCCB (CB101).
This supply is divided into two branches.

1. One branch goes to Thycon unit through 630A HRC fuse and circuit breaker CB102.
2. It is meant for developing 11KV HT DC for PA and MOD. Valves .

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 19

Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa
3. Another branch through 100A HRC fuse supplies all the transmitting circuits.

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 20

Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa

This supply is again divided into three branches :

1. One branch supplies all the motors and fans for t/r cooling. (distilled water pump, LP
Blower, HP Blower, heat exchanger fan)
2. Another branch is given to 30KVA AVR for further regulation.
3. The output of this AVR supplies control circuits, audio/exciter, filament, bias and MT
supplies of the valves.

HRC
Pump &
100A
Blow
ers

30 KVA

450
1.Bias
KVA
N1 N2 2.Filamen
AVR
SW-SPST1 ts 3.MT

MCCB
CB-
ACB N1 N2 101
800
A

SW-SPST2

EM OFF Thyco
CB +11KV
10 DC
HRC
2
630
A

Fig9.2 Filament Supplies

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 21

Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa

10. ATU (Antenna Tuning Unit)

TUNED CIRCUITS:

1. In passive components, resistor offers fixed resistance right from DC to

any frequency.

2. Inductor and capacitor offer variable impedance (resistance) depending upon

the frequency.

3. Inductor offers 0 for DC and its impedance linearly increases with

frequency.

Zl= + jL = +j (2f)L 

For f = , inductor gives ZL =  i.e at very high frequencies it is

almost equal to an open circuit.

4. Capacitor gives  impedance to DC i.e if we impress a DC voltage

across a capacitor, it charges to the DC voltage, and then no current flows

through it. The charge is kept stored in its plates. As we increase the

frequency, its impedance starts reducing.

Zc = - j /c = -j/2fc 

At very high frequencies, capacitor is almost a short circuit.

5. Series Tuned Circuit:

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 22

Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa

ZL

Zc

Zc

L
vs

Fig10.1 Series Tuned Circuit

6. Parallel Tuned Circuit

Zt

vs
L

0 f0 f

PARALLEL TUNED CIRCUIT

Fig10.2 Parallel Tuned Circuit

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 23

Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa

Antenna Tuning Unit:

This unit is meant for matching the feeder line impedance to that of the radiating element, the
mast. Matching of impedances becomes necessary for transfer of maximum power to the
mast, and also to avoid any reflection of power from mast due to mismatching.

In our station, the feeder line impedance is 230, and mast base impedance is
277+j274.

To match these two impedances, L-C networks are employed usually as these
components do not absorb any power themselves. From the mast base impedance we see that
it has an inductive component (+j274). An equal opposite impedance, ie capacitive
impedance (-j274) is introduced in the L-C network to cancel the inductive part. The rest of
the network is used for impedance matching (230 to 277).

The simplified circuit diagram of ATU network is shown below.

ATU ROOM
Rm 277

L1 C2
MAST
Lm
+j274

230
ohm
FEEDER NOTE :
LINE Rm - is the radiation
C1
resistance of the
mast.
Lm - is the inductive part of
the mast structure.

Fig10.3 ATU Network

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 24

Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa

ATU Matching:

FEEDER LINES
The T/R O/P is connected to the mast through feeder lines. As we know well, any
feeder line has its own characteristic impedance. For maximum power transfer though this
line, without reflection, and loss, the source and load sides at both ends of the feeder line
should be matched to the feeder line’s characteristic impedance.

Fig10.4 Feeder lines

In practice, it is difficult to get the load impedance equal to the feeder line impedance, which
is pure resistance. The load impedance often is of complex value, and cannot be varied.

In such situations where feeder line and load have different impedances, we insert a
matching network in between them. This network works like an impedance transformer.

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 25

Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa

11. THALES TRANSMITTER

This is a modern type transmitter using latest modulation techniques and sophisticated
transmitting circuits. BEL-HMB-140 transmitter uses vacuum tubes for generating the
required audio and RF powers. They are bulky, need many operating voltages, and are less
efficient, need more cooling. Water cooling is also needed for audio and RF PAs.

Thales transmitter uses no vacuum tubes. It is totally solid state design using
MOSFETs for power generation. These power devices are operating with pure square wave
and so power wastage is much less. So demand on cooling is less.

Modular design

BEL transmitter uses single vacuum tube to generate the 100KW RF power. If that
valve fails, it has to be replaced and it takes quiet a time. And so service breakdown occurs
until valve is replaced.

In Thales transmitter, instead of using a single power stage, 80 nos of PA units are
used to generate 100KW power. Each unit generates 1.25KW of RF power. The O/Ps from
all these 80 PA units are combined to get the total 100KW RF power.

If any one of these unit fails, that particular unit will be effectively removed from
circuit by the control circuit and the T/R will continue to work. The rest of 79 PA units are
driven little more to generate more power to compensate for the lack of one PA unit and get
the 100KW RF power. Up to a certain number of unit failures, T/R will continue to give
100KW power. Also, T/R will not switch OFF during such unit failures. So breakdown is
avoided, and also radiated power is not reduced. This is the advantage of modular design.

Flexibility of radiated power

Transmitters using valves could generate only the fixed RF power for which it is
designed. For example, BEL HMB-140 is designed for 100KW RF power and it could not be
changed as and when required. But in Thales transmitter, by changing the number of PA
modules that are switched ON, we can easily change the radiated RF power.

Thales transmitter is designed to give any RF power from 10KW to 100KW, in steps of 5KW.

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 26

Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa

Low level modulation

Thales T/R uses low level amplitude modulation. That is, modulation takes place
when the audio is in low level. So there is no need to have a separate audio chain to boost the
audio power to 50KW for final modulation.

Power combining

The O/P of each PA unit is given to the primary of a RF transformer. The secondary
of all the transformers are connected in series to add up the RF powers of all the PA units.
Using Transformer in the PA O/P also gives galvanic isolation for the PA units.

Thermal cycling

Once the number of PA modules are decided and the RF pulse width is decided, thing
PA modules are switched ON and running. Suppose 50 KW of power is needed. Then 40
modules are switched ON. The rest of 40 modules out of 80 PA modules are not being used.
The 40 modules that are ON will take the total load and so will be heated normally. The rest
40 modules that are OFF are cool. To avoid such thermal unbalance, the modules are cycled
for use. It is seen that all modules are evenly used over a period. The modules that are ON
now are switched OFF and the OFF modules are switched ON next. This technique is called
thermal cycling.

Ability for DCC operation

This Transmitter has inbuilt software for DCC (Dynamic Carrier Control) operation.
In this mode we can save around 25% of power and hence electricity bill.

Ability for remote control

This Transmitter can be operated from a remote location using a computer interface
and modem link.

MMI

MMI (Man Machine Interface) is through one touch sensitive LCD screen. All the
data are displayed through the same LCD screen. All I/P commands to the Transmitter by the
operating npersonal is through this screen. This functions both as an I/P and O/P device.

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 27

Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa

12. DCC

AM BROADCASTING – the Indian scenario.

All MW & SW transmissions in India are AM-DSB-FC. This is due to the well
established methods of generation and transmission techniques of

AM-DSB-FC, and also due to the simple and cheaper receiver design.

There are around 80 HPTs (High Power Transmitters) (50KW-to-100KW) & SPTs
(Super Power Transmitters) (500KW-to-1000KW) in India, operating in the MW and SW
band.

Except for some Transmitters which are all solid state, all these Transmitters employ
valves for producing the required audio and RF power and modulation.

We see that from the pick-up element ie mic to the radiating element mast, major
portion of power is consumed by the Transmitter for radiation.

If something could be done to save a fraction of that power, without any degradation in the
signal received, it could mean a big saving.

Even though AM-DSB-SC, and AM-SSB offer much in the way of power saving, it is
not used, due to their complex nature of production, and complicated and costly receiver
design.

We spend around Rs.500,000 /month in the form of electricity bills for a 100KW
Transmitting centre alone, a major part of the station budget.

A saving of 20% of that amount means Rs.100,000/month. And when we consider the
total of 80 HPTs in India, it is a big budget saving, and also saving our energy resources.

This is where DCC comes into picture. It promises to save 25% to 35% of the
transmitted power and hence reduce the running cost.

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 28

Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa

13. Distortion & Noise Level

1. It is essential that performance of T/R and its associated equipments be checked

periodically, & also when the need arises.
2. The performance of any electronic equipment can be known by its Distortion, Noise
level, Frequency response, and Linearity measurements.
3. The deviation of a signal waveform from its original form creates distortion.
4. This id due to the inability of the amplifier or equipment to reproduce the input signal
in original form in its o/p.
5. There are three types of distortions:
i) Amplitude distortion

ii) Frequency distortion

ii) Phase or delay distortion.

6. i) An amplifier/equipment should have linearity. That is it should amplify signals

uniformly over the entire operating range.
Ex: Let us say an amplifier has input range of 0 dBm to 6 dBm.

In original it is supposed to amplify all signals in this range by the same magnitude.
If it amplifies the low level (0 dBm) signals higher & the higher level signals (0dBm)
by a lesser value this naturally makes the output signal more distorted than the input
signal. Its wave form is distorted.

7. ii) Frequency distortion: Like amplitude range, an equipment has operating frequency
range. Here too it is expected to provide uniform gain over the entire frequency range
of operation. If it has more or less gain in high/low frequencies, all the frequencies in
the signal will not get uniform amplification. This gives frequency distortion.
8. iii) Phase/Delay distortion: Any equipment has got delay. The time difference
between input and output signals. This delay, if it is different for different frequency
components, will introduce different phase-shifts to each frequency component. This
is also undesirable.
9. All audio signals contain sinusoidal waveforms. Any distortion leads to non-
sinusoidal waveform & hence unwanted harmonics are introduced in the audio. (Any
waveform other than pure sin/cos contains harmonics).

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 29

Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa

CONCLUSION

The objective of All India Radio is achieved by educating & entertaining the people with a
view of creating awareness among them about the nation's potential for development its
problem & soliciting their participation in the implementation of government's policies plans
& programs.

As public broadcaster dedicated to nation building, ALL INDIA RADIO has contributed very
significantly to the socio-economic development & cultural integration. It provides a mix of
informative, educative & entertaining fare as news service, external service, National
channel, Commercial channel, AIR internet service, AIR music on phone, Air news on
phone, Digital Audio Broadcasting (now in Delhi). It helps people not only increase their
general knowledge & education but also helps to know our country & its lifestyle.

AIR also transmits programs like VIVID BHARATI, CAL- A, CAL-B etc. The forecast of
weather of these channels is very helpful for farmers & fisherman. So all the programs of this
channel are too popular & helpful. The AIR also serves educational programs for students.

Now a days AIR also used modern technologies like DTH (Direct to Home) SERVICE,
ISDN to transmit their programs. They also plan to start Digital Radio Service shortly. So as
a Indian I also hope that the next journey of AIR will be glorious to serve our nation &
people of every stage of our country.

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 30

Prasar Bharati, All India Radio (AIR), Kadapa

REFERENCES

 Basic Course in Communication: AIR Study Material

 Radio Transmission: AIR Study Material
 Antenna and Feeder System: AIR Study Material
 FM Transmitter Specifications Handbook: BEL Publication
 Handbook on FM Transmitters: GCEL Publication
 Cooling Systems: AIR Study Material
 Cooling System Technical Specifications Handbook: Voltas Publication
 Earthing Systems: AIR Study Material
 Studio Acoustics: AIR Study Material
 Wireless Communication: Theodore S.Rappaport

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, SVCE, TIRUPATI Page 31