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An Overview of Extrasensory Perception or ESP

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 CURRENT SCIENCE

An Overview of Extrasensory Perception or ESP

Article Advisor: Assoc. Prof. Kursat Sahin Yildirimer

St. Clements University Vice Dean and Lecturer

By Hacı Osman AKTAŞLIOĞLU, PhD , St. Clements University

To cite this article: Hacı Osman AKTAŞLIOĞLU, Current Science, Volume 4, No. 8-4, 2022, p. 150 – 175. - 0099-0001-
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Abstract

Extrasensory perception, or ESP, is a term that may be used by certain individuals to describe the
types of events described here. Mind reading, sensing that a distant friend is in trouble, predicting
the future, and other phenomena associated with more illusionists than with science are examples
of things that fall under the category of extrasensory perception (ESP). ESP is defined as awareness
of the world that occurs through some mechanism other than the known senses. (“Beach House –
ESP Lyrics | Genius Lyrics”) Science is concerned with observing the natural world, which can
range from very distant galaxies to microscopic creatures and human behavior. These findings can
then be used to shed light on natural explanations for the observations. So, what does scientific
research say about extrasensory perception? The consequences of ESP, the knowledge of world
events, are within the domain of science, and as a result, we can use science tools to study the
phenomena sometimes attributed to ESP. While extrasensory perception (ESP) may not seem like
something scientists would study, the results of ESP are knowledge of world events. The
researchers used these methods to explore the possibility of extrasensory perception (ESP). His
research covers a wide range of extrasensory abilities (ESP), but mind reading has been the primary
emphasis throughout. One participant, known as the sender, looks at a deck of cards in which each
card depicts one of five symbols (such as a star or cross), while another participant, known as the
receiver, tries to figure out which symbol is the sender . In many cases, the sender is hidden from
view so that no clues can be gathered from body language. If the recipient correctly identified the

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 CURRENT SCIENCE

symbol more often than could be explained by chance, this would provide evidence that
extrasensory perception (ESP) actually exists . Despite this, researchers have shown that the
receivers in these studies are not exactly accurate; moreover, no evidence of mind reading, or any
other type of ESP has been discovered. There has been no study in the scientific community of the
possible processes behind ESP because there is no evidence to even suggest that extrasensory
perception occurs. This article was written for a literature contribution on Extrasensory perception
or ESP.

Keywords: Extrasensory Perception, ESP, Extrasensory Perception, Perception, Extrasensory,

Extrasensory

1. Introduction

ESP itself is neither scientific nor unscientific; however, any of these pathways can be studied, and
scientific research has failed to uncover evidence to support the existence of extrasensory
perception (ESP). Those who refuse to accept the facts but continue to claim that extrasensory
perception (ESP) is a truly natural occurrence violates one of the basic principles of scientific
behavior, namely synthesizing evidence.

It is said that people can receive information or influence about their environment without the need
for the five senses, and this phenomenon is called extrasensory perception, or ESP for short.
Extrasensory perception is an untested paranormal phenomenon . ESP is short for extrasensory
perception and may sometimes be referred to as the "sixth sense" or " psi ". The term is used to
describe a wide variety of psychic abilities, such as telepathy (mind reading), psychokinesis (acting
without physical contact), and premonition (predicting the future).

Our understanding of ESP contradicts basic scientific principles. A 2019 study published in the
Journal of Psychology in Europe found that estimates implied that about two-thirds of individuals

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 CURRENT SCIENCE

in the United States believe in its existence. Even in the scientific community, the ESP debate is
taken very seriously. Skeptics point out that the data is weak at best and dishonest at worst, but
other psychologists suggest the issue should be considered.

Interest in extrasensory perception (ESP) can be traced back to the spiritualist movement that
flourished in England and the United States during the 19th century, according to research
conducted at the University of Canterbury in New Zealand. During sessions held by members of
the fashion elite, psychics would try to talk to the spirits present. By the end of the 19th century,
scientists and other thinkers began to join research societies devoted to studying not only
communication with spirits, but also a range of "psychic" phenomena such as telepathy and
hypnosis (unlike telepathy and séances, which are now supported by science). In 1882 the Group
for Psychical Studies was founded in London, and in 1885 individuals in the United States formed
a comparable society. (Both can be found in the modern world.)

2. The Expression of "Extrasensory Perception"

The phrase "extrasensory perception" was not widely used until the 1930s, when a psychologist
named JB Rhine founded a lab at Duke University dedicated to the study of the sixth sense. Rhine
's work with decks of " Zener cards" , in which each card carries a randomly chosen symbol from
a pool of five options, was responsible for his rise to fame. According to the American
Psychological Association, the research would ask participants to identify the symbol that appears
on each of those cards when shuffling a 25-card deck without letting them see the cards. According
to the standard probability distribution, the probability of correctly identifying each playing card
was about one-fifth, or twenty percent. Rhine discovered that when presented with a deck of cards,
more than twenty percent of individuals consistently chose the correct card. Terence Hines '
Pseudoscience and Based on this finding, the researcher concluded that he had discovered evidence
for extrasensory perception (ESP) (Prometheus, 2003).

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 CURRENT SCIENCE

Rhine 's later compiled and (in 1934, Boston Society ) for psychic Published by Research ) "
Extrasensory Perception " attracted both skepticism and curiosity. In his review of the book,
written the same year and published in Nature (opens in a new tab), the critic noted that Rhine's
He suggested that his strong reliance on ESP may have skewed his findings. But Rhine's work also
made a significant contribution to the expansion of the emerging science of parapsychology. In
1957 he founded the Parapsychological Society, an organization that is still active today and
dedicated to the study of psychic experiences.

3. Practicing

Daryl Bem is one of the most well-known and controversial personalities in the field of
extrasensory perception (ESP) study today. In 2011, The Journal of Personality and social He had
an article in Psychology that was said to offer evidence for intuition, sometimes known as the
capacity to predict the future. He conducted nine traditional psychological studies, each with deep-
rooted psychological implications; however, he ran the trials in reverse order.

For example, he would give participants an extensive list of words, ask them to memorize as many
as possible and then repeat what they learned. After a while, he would provide each student with
writing a smaller subset of the words to "practice". Participants remembered most of the terms
they would study later as opposed to terms they would not apply. In other words, the hunch seemed
to help the participants "remember" the phrases based on their future practice. Since then, Bem
has come under fire for using research techniques known to increase the likelihood of false positive
findings.

Additionally, critics point out that the results, which provide evidence for extrasensory perception
(ESP), are not much different from what you would expect if you were relying on luck alone.
According to Jeffrey Rouder , a cognitive psychologist at the University of California, Irvine , such
findings are consistent across all parapsychological research. According to Rouder , "If you really
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 CURRENT SCIENCE

have ESP , you should be able to get it right, maybe 65 percent to 80 percent of the time." (“What
is ESP? | Live Science”) A performance of just 3 percent better than random is not extraordinary.
Often, anecdotal anecdotes and subjective experiences are what ordinary people point to as
evidence of the phenomenon of extrasensory perception (ESP). People claim that later events are
prophetic dreams or visions . They also claim that they can always predict when a particular
member of their family will call. Anecdotal evidence for the existence of extrasensory perception
(ESP) can also be found in certain historical stories, such as a novel (opens in a new tab) that
allegedly predicted the sinking of the Titanic.

Journal of Cognitive in 2008 Already well-known cognitive biases explain these stories, according
to an article published in Neuroscience .

4. Cognitive Biases

tend to see patterns in unrelated series of events . So, even though there is a significant possibility
that two events occurring close together in time may have occurred randomly, it seems like a sign
that your best friend calls your thoughts just seconds after you enter them. Confirmation bias refers
to the tendency of people to seek evidence that supports the views and perspectives they have
already formed.

5. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy or CBT

cognitive behavioral therapy or CBT, is a type of psychotherapy that treats mental health
conditions using scientifically established learning principles into the therapeutic process. Russian
psychologist Ivan Pavlov, who worked extensively on the application of conditioning strategies
and theories to abnormal behavior in the 1920s and 1930s, is primarily responsible for the
development of this concept. He has authored many articles on this subject. The techniques used

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 CURRENT SCIENCE

in behavior therapy differ from those used in psychiatry, and especially psychoanalysis, in that
they primarily focus on the treatment of symptoms (behaviors) and unconscious processes, the
development of new insights, or the fundamental change of a person's personality.

BF Skinner, an American psychologist who worked with mentally ill patients at a public hospital
in Massachusetts, is credited with popularizing the practice of behavior therapy . BF Skinner,
through his research on animal learning, discovered that the way reinforcers are distributed, also
known as incentives, can influence the formation of responses and their eventual deletion. A
"reinforcement program" refers to the pattern of giving rewards, both in terms of timing and
frequency of rewards. The process of gradually changing behavior to get closer to the intended
result is called "shaping". The malleable and adaptive character of cognitive processes has been
the focus of recent developments in behavior therapy .

Extrasensory perception, sometimes known as ESP, is perception that occurs outside or in addition
to normal sensory processes. In general, telepathy, also known as the transfer of thoughts from one
person to another, clairvoyance , also known as unusual awareness of objects or events that are not
necessarily known to others, and premonition, also known as knowledge of the future, all fall under
this category of phenomena . The beginning of scientific research on these and other similar
phenomena can be traced back to the second half of the 19th century. Most of the supporting data
comes from tests involving card prediction. Under carefully watched conditions, subjects are asked
to accurately identify images on playing cards that are hidden from their view. Extrasensory
perception (ESP) is considered to exist when test subjects have a higher-than-expected success
rate in a statistically considerable number of trials. Individuals claiming to have extrasensory
perception (ESP) are occasionally used by investigative teams when searching for missing persons
or items.

BF Skinner, an American psychologist who worked with mentally ill patients at a public hospital
in Massachusetts, is credited with popularizing the practice of behavior therapy . BF Skinner,
through his research on animal learning, discovered that the way reinforcers are distributed, also
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 CURRENT SCIENCE

known as incentives, can influence the formation of responses and their eventual deletion. A
"reinforcement program" refers to the pattern of giving rewards, both in terms of timing and
frequency of rewards. The process of gradually changing behavior to get closer to the intended
result is called "shaping". The malleable and adaptive character of cognitive processes has been
the focus of recent developments in behavior therapy .

Behavioral therapy , also known as behavior modification, is a type of treatment that uses
psychological counseling to bring about change in behavior.

Their conditional fears were overcome by placing them in environments comparable to what they
feared, and then gradually increasing the level of similarity until there were no longer any signals
of anxiety. When applied to human problems, what is known as desensitization, patients may be
asked to either picture anxiety-provoking situations or deal with things or events that are truly
feared. This is done so that the desensitization process can be more effective. Developing a
hierarchy of phobias is the most vital component of the method; The main source of information
is the patient's verbal responses, but the therapist may also depend on other sources, such as
diagnostic tests or interviews with the patient's family or friends. In situations where anxiety-
provoking stimuli are present, relaxation training is often used as a coping mechanism. The
theoretical question whether these processes involve a reduction in the habituation intensity of
anxiety responses or the generation of alternative, adaptive responses to the same stimuli remained
unanswered. One possibility is that these two things happen at the same time.

therapy and organized learning are beneficial when applied in group settings . The word
"assertiveness training" more generally refers to a group setting organized in a way that facilitates
the learning of emotionally expressive behaviors. This type of education is based on the behavioral
premise that associated subjective emotions will be felt once appropriate overt manifestations of
emotions have been learned, realized, and rewarded.

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 CURRENT SCIENCE

Liberman , a psychologist from the United States , first proposed the concept of assertiveness or
personal effectiveness training in 1975 as a core component of therapeutic services provided by
community health centers.

Because ESP beliefs are so prevalent, especially among people with higher levels of education
(Rice, 2003; Wuthnow , 1978), there is an urgent need for a deeper understanding of the
psychological factors that contribute to their development. Considering this, we conducted two
studies to investigate the cognitive and motivational determinants of extrasensory perception
(ESP) beliefs. More specifically , we wanted to know what kind of cognitive style best predicts
these beliefs and whether they are deeply rooted in some basic existential concerns, such as fear
of death.

6. A Type of Belief Related to the Paranormal That Is ESP

Belief in the supernatural or paranormal is a broad concept that can refer to a variety of different
things. The most widely used tool for investigating paranormal beliefs ( Tobacyk & Milford , 1983,
also a revised version Tobacyk , 2004) has been heavily criticized for bringing together diverse
types of beliefs with different origins and different correlates ( Aarnio & Lindeman , 2005;
Lawrence, 1995; Rice, 2003; Thalbourne , 1995 ; Wiseman & Watt, 2004). (“Who Believes in
ESP: Cognitive and Motivational Determinants of the ...”) Such beliefs include belief in God and
other religious beliefs, ghosts, supernatural healing . 2009), the exact number of dimensions
involved, and the nature of these dimensions have yet to be determined. However, in previous
research, factor analytical assessments have often revealed a component associated with psi or
other phenomena with comparable properties (e.g., Lange , Irwin, and Houran , 2000; Tobacyk
and Milford , 1983).

Compared to the more traditional types of superstitions or religious beliefs, beliefs about
extrasensory perception (ESP) occurrences are notable because they are a more "contemporary"
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 CURRENT SCIENCE

form of paranormal belief. They are more in line with their current worldview. For example,
Schouten (1983) discovered that students with ESP ideas do not display pessimistic feelings about
the impact of technology on today's society (see also Wuthnow , 1978). To support this claim, the
results of a recent survey of a representative sample of the general population in the United States
revealed that sixty percent of respondents expressed belief in ESP , making it one of the most
common forms of belief. in the paranormal (35 percent believe extraterrestrials have visited Earth
in the past, compared with 33 percent who believe in astrology, or 24 percent agree that they are
at least superstitious; Rice, 2003; see also Irwin, 2009). People tend to describe the strange things
that happen to them in life in psi , although for most of these examples it is possible to ignore this
explanation, another result that shows ESP beliefs are ubiquitous. (Kennedy, 2005).

Traditionally, scholars dealing with extrasensory perception (ESP) came mostly from the ranks of
parapsychologists , and their primary focus was the question of how one's belief in ESP affects
one's ability to perform ESP activities (Irwin, 2009). They conducted research on the "sheep-goat
effect", which refers to the phenomenon that individuals who believe in extrasensory perception
(ESP) (sheep) are also more successful than individuals in tasks created to demonstrate the
phenomenon of ESP. Skeptics of ESP (goats) ( eg , Storm & Thalbourne , 2005 ; Thalbourne ,
2010). In addition, most of the previous work was concerned with paranormal beliefs in general
and, as a result, only limited relevance to ESP beliefs.

The broader discussion about the personal, social, and political implications of holding and acting
on such beliefs is influenced by a deeper knowledge of ESP beliefs, which has implications for
this discussion (see also Irwin, 2009). Additionally, it will help to clearly define the connections
between the individual beliefs in question and the broader category of paranormal beliefs.

chance ( Blackmore & Troscianko , 1985 ; Brugger , Landis , & Regard , 1990; Dagnall , Parker,
& Munley , 2007) or confusion of ontological fields has also been associated with belief in the
paranormal ( Blackmore & Troscianko , 1985; Brugger , Landis , & Regard , 1990; Dagnall ,
Parker and Munley , 2007). (“Who Believes in ESP: Cognitive and Motivational Determinants of
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 CURRENT SCIENCE

the ...”) Paranormal belief has also been associated more specifically ( Lindeman and Aarnio ,
2007 ). However, the available data suggest that a lack of rationality may not be the only
explanation, as a large part of the variation is still unexplained. This is because there is a large
unexplained percentage of variance ( Pennycook et al . , 2016; cf. Gray , 1985). Additionally,
various scientists, especially developmental psychologists, suggest that intuitive thinking plays a
key role in the formation and maintenance of paranormal beliefs, particularly religious beliefs
(Boyer, 2008; Epley , Converse, Delbosc , Monteleone , & Cacioppo , 2009; Kelemen , 2004).
Accordingly, intuitive cognitive styles have been found to accurately predict esoteric thinking as
well as superstitions ( Epstein , Pacini , Denes-Raj , & Heier , 1996). Researchers Lindeman and
Aarnio (2007) also discovered that intuitive thinking is a more accurate predictor of superstition
and belief in the paranormal than analytical thinking . Belief in extrasensory perception (ESP) was
not found to be associated with reasoning ability ( Hergovich and Arendasy , 2005 ); this suggests
that differences in cognitive style are more important than differences in cognitive ability. Other
paranormal beliefs were also found to be unrelated to reasoning ability. In addition, research has
shown that those with higher levels of education are more likely to believe in psi than those with
lower levels of education (Rice, 2003). Thoughts about ESP are likely to have certain specific
connections to diverse types of cognitive processes. To begin with, an analytical cognitive style is
likely to be associated with an interest in extrasensory perception (ESP) beliefs and their
replacement for more traditional religious and superstitious beliefs (Cf. Morgan, 2016). The
connection that exists between analytical and intuitive ways of thinking is another topic that
interests people. In the highlighted study, the analytical style was most frequently characterized as
a tendency to overcome highly obvious intuitive answers to problems ( Pennycook et al., 2012).
This tendency was evaluated using the cognitive reflection task (Frederick, 2005). This model is
based on two implicit assumptions; first, the two cognitive styles are mutually exclusive, and
second, preferred styles discovered in the context of problem solving are generalizable to other
problems and areas. Considering whether there is more to it than what we can actually experience
, it is conceivable that a person would have a highly analytical cognitive style in logical problem
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solving but still rely heavily on their intuition. This is because intuition is a more direct path to
truth.

Therefore, we decided to look at both intuitive and intellectual approaches to problem solving.
Pacini and Epstein ( Epstein et al., 1996; Pacini and Epstein , 1999) distinguish between a rational
(analytical, objective, fact-oriented) mode of information processing and an experiential (intuitive,
relational, emotional) mode of information processing. (“Who Believes in ESP: Cognitive and
Motivational Determinants of the ...”) These distinctions are based on binary systems models of
information processing (Evans, 2003; Kahneman , 2015; Petty & Cacioppo , 1986). The basic
premise of the model is that the two systems operate independently of each other; this allows
individuals to have incompatible beliefs as they are derived from two different systems (for
example, death is an irreversible end of life, and the soul persists after death). As a result of this
differentiation , belief in ESP may be more directly tied to the intuitive functioning of the rational
system (rather than its inconsistency). As a result , beliefs in ESP can coexist with rational and
scientifically grounded worldviews. The purpose of this research is to determine whether there is
an analytical or experiential style that is the main predictor of extrasensory perception (ESP)
beliefs , and if so, which style contributes more to the prediction of these beliefs.

7. "Paranormal" or Supernatural Phenomena

Extrasensory perception, sometimes known as ESP, is an often-derided phrase in psychology and

the broader science. It refers to an alleged "paranormal" or supernatural phenomenon , and many
people think it more appropriately belongs to the realm of science fiction. However, contrary to
what many scholars believe, there is a fair amount of scientific research that may show that this is
not the case.

"Abnormal processes of information or energy transmission, such as telepathy, which cannot be

explained by known physical or biological systems" is how extrasensory perception (ESP) is
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defined ( Bem & Honorton , 1994 , p.4). Although current scientific theory cannot explain this
phenomenon, many people are confident that they personally experience extrasensory perception
(ESP), and studies consistently show that belief in ESP is quite common ( Moore , 2005). (Greley
, 1987). Additionally, sociologists and psychologists have compiled hundreds of case studies
aimed at providing evidence of extrasensory perception (ESP) phenomena (Irwin and Watt, 2007).

However, given what we know about the workings of the human mind, the reliability of such
anecdotal data is subject to serious skepticism. Extensive research has taught us that memory can
be faulty and that cognitive biases cause events to be frequently and easily misread. One such
cognitive flaw is confirmation bias (Henkel and Mather , 2007; Kahneman et al., 1993). Also,
according to the rules of probability, strange coincidences that can give the impression of
extrasensory perception (ESP) are an inevitable part of life. For example, if you think of a friend,
you have not spoken to in a while and you get a call from the same friend, it might seem like too
much of a coincidence and might be better explained by explanation. extrasensory perception
(ESP). Another possibility is that it is just a coincidence; , how often does a distant friend come to
mind but never call? Anecdotes are reduced to something that only tangentially resembles
scientific evidence, given other factors such as fraud and error.

However, there is no evidence to support the hypothesis that people with low IQs and less
developed reasoning skills are more likely to believe in extrasensory perception (ESP) ( Roe ,
1999). In fact, studies have shown that the education level of the individual is positively related to
his belief in ESP (Rice, 2003). Those who believe in the existence of extrasensory perception are
people, including famous names such as William James, Carl Jung, and Charles Riche , Nobel
Prize winner in Psychology .

occultist suggestions such as extrasensory perception (ESP) , "this reluctance must eventually be
overcome." It is a fact that we are discussing here (1940/2003, p.29). The field of parapsychology
deals with the scientific study of extrasensory perception (ESP) and has collected a large amount
of evidence that many people believe to be convincing to the extraordinary claim that ESP exists
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( Bem & Honorton , 1994 ; Sherwood & Roe , 2003). The Ganzfeld approach is the type of
experimental design used to probe the ESP hypothesis more often than others.

Early Ganzfeld experiments produced quite meaningful results that were significantly better than
the performance probability predicted. Charles Honorton , a parapsychologist , and Ray Hyman ,
a skeptic, conducted meta-analyses when they looked at the results of twenty-eight studies
conducted between 1974 and 1981 and found a hit rate of 35% ( Honorton , 1985 ). While the 10%
variance may not seem like much, taken together with many other trials, this is a reliable finding
that is unlikely to be the result of random variation. The research produced an astonishing effect
size of 0.63; this is an important finding, given that 0.5 is considered a medium-sized effect in the
social sciences ( Bem and Honorton , 1994).

Moreover, the existence of the effect has been demonstrated by numerous studies ( Honorton ,
1985). However, concerns have been expressed about several possible methodological errors
surrounding the research. These problems include cues through sensory leakage and insufficient
randomization of target stimuli ( Hyman , 1985). It is interesting to note that a second review by
the respected social psychologist Robert Rosenthal, published by the United States National
Research Council, also acknowledges these shortcomings, but argues that these are highly unlikely
to explain the surprisingly consistent effect (Harris & Rosenthal, 1988). ).

However, it is not healthy scientific practice to adopt such a controversial theory based on data
from trials where the methodology was inadequate. In response to problems raised in earlier trials,
ganzfeld , known as " autoganzfeld " A new variation of the procedure was designed. In this
protocol, the randomization and selection of stimuli was performed entirely by computer,
increasing procedural rigor.

Psychology in 1994 your bulletin magazine, Daryl of Cornell University Bem and the late Charles
Honorton published an article in which they analyzed all the autoganzfeld research. Up to this
point, a total of 354 autoganzfeld sessions were held in eleven different studies . Once again, the

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findings provided evidence in favor of the ESP theory. A significant hit rate of 32% was noted,
reminiscent of previous ganzfeld experiments. To gain a deeper understanding of this effect, the
authors also investigated the influence of internal factors and concluded that a person's level of
extraversion, as well as belief in the presence of ESP , are important predictors of performance
(see Bem & Honorton , 1994 ).

Such results have always motivated researchers to continue their ganzfeld research. In 1999 Milton
and Wiseman conducted their own meta-analysis of all autoganzfeld studies previously published
in the scientific literature . The authors' analysis of all thirty trials concluded that there was no
significant effect (Milton & Wiseman , 1999).

Despite this, there have been criticisms leveled at the findings from the study. Some doubts arose
about the validity of the experiments conducted and analyzed. During this time, several studies
were "process-oriented," meaning they changed different components of the typical ganzfeld
technique. These changes had the potential to remove settings that could help improve ESP (Irwin
& Watt, 2007). However, none of the thirty studies specifically investigating the possibility of
extrasensory perception (ESP) have revealed any evidence to support this view. Furthermore,
previously significant effects of individual variations in performance were not replicated in this
study.

saw the beginning of a change in basic assumptions in research methodology from forced choice
studies and towards free response approaches . Many provided the first evidence of free-response
pre-recognition (PC) in a laboratory setting run under strict settings. Researchers have explored a
variety of internal noise reduction strategies , including dreaming ( Krippner , Ullman , and
Honorton , 1971, 1972) and the ganzfeld approach ( Krippner et al., 1975) . ( Honorton and Harper,
1974). Puthoff and Targ (1974) further developed the idea of a type of free-response research that
they called remote monitoring from the early 20th century (Sinclair, 1930/2001; Warcollier , 1926

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-1927). The original authors of the concept were Sinclair and Warcollier (RV). The references
cited above are not intended to be exhaustive; instead, it is designed to provide an overview of
various data types.

His classical study of thermodynamics led to the development of the idea of entropy. Although the
mathematics of these theories quickly becomes complex, the conceptual basis of some theories
can be quite simple. One way to think of entropy is as a measure of chaos or the related concept
of uncertainty. This is a method. For example, ice has a much lower entropy than water. Also, the
position of a particular molecule in liquid water is very unpredictable, but in ice the position of a
molecule is much more precise as it is locked in a crystal and cannot move (May & Lantz ,
2010/2014). This is because liquid water is less dense than ice.

8. Conclusion

In sensory systems, receptor cells are sensitive to incoming energy regardless of the "meaning"
attributed to it as a later cognitive function. (“Rethinking Extrasensory Perception: Toward a
Multiphasic Model of ...”) This sensitivity is present even though meaning is a cognitive function
that emerges later. Shannon entropy is also meaningless. For example, pixel analysis in images
completely ignores everything related to cognitive features. One way to think of it is that each
pixel is independent of the information contained in the surrounding pixels ( Tononi , 2012 ). It all
depends on the pixel densities used to make the images (May & Spottiswoode , 1994 /2014). From
this perspective, a snapshot of a nuclear explosion might not be any more Shannon-entropic than
a photo of a kitten. During the Star Gate program, an especially important piece of information
emerged that sheds light on why entropy is such a vital component of the PC. During this time, the
group realized that there was a category of operational PC missions that included intelligence
gathering or simulations , and these missions succeeded every time . To name just a few examples,
these activities included underground nuclear testing, stockpiles of radioactive material,

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electromagnetic pulse devices, static and dynamic rocket engine tests, and rocket launches (for
more, see May and Lantz , 2010/2014). On this subject, much more articles are needed for the
literature .

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