Abidi 2016

Surv Geophys
DOI 10.1007/s10712-016-9404-0
Geodynamic Evolution of Northeastern Tunisia During

the Maastrichtian–Paleocene Time: Insights
from Integrated Seismic Stratigraphic Analysis
Oussama Abidi1,2,3 • Mohamed Hédi Inoubli1,3 •

Kawthar Sebei1,3 • Adnen Amiri1,3 • Haifa Boussiga1,5 •
Imen Hamdi Nasr1,2 • Abdelhamid Ben Salem4 •

Mahmoud Elabed4
Received: 29 May 2016 / Accepted: 18 November 2016

Ó Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2016
Abstract The Maastrichtian–Paleocene El Haria formation was studied and defined in

Tunisia on the basis of outcrops and borehole data; few studies were interested in its three-
dimensional extent. In this paper, the El Haria formation is reviewed in the context of a
tectono-stratigraphic interval using an integrated seismic stratigraphic analysis based on
borehole lithology logs, electrical well logging, well shots, vertical seismic profiles and
post-stack surface data. Seismic analysis benefits from appropriate calibration with bore-
hole data, conventional interpretation, velocity mapping, seismic attributes and post-stack
model-based inversion. The applied methodology proved to be powerful for charactering
the marly Maastrichtian–Paleocene interval of the El Haria formation. Migrated seismic
sections together with borehole measurements are used to detail the three-dimensional
changes in thickness, facies and depositional environment in the Cap Bon and Gulf of
Hammamet regions during the Maastrichtian–Paleocene time. Furthermore, dating based
on their microfossil content divulges local and multiple internal hiatuses within the El
Haria formation which are related to the geodynamic evolution of the depositional floor
since the Campanian stage. Interpreted seismic sections display concordance, unconfor-
mities, pinchouts, sedimentary gaps, incised valleys and syn-sedimentary normal faulting.
Based on the seismic reflection geometry and terminations, seven sequences are delineated.
These sequences are related to base-level changes as the combination of depositional floor
paleo-topography, tectonic forces, subsidence and the developed accommodation space.
These factors controlled the occurrence of the various parts of the Maastrichtian–Paleocene
& Oussama Abidi

Oussamaabidi115@gmail.com
1
Research Unit of Applied Geophysics, University of Tunis El Manar, 1060 Tunis, Tunisia
2
Faculty of Sciences of Bizerte, University of Carthage, 7021 Jarzouna, Tunisia
3
Faculty of Sciences of Tunis, University of Tunis El-Manar, 1060 Tunis, Tunisia
4
Entreprise Tunisienne d’Activités Pétrolières, 54, Avenue Mohamed V, 1002 Tunis, Tunisia
5
Institut National Agronomique de Tunisie, University of Carthage, 43 Avenue Charles Nicolle,
1082 Tunis, Tunisia
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Surv Geophys
interval. Detailed examinations of these deposits together with the analysis of the structural
deformation at different time periods allowed us to obtain a better understanding of the
sediment architecture in depth and the delineation of the geodynamic evolution of the
region.
Keywords Maastrichtian–Paleocene El Haria formation Calibration Seismic

stratigraphy Geodynamics, Seismic inversion Tunisia
1 Introduction
The eustatic/tectonic control on litho-facies distribution, as the response to the interplay

between accommodation space and sedimentation, has been discussed by various authors
(Vail 1987; Sarg 1988; Van Wagoner et al. 1998; Posamentier et al. 1992; Plint and
Nummedal 2000; Pepe et al. 2005; Catuneanu 2006, etc.). Earlier studies discussed the
vertical and lateral variations in litho-facies and basin-fill characteristics in Tunisia
(Burollet 1956; Fournié 1978; Ben Salem 2002; Saadi 1997; Boussiga et al. 2003). These
variations are related to eustatic changes, tectonic forces and the subsequent geodynamic
evolution of the basin (Haller 1983; Boussiga et al. 2003; Sebei et al. 2007).
The El Haria formation, dated upper Maastrichtian–Paleocene (72.1–56 Ma), is charac-
terized by its lateral variations in thickness and lithology. This interval is well studied in
outcrops from the stratigraphic and paleogeographic side (Burollet 1956; Jauzein 1967; Comte
and Dufaure 1973; Salaj et al. 1976; Salaj 1980; Ben Salem 2002; Karoui-Yaakoub et al. 2014).
However, it remains poorly studied in the subsurface (Zaı̈er 1998; Boussiga et al. 2003; Sebei
et al. 2007). The Maastrichtian–Paleocene-aged El Haria formation, made of marl with some
argillaceous limestone (i.e., containing clay minerals), is known within onshore Tunisia by
several internal discontinuities that can have sedimentary or tectonic origin (Comte and
Dufaure 1973; Bajanik et al. 1978; Haller 1983; Ben Salem 2002; Boussiga et al. 2003; Sebei
2007).The El Haria formation expresses significant thickness and facies variations in the Cap
Bon and Gulf of Hammamet regions; some zones are even partially or completely devoid of the
El Haria formation (Bujalka et al. 1971; Zaı̈er 1998; Sebei et al. 2007).
This study is based on an integrated seismic stratigraphic analysis based on borehole
lithology logs, electrical well logging, well shots, vertical seismic profiles and post-stack
surface data. Seismic analysis benefits from appropriate calibration with borehole data,
conventional interpretation, velocity mapping, seismic attributes and post-stack model-
based inversion. This approach was adopted at a regional scale as well as on the sedi-
mentary bodies mainly for the Maastrichtian–Paleocene interval. The main objective of
this paper is to (1) produce a new stratigraphic framework based on seismic reflection
characteristics, (2) determine depositional environments and the nature of basin fill from
the applied integrated approach, (3) apply model-based inversion on post-stack seismic
data in order to infer lithology and (4) review the geodynamic evolution of the El Haria
formation during the Maastrichtian–Paleocene time interval.
2 Geological Setting
The El Haria formation (Burollet 1956; Fournié 1978; Ben Ferjani et al. 1990) overlies the
limy Campanian–lower Maastrichtian Abiod Formation and is overlain by the limy lower
Eocene Metlaoui Group (Burollet 1956; Fournié 1978; Negra 1994; Ben Salem 2002;
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Surv Geophys
Robaszynski and Mzoughi 2010). It consists of marls and some argillaceous limestone
beds with planktonic fauna (known as Globigerina, Globoratolia, Morozovella). The facies
can be relayed vertically by glauconitic and brecciated limestone and thin chalky marl
intervals (Castany 1951; Burollet 1956; Salaj 1980).
Several outcrops (Fig. 1; Table 1) were studied by authors: Ain Settara and Elles
(Keller et al. 1995; Keller 1996; Karoui-Yaakoub et al. 2002), J. Kharouba (Karoui-
Yaakoub et al. 2011). The Global Standard Stratotype-Section and Point of the K-T
boundary is defined by the EI Kef section (Salaj et al. 1976; Keller et al. 1995; Bolle et al.
1999) and displays a gradual transition from the uppermost Cretaceous to Eocene strata
without major phases of emergence or shallowing of the basin (Salaj et al. 1976). In
northwest Tunisia, the clays and marls of the El Haria formation are exposed in wide
incised valleys and plains and are characterized by abundant pelagic microfauna (Salaj
et al. 1976; Stassen et al. 2012).
The latest Cretaceous–Paleocene paleogeography is characterized by subsiding troughs
in the north and northeast and the Gafsa Gulf in the southwest (Zaier et al. 1998; Ben
Salem 2002). The El Haria thickness may reach 700–1000 m, with an average of 400 m
(Ben Ferjani et al. 1990; Ben Salem 2002). The El Haria formation does not present the
same chronostratigraphic value all over Tunisia (Jauzein 1967); the syn-sedimentary
orogenic movements led to local changes in the depositional environment.
Movements were large in eastern Tunisia (i.e., Enfidha and Grombalia regions) where
the Paleocene record is absent, especially its Danian part (Ben Ferjani et al. 1990; Ben
Salem 2002) and the Eocene or even younger series rests on the Maastrichtian series. The
Fig. 1 a Location map of El Haria formation cross sections, studied by the authors; b geological onshore
map and location of main seismic sections and wells used in this study
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Table 1 Compiled cropping out sections
Age Kef section (Tunisia) Keller et al. Elles section (Tunisia) Zaghbib-Turki Foum Selja section (Tunisia) Bolle et al. J. Kharouba section (Tunisia)
(1995), Karoui-Yaakoub et al. (2002) et al. (2000), Karoui-Yaakoub et al. (1999), Ben Salem (2002) Karoui-Yaakoub et al. (2011)
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(2002)
Microfossils Depositional Microfossils Depositional Microfossils Depositional Depositional environment

environment environment environment
Thanetian G. pussila pussila Under lower circa G. valascoensis Middle to outer Isolated shallow Open marine, circa littoral to
G. littoral influences neritic depths basin, lagoonal upper bathyal
pseudomenardii basin
G. valascoensis
Selandian G. kozlowskii G. Uncinata
G. Uncinata
G. angulata
Danian G. taurica G. daujergensis G. conusa
G. daujergensis P. pseudobulloides Pv. eugubina
G. P. trindadensis G. daujergensis
pseudobulloides Pv. eugubina G. taurica
P. compressa G. pentagona
G. inconstans P.
pseudobulloides
Maastrich G. stuarti G. ganseri Pl.
G. conica Gllobigerinelloides hantkeninoides
P. elegans G. petaloidea
Surv Geophys
Table 1 continued
Age Ain settara section (Tunisia) Salaj (1980), Zaghbib-Turki et al. (2000) Boreal section (Danmark)
Salaj et al. (1976)
Microfossils Depositional environment Microfossils
Surv Geophys
Thanetian Middle to outer neritic depths G. pussila pussila

P. pseudomenardii
G. valascoensis
Selandian G. kozlowskii
G. Uncinata
G. angulata
Danian G. cretacea G. taurica
Pv. eugubina G. daujergensis
P. pseudobulloides G. trinidadensis
G. pseudobulloides
P. compressa
Maastrich Pl. hantkeninoides
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Surv Geophys
variable-scale hiatuses are marked by hard surfaces, sharks’ teeth and bioturbations
(Jauzein 1967; Bujalka et al. 1971; Salaj 1980). Locally, the El Haria formation thins
forming a sedimentary wedge (Comte and Dufaure 1973). The formation extends over the
Pelagian Province but is absent in the southern and southwestern parts, as a result of either
non-deposition or erosion (Klett 2001).
The Central Mediterranean region is strongly influenced by the relative African and
Euro-Asian plates’ motion (Caire et al. 1971; Guiraud et al. 2005). Boillot et al. (1984),
Dercourt et al. (1985) and Guiraud et al. (2005) detailed the extensional and compressional
structures induced by the relative plates’ kinematics. The northern African continental
margin was subjected to E–W extension during Jurassic to early Cretaceous times (Turki
1985; Philip et al. 1986; Ouali et al. 1987; Delteil et al. 1991a, b: Boukadi 1994; Chihi
1995). However, around 84 Ma, a global event, linked to changes in the opening direction
and rates of the Atlantic oceans, resulted in a change in plate motion (Guiraud and Bos-
worth 1997; Guiraud et al. 2005). A significant anticlockwise rotation of the African–
Arabian plate occurred at the beginning of the collision with the Eurasian plate (Olivet
et al. 1984; Guiraud et al. 2005) leading to a reorientation of the stress ellipsoid. On the
scale of a tectonic plate, the shortening direction was oriented NNW–SSE (Guiraud and
Bosworth 1997).
Throughout the Cenozoic Era, Tunisia is subjected to a predominant NW–SE com-
pressive structural style (Letouzey and Tremolieres 1980; Haller 1983; Turki 1985;
Boukadi 1994). The late Cretaceous is characterized by the deposition of the chalky litho-
facies of the Campanian–Maastrichtian Abiod formation which covered a large area of
Tunisia (Burollet 1956; Negra 1994; Robaszynski and Mzoughi 2010). Tethyan waters
covered most of the Tunisian landmass before the Tertiary and large areas of central
Tunisia (Kasserine Island) and southern Tunisian platform (Jeffara) emerged during the
late Cretaceous (Zaier et al. 1998). This paleo-topography controlled the sedimentation in
the surrounding basins (Burollet 1956; Comte and Dufaure 1973; Bishop 1988; Zaier et al.
1998). Bouaziz et al. (2002) describe the E–W to NE–SW direction controlling the shape
of the Paleocene–Eocene basins. Meanwhile, several authors (Jauzein 1967; Marie et al.
1984; Chikhaoui 1988; Negra 1994; Zaier et al. 1998; Dlala 2002; Zouari et al. 2004; Ben
Mehrez et al. 2007) recognized structural control of the sedimentation through normal
faulting, resulting in intra-formational erosive events at the base of the interval, rapid
thickness variations as well as syn-sedimentary debris flows within central and northern
Tunisia. Zouari et al. (2004) reported syn-sedimentary strike-slip faults in the Gafsa basin.
A comparable compressive episode is described by other authors in Northern Tunisia
(Ayed 1986; Boukadi 1994).
In Algeria, at Djebel Deba, the early Maastrichtian marl series are topped by the latest
Maastrichtian–Paleocene deposits (Lahondére and Magné 1983). Aris et al. (1998) showed,
in the same area, the presence of folds and reverse faults affecting early Maastrichtian
marly limestone deposits which are unconformably covered by Maastrichtian–Paleocene-
aged sediments. These several hundreds of meters long folds are associated with reverse
faults (Marmi and Guiraud 2006). The ‘‘middle’’ Maastrichtian deposits are affected by
ENE–WSW-directed reverse faults in the pre-Atlas domain. Micro-tectonic data measured
at Dj. Azem and Ain Beida stations reveal a compressive phase with a NW–SE shortening
direction (Marmi and Guiraud 2006). In Algeria, all stratigraphic and structural settings are
in favor of a ‘‘middle’’ to late Maastrichtian tectonic event. Along the Moroccan High
Atlas, southward thrusting was pointed out by Laville et al. (1977). So, regionally, the
NW–SE- to N–S-directed diachronous and local compressional deformations, which
occurred during Maastrichtian times along the Maghrebian Alpine Belt, characterize an
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event that is the expression of the dextral transpression along the northwestern African
plate margin, in response to differential opening of the Central, South and North Atlantic
oceans (Guiraud and Bosworth 1997; Guiraud et al. 2005).
3 Data and Methods
3.1 Borehole Data
A dozen wells (Fig. 1) are included in our study; gamma ray logs, sonic logs and (to a
lesser extent) density, resistivity and neutron logs are available. Some of the available
wells include time–depth relationships, related check-shot surveys or even vertical seismic
profiles (VSPs). Well logs are useful for the determination and control of the lithologic
column deduced from mud logs. Biostratigraphic studies were performed by operators on
large parts of the crossed lithological intervals. They are valuable for the determination of
the vertical stacking of the sedimentary sequences as well as their correlation with
neighboring drilled wells. The combination of seismic data, well shots and VSPs, well logs,
cores, reconstructed lithological columns in conjunction with biostratigraphic zonation and
mapping helps to characterize the reconstruction of the depositional sequences of the
studied geological intervals.
Figure 2 illustrates a reconstructed lithological column characterized by its gamma ray,
sonic logs and computed interval velocities from the check-shot survey. Each of the
encountered lithological formations is well individualized through its distinctive response.
Lithological changes are well identified by log curve variations, such as the top of Lan-
ghian Ain Grab limestone formation, the top of the Oligocene Fortuna sandstone formation
or its lateral equivalent Ketatna limestone formation and the top of the Ypresian Bou
Fig. 2 Lithologic, sonic, gamma ray logs and interval velocity for well W1
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Dabbous limestone formation. The top and the base of the El Haria formation are high-
lighted by important deflections of the sonic and gamma ray logs as well as the interval
velocity curve.
3.2 Seismic Resolution
The gathered 2D surface seismic data belong to different vintages, surveyed between 1978
and 2000. The available data were recorded and processed by CGG, Western Geophysical
and Prakla-Seismos. Of course, recent data have better seismic quality than older ones. The
seismic frequency band affects both the resolution and the apparent seismic stratigraphic
relationships (Vermeer 1999). Both high- and low-frequency components of the seismic
signal spectrum help to enhance the resolution and to provide cleaner images which are
required for stratigraphic interpretation of the seismic reflection data (Inoubli et al. 1990;
Inoubli 1993). The discernibility of a stratigraphic bed on seismic sections is closely
related to the bed thickness and its acoustic impedance contrast with the surrounding
layers.
Figure 3 illustrates the frequency content of the available seismic data. The right part
(Fig. 3a) represents the frequency content of the oldest data (1978 vintage). The left part
(Fig. 3b) characterizes the most recent seismic data (2000 vintage). The total seismic
spectra (green) indicate the frequency bandwidth which controls the wavelet ability to
resolve the top and bottom of a layer of given thickness. A deterministic approach is
applied in order to extract the inverted wavelet (Inoubli et al. 1990) which, in convolution
with the reflectivity coefficients, associated with a corrected sonic and density logs, results
in the closest synthetic seismogram to the observed surface seismic data (Fig. 2). The
introduced corrected sonic and density logs behave as constraint-type information that help
the splitting of the spectra into signal (red) and noise (black) components. Figure 3
(middle) indicates the inverted zero-phase wavelets using well logs recorded in wells W1
and W3. If it appears that the pseudo-period of wavelet b is larger within the main lobe, the
relative strength of its side lobes is well individualized. Thus, resolution becomes more
compromised using old seismic data. Since good resolution is required for stratigraphic
seismic data interpretation, the forthcoming seismic analysis and geological modeling will
be based mainly on newer seismic data.
Fig. 3 Computed amplitude spectra based on more recent (a: left) and older (b: right) seismic data used in
this study: A green color is adopted for seismic data spectra, red for signal and black for noise. The inverted
deterministic wavelets (in the middle) are computed based on available seismic data which are constrained
by sonic and density logs recorded on well W1 (a) and W3 (b)
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3.3 Seismic Calibration
The nonlinearity of the reflection seismology method may be overcome through appro-
priate calibration using borehole data (Inoubli et al. 1990; Inoubli 1993). The assumption
lies in the proportionality of seismic amplitude and reflection coefficients, so that reflection
strengths are directly tied to acoustic impedance contrasts between successive lithological
layers. The calibration process is carried out cautiously and accurately using the maximum
number of available wells and data, in order to bridge the gap between borehole depth data
and the processed two-way-time seismic data. In this way, it becomes possible to correlate
the identified stratigraphic boundaries within drill-hole data with their equivalent recog-
nized on the surface seismic profiles.
Depending on the available borehole data, seismic-to-well calibration is performed
using check shots, synthetic seismograms or VSP corridor stacks (Inoubli et al. 1998).
Well-to-seismic ties were achieved through establishing a correlation between the seismic
and synthetic seismograms based on corrected sonic logs (Boujamaoui and Inoubli 2003);
thus, consistent calibration was maintained during the applied interpretation procedure
(Inoubli 1993). The interval of interest includes Maastrichtian–Paleocene geological
records. This was enlarged to the Campania–Eocene seismic response in order to optimally
characterize and frame this chrono-stratigraphic time period.
Several drilled wells intersected the focused geological interval within the studied area.
The oldest wells show obvious poor sets of logs and/or seismic data; these data types were
used for confirming and controlling the interpretation performed using the most complete
data sets, i.e., surface seismic data with acceptable signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio, available
check shots or VSP, available well logs and available litho-biostratigraphic analysis of the
borehole recovered cuttings and/or cores.
Well logs, especially calibrated sonic and density logs, served also for the lithological
and stratigraphic calibration of seismic data through computed synthetic seismograms.
Sonic logs provide information on transit times with depth which are directly related to the
vertical velocity distribution. Gamma ray and sonic logs are mainly investigated to dis-
tinguish lithology and enable the interpretation of geological series with good accuracy
(Fig. 2). Sonic and gamma ray logs together with interval velocities are equally used to
refine the correlations between seismic data and cropping out series in the Cap Bon area.
Well log signatures characterize the stacking pattern of the Maastrichtian–Paleocene El
Haria formation.
Figure 4 shows an example of a calibrated 2D seismic section using data from well W1.
The computed synthetic seismogram fits well with surface seismic reflectors (Fig. 4b).
Other synthetic seismograms were also computed using inverted wavelets that were gen-
erated at each well location based on the average frequency spectrum over specified time
ranges for some selected surface seismic traces around each of the available wells (Inoubli
1993). Therefore, picking the base as well as the top of the El Haria formation is com-
fortably carried out. In the meantime, due to the large thickness of the encountered interval
in W1 (808 m), seismic resolution enables the recognition of some internal horizons, i.e.,
the top of the lower and upper Maastrichtian, the top Danian and the top Selandian in
addition to the base Maastrichtian and the top Thanetian (Fig. 4).
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Fig. 4 Well to seismic data calibration: seismic data (a), computed synthetic seismogram (b), gamma ray
(c), sonic log (d), interval velocity (e). Formation tops are indicated in red. Chronostratigraphic ages related
to Maastrichtian and Paleocene stages are also indicated
3.4 Seismic Expression and Attributes
Seismic attributes are well-used processes to benefit from the richness of the seismic
signal. Valuable features are brought out using the attributes related to the Hilbert
Transform of the seismic response (Hardage 2010). Attributes are essential in the recog-
nition of stratigraphic events, to overcome subsurface modeling difficulties (Chopra and
Marfurt 2006). Seismic attributes help to characterize seismic records through enhancing
one of their particular components. Strength, phase, frequency and derivative attributes,
made in this case study, are sensitive enough to detect reflection terminations. They are
also beneficial for the identification of the imaged events in order to infer the subsurface
lithology or to deduce structural setting expressed by faulting environment (Fig. 5). These
attributes are extracted along selected key seismic lines.
Horizon picking and facies recognition are performed, based on the computed attributes
related to the available seismic profiles. Reflection strength (Fig. 5a) helps in locating
maxima of the seismic signal; unconformities often produce changes in the character of the
reflection strength and sequence boundaries are likely to have large reflection strengths.
The instantaneous phase, which is totally independent of the reflection strength, empha-
sizes the continuity of the events (Fig. 5b), so that weak coherent events are enhanced. This
is especially effective in showing reflection terminations along pinchouts, faults, onlaps,
offlaps, downlaps, etc. (Inoubli et al. 1998). The instantaneous phase displays are espe-
cially useful whenever the seismic signal-to-noise ratio is poor. These attributes enhance
the continuity of the events which enable locating the seismic reflection terminations
(Inoubli et al. 1998).
The integrated approach followed within this case study through the combination of
seismic attributes and well logs led to the recognition of the stratigraphic and structural
evolution of the studied area during the late Cretaceous–early Paleogene interval by
minimizing interpretation uncertainties.
It is meaningful to remind the reader that amplitude is closely related to the impedance
contrast, the frequency expresses bed thickness, the reflection continuity depicts the lateral
continuity of strata and the geometry pictures the depositional processes.
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Surv Geophys
Fig. 5 Seismic line L2 (top) Strength (A), phase (B) and frequency (C) attributes. Incised valleys are
revealed by the seismic section at the top of the Campanian limestone of the Abiod formation. Red arrow
truncated reflections, Yellow arrow onlapping reflections
3.5 Seismic Inversion
Inversion is the process of extracting, from geophysical data, a geological model that gives
rise to that data. Geophysical methods, especially seismic, are nonlinear and inversion
algorithms suffer from ‘‘non-uniqueness,’’ i.e., many geological models are consistent with
the recorded data. The introduction of other geological or geophysical information is the
only approach to converging to the subsurface geology. Of course, the final model always
depends on the introduced information as well as the quality of the input seismic data.
The basic hypothesis is the convolutional model of the seismic traces which states that
traces result from the earth’s reflectivity convolved with the source and noise. So, the
seismic trace and the wavelet are assumed to be known and that noise is random and
uncorrelated with the signal. To solve for the subsurface reflectivity and, due to the
nonlinearity of the seismic method, the solution is performed iteratively through mini-
mizing an objective function that measures the difference between the observed and the
computed seismic data. The conventional interpreter solution referred to as an a priori
model is taken as an initial model, and the optimum, most likely, solution is constructed
iteratively through minimizing the misfit between synthetics (computed traces) and real
traces. The final model should be consistent with a statistical assumption related to noise
content (Brac et al. 1988; Inoubli et al. 1990, 1993; Russell et al. 2006).
Inversion cannot reproduce the low-frequency component of the acoustic impedance
distribution (Brac et al. 1988; Inoubli et al. 1990; Inoubli 1993; Russell et al. 2006); the
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Surv Geophys
latter had been filtered out from seismic by the source wavelet. So, in order to converge to
the subsurface geology, a model-based inversion is selected through an ‘‘a priori’’ initial
model. The ‘‘a priori’’ model is built through the interpolation of the impedance log,
derived from corrected recorded sonic and density logs, through a set of picked calibrated
seismic horizons (the conventional seismic interpreter model) related to a specific time
window framing the El Haria formation. Hence, the objective function includes a geo-
logical term in addition to the seismic term. The final solution is obtained using the
conjugate gradient method (Russell et al. 2006).
The Hampson–Russell package is used in this paper. Strata module analyzes post-stack
seismic data and produces optimum acoustic impedance distribution cross sections asso-
ciated with the subsurface.
4 Regional Subsurface Data analysis
4.1 1D Vertical Physical Response from Wells
The Maastrichtian–Paleocene El Haria formation does not outcrop in the study area
(Fig. 1); meanwhile, it is crossed by several petroleum exploration wells in the Cap Bon
and Gulf Hammamet provinces. The latter help in compiling a synthetic general lithologic
chart of the El Haria formation (Fig. 6); thickness varies from 0 to 808 m. Chronostrati-
graphic dating, based on the microfaunal contents (Table 1), reveals local and variable
internal hiatuses within the El Haria formation in some drilled wells, i.e. the lack of the
Danian records (-66 to -61.6 Ma) in W1a and W2, the absence of Danian, Selandian and
lower part of Thanetian (-66 to -57 Ma) in W5a, the absence of the complete Paleocene
interval (-66 to -56 Ma) in W3 and W7 and the complete absence of the Maastrichtian–
Paleocene El Haria formation (-72 to -56 Ma) in some wells (W4, W4a and W6).
Delimitation and characterization of the El Haria formation are also based on both mud
logs (lithology of the cuttings) and physical recorded responses made on drilled boreholes
(gamma ray, resistivity, density and sonic logs). The base and the top of the formation were
precisely and clearly identified through the sharp deflections on the majority of the
recorded well logs (Figs. 2, 4). The Maastrichtian–Paleocene transition displays a regular
physical response variation (Fig. 4) indicating steady changes from the Campanian
Fig. 6 Lithologic chart based on crossed lithology and well logs (gamma ray: green and sonic: red) for the
studied area from late Campanian to early Ypresian time
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limestones to the Danian shale intervals. These variations are displayed in four dimensions:
the geological time and space.
Hence, noticeable lateral facies changes are expressed during the Maastrichtian time
period (Fig. 6). The lower Maastrichtian to the upper Maastrichtian transition is marked by
an increase in the gamma ray response together with a decrease in the sonic transit time,
owing to the wide intercalation of limestone at the base of the Maastrichtian interval.
Along and near the coast, the lower Maastrichtian series is made of marly clay including
pyrite (W7), with thin levels of argillaceous limestone. Limestone enrichment is pro-
gressive downward (W1, W1a and W2). Further to the east, interbedded calcareous shales
to marls (chalky micrites and biomicrites) are displayed in well W5. Within intermediate
positions, the upper Maastrichtian is made of an alternation of clayey limestone and
fossiliferous marl such as in W1. It is important to highlight the presence of sandstone in
some wells, such as well W3.
Physical electric logs express progressive vertical variations interrelated to lithologic
changes along the Paleocene deposits; lithology is mostly shaly with lateral facies varia-
tions (Fig. 6). The Paleocene deposits are purely argillaceous in W2 well, rich in plank-
tonic foraminifera with alternating soft marl, indurated and laminated limestone clay
intercalated with bioclastic clayey micrite; it is made of laminated clay, thinly pyritous and
bioclastic marl with rare level of biomicrite in W1 well, and soft to indurated silty marl in
W2 well. In W1 and W5, it is formed by an alternation of fossiliferous shale, and silty
bioclastic marl. It is composed of marly clay and marl with thin intercalations of clayey
limestone and pyrite in W1 and W1a, but by moderately to well indurate silt, with rare
levels of limestone and pyrite with abundant microfauna and rare glauconite in W2 well.
These lateral changes in facies relate to various depositional environments ranging from
outer neritic environment such as W1, to deep marine environment such as in W2, W7 and
W8, and passing through to deep platform environment such as W1. The recorded physical
responses of the available well logs express very well the lithological depositional nature
of the El Haria formation. These data may be used within an integrated geological sub-
surface modeling based on the seismic inversion process.
4.2 2D Seismic Response Distribution
4.2.1 Seismic Reflectors’ Terminations and Discontinuities
Reflection coefficients related to the available 2D multi-channel seismic data are analyzed
in order to infer extension and geometry of the depositional floor of the El Haria formation.
Reflection terminations are displayed on the studied area as concordance, unconformities
(Figs. 5, 7, 8, 9), pitchouts (Fig. 10), sedimentary gaps, syn-sedimentary normal faulting
(Fig. 11), incised valleys (Figs. 5, 10), etc.
Figure 5 shows reflection terminations of the El Haria formation against the top
Campanian Abiod formation. Furthermore, the displayed seismic attributes characterize
the lateral facies changes. The unconformity is associated with significant erosion; the
yellow arrows (Fig. 5) indicate reflectors terminations. The prevailing irregular topography
at the Maastrichtian time (Fig. 7) enables individualizing diverse depositional basins. The
calibrated El Haria units terminate as onlap (red arrows) on the Campanian series (Fig. 7)
and express a progressive upward strata shift onto the shelf. The pinching out of the
complete El Haria formation leads to an unconformity and expresses a hiatus of several
million years’ duration within the Maastrichtian–Paleocene period. The following
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Fig. 7 Interpreted seismic line L3. Colored horizons relate to: reef construction (1), top Campanian (2), top
Maastrichtian (3), top Oligocene (4) and top Langhian (5)
Fig. 8 Geo-seismic cross section calibrated using wells W5 and W7 with Cenomanian (a), Turonian (b),
Campanian (c), Maastrichtian–Paleocene (d), Eocene (e, f), Oligocene (g, h), Langhian (i)
erosional phase may supply the El Haria depositional basins and thus influence the pre-
vailing depositional environment.
Figure 8 displays an unconformity at the top Campanian Abiod formation; the Cam-
panian was partially to completely eroded. Another unconformity is also displayed at the
top of the Maastrichtian, within well W3. The calibrated and interpreted seismic profile
(Fig. 9) indicates an upper Eocene age for this unconformity. This calibrated seismic
section (using W1 and W3) expresses the complete absence of the upper Maastrichtian, the
Paleocene and the Eocene intervals around well W3; that is to say, the observed 800 m
within W1 vanishes within the 8 km separating the two wells. The geometry of the Cre-
taceous Reflectors (Fig. 9) argues in favor of folding that should date the upper Eocene
transpressive phase, related to the ‘‘Pyrenean tectonic phase’’ in Europe and well described
by Boussiga et al. (2003, 2005), Khomsi et al. (2006) and Ben Chelbi et al. (2008).
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Fig. 9 Calibrated and interpreted seismic line EW1 (a) and schematic cross section (b) with Abiod
formation (1) at the base, El Haria formation (2), Bou Dabbous formation (3), Ketatna formation (4),
Fortuna formation (5) and Ain Grab formation (6)
Fig. 10 Interpreted calibrated seismic line with top Campanian (a), top Paleocene (b) and top Langhian (c)
Seismic data indicate deeper events expressed by incised valleys and submarine channels
(Figs. 5, 7, 10). These took place after the scouring of the seafloor. At the maximum sea level
fall (regression), the eroded sediments from the near shore areas are transported through
these created channels seaward into deeper waters. Valleys were subsequently infilled during
the sea level rising within the following 2–3My (Figs. 5, 7, 10).
Figure 11a shows an array of tilted blocks, bounded by normal faults that detach near the
top of the Abiod formation. Fault kinematics control thickness variations and sedimentary
architecture in half-graben basins in the lower parts of the El Haria deposits. The onset of
normal faulting has been estimated to have commenced at the end of the Campanian/
beginning of the Maastrichtian stages (Fig. 11a). Figure 11 depicts syn-depositional
extensional structures delineating sedimentary wedge in the hanging wall of normal faults.
These reveal the active extensional components during the deposition time of the lower part
of the El Haria formation. The tilted blocks along normal faults are sealed by the younger
shales (Fig. 11) of the lower part of the El Haria formation, indicating an intra-formational
angular unconformity during the Maastrichtian-Danian extensional phase.
4.2.2 Seismic Stratigraphic Interpretation
Seismic reflection patterns express the joint effects of the impedance contrasts distribution,
the scale of the geological features, the adopted seismic acquisition parameters and the
applied seismic processing sequence.
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Fig. 11 Syn-depositional extensional structures during the ultimate late Campanian–starting of Maas-
trichtian sequences with original (top) and interpreted (bottom) seismic line: WSW–ENE-directed (a) and
WNW–ESE-directed (b) seismic lines
4.2.2.1 NNW–SSE-Directed SEISMIC Profile Seismic line L1 is selected to illustrate the

seismic reflection configuration of the thickest and the most resolvable El Haria formation
encountered in the study area (Fig. 12). In order to make a comprehensive sequential
interpretation, post-depositional tectonic movements were compensated through
palinspastic reconstruction. The section is well calibrated using well W1. The significant
thickness of El Haria series (808 m) helps in appreciating the geometry and the spatial
reflection terminations (onlaps, downlaps and truncations). The performed sequential
analysis was based on seismic data character, seismic resolution, the reflection continuity
and the overall published scientific and technical literature. Parameters of the seismic
facies analysis include amplitude, continuity and configuration (Catuneanu 2006). A sys-
tem tract analysis is carried out through the recognition of sequence boundaries as well as
maximum regressive and maximum flooding surfaces on the seismic sections (Catuneanu
2006).
The internal reflection pattern of the El Haria interval indicates simple stratified
reflections to the northern part of the seismic profile, progradational–retrogradational
pattern in the central part and complex arrangements on the southern extremity of the
section (Fig. 12). Sequence boundaries were delineated, based on picked seismic reflec-
tions and reflection terminations’ geometry. Seven sequences were identified, delimited by
eight sequence boundaries and comprised seven maximum flooding surfaces characterizing
base-level changes during the Maastrichtian–Paleocene time period. The relative locations
of the system tracts (depositional units) are closely dependent on sea level changes, tec-
tonic subsidence and the developed accommodation space.
Above a high amplitude and continuous reflection (Fig. 12) in response to the acoustic
impedance contrast between the relatively faster and denser limestone of the Campanian
Abiod formation and the overlying shales of the El Haria formation develops the lower
Maastrichtian-type sequences S1 and S2. Their lower parts are made of prograding
downlapping succession units over the slope of the depositional basin prior to the turbiditic
fans lodging at the deeper Basin floor (Fig. 12S1, S2). This gradual basinward shift
deposit, where the shoreline falls below the shelf edge, constitutes the falling-stage system
tract. After maximum regressive levels (blue lines in Fig. 12 S1, S2), a set of onlapping
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Fig. 12 (top) Balanced seismic section calibrated using well W1. GR log on the left (green color) and the
sonic log on the right (red color) are displayed along drilled well W1. Horizons correspond to: top Aleg
formation of Coniacian–Santonian age (1), top Abiod of Campanian age (2), top El Haria formation of
Maastrichtian–Paleocene age (3), top Bou Dabbous formation of Ypresian age (4) and top Fortuna formation
of Oligocene age (5). (bottom) Sequence types S1–S8: lower Maastrichtian (S1, S2), upper Maastrichtian
(S3), Danian (S4), Selandian and (S5, S6), Thanetian (S7) and Ypresian (S8) stages
units took place, as per relative base-level rise, indicating transgression (TST). The
maximum flooding surface (red dashed lines in Fig. 12 S1, S2), the sedimentation and the
base-level change rate balance become in favor of a regressive high-stand system tract
(HST). The latter is denoted by clear basinward shifts.
Well W1, located within a distal position, crossed S1 and S2 through their lowstand
system tracts (LST) made of 240-m-thick shale interval with alternating limestone, fos-
siliferous marls and clay–micrite enriched with pelagic microfauna.
Away from the concave upstream area, seismic imaging displays the upper Maas-
trichtian-type sequence S3. Sedimentation occur basinward (Fig. 12S3). The rapid base-
level fall is known as the major sea level falling at the K/T boundary (Haq et al. 1987;
Hardenbol et al. 1998; Snedden and Liu 2010; Haq 2014). It would have partially eroded
the previously deposited HST (sequence S2). The distal prograding offlaps express a forced
regression; this is followed by prograding and aggrading lowstand unit pointing the relative
rise which rate increase enables the deposition of a trangressive interval illustrated by the
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onlapping terminations of reflections (Fig. 12 S3). The major sea level fall at the K/T
boundary characterize that period of time (Haq et al. 1987; Hardenbol et al. 1998; Snedden
and Liu 2010; Haq 2014); this rapid base-level falling is responsible on the partial erosion
of the previously deposited HST (sequence S2). At well W1 position, all four system tracts
are present and S3 is made of 308-m-thick interval of alternating limestone, fossiliferous
marls and clay–micrite enriched with pelagic microfauna.
The GR well log values and signature point out the coarsening/finning upward
responses of the transgressive/highstand system tracts. The log trends indicate the retro-
grading, aggrading and prograding stacking patterns. The maximum flooding surface is
indicated by a high gamma ray response.
The Danian-type sequence S4 is seismic imaged through a distal continuing sedimen-
tation through a local progradation clinoform rapidly followed by aggradational then
retrogradational deposits (Fig. 12S4). The ultimate and last deposits tend to fill the concave
upstream area, which was previously eroded through the second and third sea level cycles.
The base-level rising which seems to catch the level reached earlier, at the end of the upper
Maastrichtian period. W1 seems to record only two system tracts: a LST and a TST where
lithology is dominated by bioclastic marl with frequent intercalations of clay and shaly
biomicrite.
The Selandian-type sequence S5 is seismically represented by the deposition of a
prograding and down stepping falling-stage system tract followed by a rising of base level
leading to a rapid back stepping of the sedimentological record enabling the deposition of
the transgressive tract further up covering previous terms of S4 (Fig. 12 S5). At W1
position, only the proximal part of the FSST/LST of S5 is crossed (Fig. 13) and represented
by a 76-m-thick bioclastic and pyritic marls with frequent intercalations of clay and shaly
biomicrite.
The Selandian–Thanetian-type sequence S6 exposes an important sea level fall, causing
the erosion of the upstream portion and the deposition of a falling-stage system tract giving
rise within an extremely distal deposition area. This is almost relayed by a rapid trans-
gressive tract which is followed and partially covered by a regressive highstand system
tract (Fig. 12S6). W1 encountered only the FSST and the lower part of the TST (Fig. 13).
The Thanetian-type sequence S7 is, seismically, characterized by extended and well-
developed system tracts. W1 crossed the section on a distal position through a falling-stage
system tract through a long and deep falling of the base level and encountered 112-m-thick
intercalations of indurate limy shale and soft marls rich of globigerina and globotruncana
locally rich with glauconite and mottled with pyrite. The cycle continues with a longer and
sustained rising through a transgressive regime moving the area of deposition into a
proximal position surpassing the onset of the base-level falling. As the base-level rise
decelerates, depositional units start prograding setting up the highstand clinoform. Con-
sequently, only the FSST and the lower part of the TST are crossed by well W1 (Fig. 13).
The Ypresian-type sequence S8 is made of the cherty carbonate of the Bou Dabbous
formation which is characterized by the presence of Globorotalia aragonensis, attributed to
the early Eocene (Ypresian) which testifies a deep plate-form depositional environment
with supply of large forams derived from a nearby-open, shallow platform (Fig. 12S8).
4.2.2.2 EW-Directed Seismic Profile Within W3, located 11 km east of well W1, the
upper Oligocene Ketatna formation lies unconformably over the Maastrichtian shales of
the El Haria formation leaving a significant gap of more than 30 Ma. The Hiatus expresses
the absence of the Eocene, the Paleocene and at least the upper Maastrichtian. The east–
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Fig. 13 Reconstructed depositional sequences in well W1. The lithological column is bordered by GR well
log on the left (green color) and the sonic log on the right (red color). Sequence types are indicated by
system tracts: FSST, LST, TST and HST
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Fig. 14 Gamma ray versus impedance cross plot (a) and original versus inverted impedance cross plot (b)
west-directed seismic profile (Fig. 9), calibrated using both wells W1 and W3, shows the
westward crosscutting unconformity and abrupt lateral truncations of the El Haria units.
The Ypresian Bou Dabbous limestones thin and disappear laterally to the east. These upper
Cretaceous and Eocene series are entirely covered by the Oligocene transgressive lime-
stone interval of the Ketatna formation.
4.2.3 Inverted Seismic Data
The El Haria is made mainly of marls with intercalation limestone beds. The limestone
beds are essentially micrite. Marl is a lime-rich mudstone containing a variable amount of
clay. Moreover, the effective porosity of this rock type is almost nil. The computed GR–
impedance cross plot (Fig. 14a) shows a discrimination of the lithology between the high
impedance—low gamma ray for limestone beds, and low impedance—high gamma ray for
shales; marls have intermediate values.
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Fig. 15 Model-based inversion using two wells: initial model (a) and inverted impedance section
(b) Horizons correspond to: top Campanian (1), top lower Maastrichtian (2), top upper Maastrichtian (3), top
Danian (4), top Selandian (5), top Thanetian (6) and top Ypresian (7)
The post-stack model-based inversion technique is used predict lithology. The P-wave
velocity log is based on the corrected sonic log using VSP time–depth relationship. The
initial model (Figs. 15a, 16a) results from the interpolation–extrapolation of the filtered
low-frequency component of the impedance log through conventionally picked seismic
horizons. As the seismic frequency band starts from 10 Hz, the used impedance log is band
passed keeping the 8–12 Hz range. Both interpreter models (Figs. 15a, 16a) exhibit the
introduced layering through the picked horizons. This initial model does not show lateral
facies variations expressed by the interpreted seismic data.
In order to be effective, a quality control (QC) analysis is carried out to warrant the
effectiveness of the inversion results. The correlation between synthetic and original
seismic is around 95%, and the impedance errors range between 233 and 400. Inversion
analysis cross plot of the original and inverted impedance logs indicates an almost linear
heavy cloud (Fig. 14b). Due to the offset (60–300 m) of the available drilled wells from
the analyzed seismic lines, these QC values are judged acceptable and validate the
inversion.
Model-based inversions results (Figs. 15b, 16b) show high impedance zones at El Haria
interval with values between 6500 more than 8000 for limestone intervals and between less
than 4000 and 5300 for shales and intermediate values for marls. This enables one to
complement the sequential performed analysis and to predict the lithology within each of
the seven previously determined sequences of the El Haria formation. Furthermore,
inverted impedances (Fig. 16b) express the presence of limestones in the upstream side of
the basin as well as the finer clayey lithology which is much more frequent in the deeper
part of the basin. This confirms the hemipelagic deposition environment of the El Haria
formation.
Model-based inversion (Fig. 15b) better clarifies the observed unconformity, observed
in well W3, along the section.
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Fig. 16 Model-based inversion using only one well: initial model (a) and inverted impedance section
(b) Horizons correspond to: top Campanian (1), top lower Maastrichtian (2), top upper Maastrichtian (3), top
Danian (4), top Selandian (5), top Thanetian (6) and top Ypresian (7)
4.3 3D Distribution of the Maastrichtian–Paleocene Interval
4.3.1 Seismic Velocity
The constructed interval velocity map (Fig. 17a) is based on the average interval velocity
computed using the time–depth relationship related to the top and base of the El Haria
formation. The map, covering the Cap Bon–Gulf of Hammamet province, expresses values
ranging between 2400 and 4000 m/s with an average of 3500 m/s. The general trends are
directed NW–SE along a low axis passing through the drilled wells W1a–W1b; this is
parallel to a faster axis, to the west, along wells W7–W7a. In the meantime, some localized
anomalous velocities are also expressed and checked by drilled wells. Such is the case for
W5 where the relatively thin El Haria formation (Fig. 17a) does not fit the required
resolution on the measured time differences (from top to base of the formation).
Both low- and high-velocity axes are linked to the lithologic nature of the El Haria
formation. Well reports describe important shale and marls proportions at W1a and W1b;
such reports define limestone richness at wells W7 or W7a. Within these last locations, the
El Haria formation may be limited by the upper Maastrichtian series which may explain
the significant occurrence of limestone. The extracted interval velocity field is used to
convert the seismic propagation two-way time into depth. Velocities are mainly used for
regional thickness restitution of the El Haria formation.
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Fig. 17 Velocity map (a) and Isopach map (b) of the Maastrichtian–Paleocene El Haria formation on the
study area
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4.3.2 Thickness Distribution
The areal thickness variation of the El Haria unit is approached through isopach map
technique; the map is generated from detailed examination of numerous well crossing the
El Haria formation and the most significant calibrated seismic sections in the studied area.
Isopach maps were constructed and studied for the entire Maastrichtian–Paleocene interval
as well as for the individual time periods (Fig. 17b).
Significant thickness changes are observed (Fig. 17b). It increases toward the Gulf of
Hammamet, reaching their maximum within specific depocenters, though it is much
thinner in the continent. The deepest offers 808 m of El Haria formation through W1.
Isopach map designates a NE–SW-directed feature reaching almost 1100 m thick. Other
minor depocenters (locations of deepest deposits) are directed NE–SW and NW–SE. On
the other hand, mapping evolves a NNW, 20-km-large hiatus area that significantly widens
toward the south of the studied area. The absence of the El Haria interval through W4, W4a
and W6 wells and the thin formation investigated by W5 near to this indicated zone
validate the elaborated map.
Borehole data (drilled wells) together with calibrated and interpreted seismic lines
illustrate that the major part of the El Haria formation was deposited during the Maas-
trichtian stage with a thickness reaching 700 m. Paleocene deposits do not exceed 400 m.
5 Results and Discussions
5.1 Hiatuses: Area of Non-sedimentary Record
The integrated modeling based on seismic data, borehole lithology, physical well logs
(sonic, density, gamma ray, etc.), vertical seismic profiles, well shots, etc. and the deter-
mined depositional sequences should be considered as 3D geological bodies, and a drilled
well may fail to encounter all the tracts of a given sequence (Fig. 13). So, sequential
analysis should not be carried out solely from gamma ray and sonic logs even if these
records have much better resolution than seismic data. Logs should be integrated in the
spatial imaging offered by seismic data.
5.2 Base-Level Variation Compared to Published Charts
Sea level variations have a significant effect on sediment distribution patterns (Haq et al.
1987; Snedden 2010; Haq 2014). Haq et al. (1987) show that, after the marked decline in
the early Valanginian, the sea level began to rise rapidly and remain high through the
remainder of the Cretaceous; it reached its peak in the early Turonian times. A progressive
fall of sea level began in the latest Cretaceous and continued through the Paleogene (Haq
et al. 1987), with the exception of relatively higher levels within the Danian and Ypresian
(Haq et al. 1987). In the short term, the major declines of sea level occurred at the late
Maastrichtian, early Thanetian, latest Ypresian (Haq et al. 1987). Due to their limited
resolution, conventional seismic profiles enable the recognition of sequence boundaries of
major and medium magnitude (Haq et al. 1987).
A tentative correlation of the observed depositional sequences in the study area
(Fig. 18) with the published charts (Haq et al. 1987; Snedden and Liu 2010; Haq 2014)
shows a general concordance with the recently published eustatic charts of Haq (2014) and
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Fig. 18 Base-level changes compared to results from Haq (1987, 2014) and Snedden (2010)
Snedden (2010) and a close match with the eustatic chart of Haq et al. (1987). Some
discrepancies are found within the three defined sequences within the Maastrichtian period,
between the sequence boundaries defined by sequences Kma1, Kma2, Kma3, Kma4 and
Kma5 of Haq (2014), UZA-4 4.5, TA-1 1.1 of Haq et al. (1987). Only one sequence is
modeled for the Danian time period, within the Gulf of Hammamet, whereas Haq (2014)
counts five sequences (PaDa1,PaDa2, PaDa3, PaDa4, PaDa5) and Snedden and Liu (2010)
defines four sequences (Da1, Da2, Da3, Da4); in the meantime, Haq et al. (1987) describes
only one sequence (TA1-1,2). During the Selandian time, all authors adopted only one
sequence (Hardenbol et al. 1998; Snedden and Liu 2010; Haq 2014). Some differences are
also observed during the Thanetian time. Hardenbol et al. (1998) and Snedden and Liu
(2010) counted six sequences (Th1, Th2, Th3, Th4, Th5 and Th6), opposing Haq et al.
(1987) who gave only one sequence. Thus, the resulting good fit with the chart of Haq et al.
(1987) provides firm evidence that base-level changes governed the accommodation space
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and the depositional shifts leading to the sedimentation and stratigraphic architecture of the
Maastrichtian–Paleocene time interval. The Maastrichtian–Paleocene third-order minor
cycles, detailed by Snedden and Liu (2010), are represented by amalgamated sequences. It
should also be said that some minor relative sea level cycles may be below seismic
resolution.
5.3 Main Structural Phases
Seismic data analysis reveals two important orogenic tectonic events highlighted by hia-
tuses on top of the Campanian and the top Eocene intervals. During late Campanian–
beginning Maastrichtian tectogenic period, the area suffered pronounced thickness and
facies variations during the Maastrichtian–Paleocene time period. The Campanian lime-
stone (Abiod formation) is partially to totally eroded (Fig. 8). This is believed to relate to
the tectonic regime switch on the Eurasian–African plates movements (Dewey et al. 1989;
Grasso et al. 1999; Tavarnelli et al. 2004; Guiraud et al. 2005). The arising late Campanian
compressive deformation from this stress state is expressed by normal faulting directed
following the dihedral containing the maximum stress r1 plane and folds in the dihedral
close to r2. Seismic sections, on Fig. 11, display normal faults along the main direction of
shortening (r1). Compressive structures are indicated by dipping reflectors along NS-
oriented seismic sections (Figs. 8, 10, 12). These are modeled as N–S shortening tectonic
mechanism (Fig. 19) during the late Campanian–beginning Maastrichtian period.
This period remains on debate by authors in Tunisia. Castany (1951), Ayed (1986),
Philip et al. (1986), Ouali et al. (1987), Chikhaoui (1988), Delteil et al. (1991a, b), Boukadi
(1994), Chihi (1995) and Dlala (2002) argued on a ENE–WSW to NE–SW rifting phase
during the Campanian–late Maastrichtian period. This extensive phase was recorded in
eastern Tunisia (Boukadi 1994; Bedir 1995), in north eastern Tunisia (Turki 1985) and
northern Tunisia (Chikhaoui 1988; Melki et al. 2010). Other authors are in favor of a
Fig. 19 Synthetic structural model during the end of Campanian period
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compressive to transpressive phase during the same period. This is observed in Tunisia
(M’Rabet 1981; Turki 1985; Saadi 1997; Rabhi et al. 2001; Zouari et al. 2004). This event
resulted in folds, gaps, unconformities and uplifted zones (Touati 1985; Saadi 1997;
Boussiga et al. 2003, 2005; Sebei et al. 2007; Abidi 2012; Abidi et al. 2014, 2016). On a
regional scale, this tectonic event is characterized by N–S shortening and E–W stretching
(Patriat et al. 1982; Dewey et al. 1989; Grasso et al. 1999; Tavarnelli et al. 2004; Guiraud
et al. 2005). This is associated with convergence between the African and European
continental margins (Dewey et al. 1989). Guiraud et al. (1997) designated a brief com-
pressive phase with N–S shortening followed by extension exemplified by the detachment
tectonics in the Grande Kabylie Massif. Several authors agreed on the structural control of
the sedimentation through faulting in Tunisia (Jauzein 1967; Perthuisot 1978; Marie et al.
1984; Chikhaoui 1988; Negra 1994; Zaier et al. 1998; Bouaziz et al. 2002).
Late Eocene tectogenic period is seismically expressed by a major unconformity
(Fig. 9) leading to a large hiatus of the upper Maastrichtian, Paleocene and Eocene sedi-
ments. Thus, the lacking interval is eroded through an active Lutetian compressive phase of
the authors (Ayed 1986; Chihi 1995; EL Ghali et al. 2003; Mzali and Zouari 2006; Melki
et al. 2010) which occurs prior to the taking place of the transgressive platform carbonates
of the Ketatna formation. This is, seismically, well documented as the Pyrenean phase, to
the east, onshore, on the Sahel block by Boussiga et al. (2003, 2005) and Khomsi et al.
(2006). Compressive structures have been also evidenced in central Tunisia (Ayed 1986)
and in eastern Tunisia and northern Tunisia (Haller 1983; Touati 1985). On a regional
scale, the inversion of the Mesozoic basins of the Maghreb was contemporaneous with the
Pyrenean orogeny, suggesting that the compression was active on both Eurasian and
African margins in the western Mediterranean domain (Castany 1951; Olivet et al. 1984;
Guiraud et al. 2005; Lacombe and Jolivet 2005).
5.4 Geodynamic Evolution
During the late Cretaceous stage, a distally steepened carbonate ramps raised in the Gulf of
Hammamet (Sebei et al. 2007; Tlig et al. 2008) and rudist buildups populated the outer
ramp (W5 and W6 wells) forming complex bioconstruction barrier (Fig. 7). As little
siliciclastic sediment is available, sedimentation becomes dominated by chemical and
biochemical deposition (Fig. 20).
The area experienced pronounced thickness and facies variations during the Maas-
trichtian–Paleocene time period. This geodynamic evolution is guided by the Eurasian–
African plate’s movements (Guiraud et al. 2005). A regional uplift (W4, W4a and W4b) is
triggered at the end of the Campanian (Fig. 8) and global sea level fall resulted in a
subaerial exposure of the Abiod carbonate. Series undergoes folding (Fig. 10), faulting
(Fig. 11), truncation (Fig. 8) and incised by channel river systems (Figs. 5, 10). The
unveiled glauconite at the transgressive limestones base reflects the emergence of the
region during the Maastrichtian age. Paleo-topography was irregular and encloses chan-
neling and incisions (Figs. 5, 10) eroded more than 250 m into the original Campanian
limestone and got a lateral extension of several hundred meters. Transgressive Ypresian
(W4b), Oligocene (well W3, Fig. 9) and Langhian Ain Grab limestones (well W4a,
Fig. 10) lay over the upper cretaceous Cenomanian to Campanian calcareous and marly
alternations through an erosional surface.
Emersion lasted few to tens of millions years. Locally, a rapid deepening during the
Maastrichtian time occurs and the area was covered by hemipelagic and pelagic mudstones
of the El Haria formation which lower part hold thin streaks siltstone and fine sandstone as
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Fig. 20 Inferred synthetic geological model
well as traces of glauconite (W3, W4a, W4b). These were observed by Bujalka et al.
(1971) and Turki (1985) on the nearby outcrops.
Late Campanian compressive regime controlled the Maastrichtian sedimentation
(Fig. 11). Syn-sedimentary faults developed tilted blocks and half-graben systems enabling
the deposition of condensed series and hiatuses on the relatively elevated neighborhoods
and thick and argillaceous facies within the sinking zones (Fig. 11). Similar outcropping
structures in Tunisia were observed in Mezzouna (Khessibi 1978; Ouali 1985; Zouari et al.
2004), in northern Tunisia (Ben Mehrez 2007; Dlala 2002), in Zaghouan (Turki 1985), etc.
This tectonic episode is responsible for the development of normal faults in the Lampedusa
shelf (Tavarnelli et al. 2004).
A sea level fall is observed during upper Maastrichtian–lower Danian (Figs. 12d, 13)
leading to the lack of the Danian deposits in the major part of the Cap Bon and the Gulf of
Hammamet province (W1a and W2 wells) and a regional unconformity in Grombalia area
(Ouahchi 1993), in the Sahel zone (Comte and Dufaure 1973) or in the North–South-Axis
(Rabhi et al. 2001). This unconformity was described in several outcrops in Tunisia
(Comte and Dufaure 1973; Turki 1985; Salaj 1980) and even in the Mediterranean
countries (Ouahchi et al. 1993). The upper part of Danian widespread marine transgression
recorded the deposition of shales over most of Tunisia (Ben Salem 2002) and even in North
Africa (Tawardros 2011).
The Danian/Selandian passage (61 Ma) is illustrated by a major transgression
(Figs. 12e, 13). The accommodation space increased and received hemipelagic materials
(W1, W2 and W9) made of clay, marl and biomicrite.
A major base-level fall followed by a rapid rise is recorded during the Selandian-
Thanetian passage (59 Ma) (Figs. 12g, 13). Depositional environment changes occur and
alternating marl, limestone and clay with intercalation of clayey bioclastic micrite are
deposited.
The NW-directed compressive Pyrenean orogeny imprints the structuration of the area
and extensive hiatuses characterized the Ypresian Bou Dabbous formation and the
Maastrichtian–Paleocene El Haria formation.
123
Surv Geophys
6 Conclusions
The compiled synthetic Maastrichtian–Paleocene lithologic chart reveals multiple internal

gaps dated upper Campanian, upper Maastrichtian, top Danian, top Thanetian and middle
to upper Eocene. Significant thickness changes and facies are expressed. Seismic data
display concordance, unconformities with significant erosion, pitchouts, sedimentary gaps,
syn-sedimentary normal faulting and incised valleys. The depositional floor geometry is
controlled by the prevailing compressional regime dated end Campanian–early Maas-
trichtian responsible of the NNW-directed syn-sedimentary normal faults and ENE-
trending paleo-highs that led to the non-deposition and/or erosion of upper cretaceous
series. This paleo-topography inferred large depositional environment variations. Cali-
brated seismic data indicate internal and external platform sedimentary records separated
by cretaceous bioconstructions acting as barrier.
Integrated seismic stratigraphy analysis helps in recognizing seven sequence types
recording the Maastrichtian–Paleocene time period. The Maastrichtian stage is charac-
terized by three sequence types with a major transgression at the end of the lower
Maastrichtian. One sequence type typifies the Danian period; the significant regression
occurred during the lower Danian led to the absence of the Danian record in some areas of
the studied province. The Selandian is characterized by two sequence types with a major
transgression during the deposition of the first sequence type. The Thanetian time period is
made of one transgressive sequence type. Sequences’ geometry depends on base-level
change which is controlled by the depositional floor geometry, the tectonic subsidence and
the developed accommodation space. These factors controlled the presence or absence of
various parts of the El Haria formation. Deposits are also controlled by the middle to upper
Eocene compressive event and the subsequent erosion of the Eocene and the upper part of
Paleocene intervals.
The spatial distribution of the various system tracts is controlled by base-level changes
and the created accommodation space. System-tracts recognition and sequence subdivision
reports to a spatial distribution. Therefore, borehole lithology together with recorded well
logs (gamma ray, sonic, resistivity, etc.) would be efficient whenever integrated in a 3D
interpretation process through surface seismic data. Meanwhile, despite their great preci-
sion, borehole data remain a one-dimensional representation of the subsurface geology.
Therefore, and especially within lateral facies changes induced by significant base-level
changes, borehole data alone cannot be performed sequential analysis and reconstruction of
a given basin.
The applied model-based post-stack inversion study, using high-resolution preserved
amplitude seismic data, proved to be powerful for lithology discrimination. It complements
the performed seismic stratigraphic analysis. The inverted acoustic impedance logs
reproduce the enclosed changes in the seismic data and enable seismic interpreters to make
benefits from the richness of the seismic data and to go further than horizon picking and
mapping. This seismic stratigraphic integrated approach may be particularly applied to
hemipelagic depositional environment.
Acknowledgements We are grateful to Prof Fetheddine Melki and Prof Michael J. Rycroft whose comments
resulted in the final balanced version of this manuscript. The presented work would not have been produced
without data courtesy of ETAP (Entreprise Tunisienne d’Activités Pétrolières)—the Tunisian National Oil
Company. We thank Prof Faouzi Zagrani for fruitful discussions on the geological distribution of the El Haria
formation and its depositional environment in central Tunisia. We thank Prof Mohamed Moncef Turki for
contacts; he presented us with his published thesis, regarding the late Cretaceous–Paleocene within the
Zaghouan area. We wish to thank Prof Said Tlig for invaluable constructive criticism and advice during the
123
Surv Geophys
project. We are grateful to Prof Gary Hampson and Dr Samir Kharbachi for productive discussions and for
reading this paper. We are indebted an anonymous reviewer for constructive comments.
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Abidi 2016

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Surv Geophys

Geodynamic Evolution of Northeastern Tunisia During

Oussama Abidi1,2,3 • Mohamed Hédi Inoubli1,3 •

Imen Hamdi Nasr1,2 • Abdelhamid Ben Salem4 •

Received: 29 May 2016 / Accepted: 18 November 2016

Abstract The Maastrichtian–Paleocene El Haria formation was studied and defined in

& Oussama Abidi

Keywords Maastrichtian–Paleocene El Haria formation Calibration Seismic

The eustatic/tectonic control on litho-facies distribution, as the response to the interplay

Microfossils Depositional Microfossils Depositional Microfossils Depositional Depositional environment

Thanetian Middle to outer neritic depths G. pussila pussila

3 Data and Methods

3.1 Borehole Data

3.2 Seismic Resolution

3.3 Seismic Calibration

3.4 Seismic Expression and Attributes

3.5 Seismic Inversion

4 Regional Subsurface Data analysis

4.1 1D Vertical Physical Response from Wells

4.2 2D Seismic Response Distribution

4.2.1 Seismic Reflectors’ Terminations and Discontinuities

4.2.2 Seismic Stratigraphic Interpretation

4.2.2.1 NNW–SSE-Directed SEISMIC Profile Seismic line L1 is selected to illustrate the

4.2.3 Inverted Seismic Data

4.3 3D Distribution of the Maastrichtian–Paleocene Interval

4.3.1 Seismic Velocity

4.3.2 Thickness Distribution

5 Results and Discussions

5.1 Hiatuses: Area of Non-sedimentary Record

5.2 Base-Level Variation Compared to Published Charts

5.3 Main Structural Phases

Fig. 19 Synthetic structural model during the end of Campanian period

5.4 Geodynamic Evolution

Fig. 20 Inferred synthetic geological model

The compiled synthetic Maastrichtian–Paleocene lithologic chart reveals multiple internal

Karoui-Yaakoub N, Zaghbib-Turki D, Keller G (2002) The Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) mass extinction in

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