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Structural setting and tectonic evolution of offshore

North Sinai, Egypt
M. YOUSEF1*, A. R. MOUSTAFA1 & M. SHANN2
1
Department of Geology, Ain Shams University, Cairo 11566, Egypt
2
BP International Exploration, Chertsey Road, Sunbury on Thames, Middlesex TW16 7LN, UK
*Corresponding author (e-mail: mohamed.yousef@live.com)

Abstract: The offshore area of North Sinai represents the northern extension of the Syrian Arc
inversion structures into the southeastern Mediterranean region. Integration of detailed seismic
interpretation of key tectonic events in offshore North Sinai and recently acquired gravity and mag-
netic data reveal structural deformation represented by large buried inversion anticlines that have
played an important role in the geological history and hydrocarbon potential of the area. This tec-
tonic inversion took place in the Late Mesozoic and continued slightly during the Cenozoic, and
formed NE-trending asymmetrical folds. Three different phases of deformation have been detected
in offshore North Sinai: (1) A Jurassic–Early Cretaceous extensional phase, which formed NE
trending normal faults bounding asymmetrical half-grabens, (2) Post-Santonian– Middle
Miocene positive inversion of these faults and half-grabens and (3) Post–Middle Miocene subsi-
dence. A set of tectonosequences related to the opening and the subsequent convergence of the
Tethys was mapped. Each identified tectonosequence has its own unique drive mechanism, geo-
metry, and location with respect to the plate boundary. Recognition of these elements allows
illustration of the Tethyan basin evolution of offshore North Sinai through time as well as
understanding the tectonic and stratigraphic framework and effective prediction of the
petroleum system.

Although the geology of the North Sinai Peninsula
has been the subject of study of several researchers,
little was written about the offshore area. Being
located on the Tethyan margin of the African-
Arabian plate, offshore North Sinai exhibits a
sequence of shallow marine and continental
sedimentary rocks, which may be up to 12 km
thick (Guiraud & Bosworth 1997). Large syn-
sedimentary normal faults, with nearly N108E and
N708E average trends, were very active during
Permian–Early Cretaceous times (Guiraud &
Bosworth 1997). From the Early Senonian, both
onshore and offshore domains of this region regis-
tered folding and faulting (Ginzburg et al. 1975;
Bartov et al. 1980; Jenkins 1990). The compression
caused reverse faulting along the old normal faults
and the initiation of basin inversion. These events
resulted in a well-exposed fold belt of NE– SW
oriented, doubly plunging folds referred to as the
Syrian Arc fold belt (Krenkel 1925), Figure 1.
These folds are of different sizes, including folds
tens of kilometres long, several kilometres long,
and many others that are less than 2 km in length
(Moustafa & Khalil 1989).
The area selected for detailed subsurface study
in the present study is geographically located
in the southeastern part of the Mediterranean Sea,
offshore North Sinai (Fig. 2). It covers an area
of about 6630 km2 and is bounded by latitudes
31830 and 318460 N and by longitudes 328410 and
348130 E.
The aim of this paper is to address the tec-
tonostratigraphic evolution of offshore North Sinai
Basin and to document the phases of rifting and
basin inversion, which affected the North Sinai
margin of the Tethys from the Jurassic to Middle
Miocene.
Regional setting
The eastern Mediterranean passive continental
margin was formed in the Early Mesozoic, when
widespread rifting occurred in the entire Tethys
area (Dewey et al. 1973; Garfunkel & Derin 1984;
Moustafa & Khalil 1994). This margin was charac-
terized by shallow platform carbonates in the east
and by deep-water carbonates on the slope and
basin in the west (Bein & Gvirtzman 1977; Druck-
man et al. 1995). Since the early Late Senonian
time, the collision of the African-Arabian plate
with the Eurasian plate resulted in the development
of the Syrian Arc fold belt (Fig. 1; Neev &
Ben-Avraham 1977; Moustafa & Khalil 1989;
Eyal 1996; Buchbinder & Zilberman 1997;
Garfunkel 1998). The main deformation in the

From: HOMBERG , C. & BACHMANN , M. (eds) Evolution of the Levant Margin and Western Arabia Platform since the
Mesozoic. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 341, 65–84.
DOI: 10.1144/SP341.4 0305-8719/10/$15.00 # The Geological Society of London 2010.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Pennsylvania State University on September 15, 2016

66 M. YOUSEF ET AL.

Fig. 1. Simplified structural form-line map showing the main structural features of North Sinai and al-Naqab Desert
after Khalil & Moustafa (1994).

Fig. 2. Location map of the study area showing the used 2D seismic sections and boreholes.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Pennsylvania State University on September 15, 2016
STRUCTURE AND TECTONICS OF OFFSHORE NORTH SINAI, EGYPT
Syrian Arc fold belt continued into the post-Early
Miocene (Moustafa & Yousif 1990; Moustafa
et al. 1991; Tibor et al. 1992; Druckman et al.
1995; Eyal 1996). During the Early Miocene the
Syrian Arc began to emerge on the Levant margin
(Buchbinder & Zilberman 1997). The shelf
area underwent localized tectonical uplift and
became intermittently emergent (Buchbinder &
Zilberman 1997).
At the end of the Miocene, the eastern Medi-
terranean passive continental margin underwent
extensive erosion and evaporite deposition
(Gvirtzman & Buchbinder 1978; Druckman et al.
1995), a pattern common to most of the Mediterra-
nean basin (Hsü et al. 1978). Thick evaporites
(.2 km) were deposited on the seafloor, while
the continental margin was affected by erosion
producing deeply incised valleys (Cita & Ryan
1978; Garfunkel & Almagor 1987; Abdel Aal
et al. 2001).
The Pliocene to recent sediments in large areas
of the eastern Mediterranean continental margin
and adjacent basin are affected by thin-skinned
deformation (Bertoni & Cartwright 2006) owing
to salt mobilization and shelf loading that caused
the collapse and landward tilt of these deposits
above the Messinian evaporites (Tibor et al. 1992).
Data and methodology
The offshore subsurface data used for this study
comprise about 6444 km (3995 miles) of two-
dimensional (2D) seismic reflection sections with
maximum recorded two-way time of 5 to 6 s, 25 m
shot point interval, 48-fold geophone coverage,
and a line spacing of 400 m, in addition to bore-hole
data (wire-line logs and biostratigraphic data) of
11 wells, and gravity and magnetic data. Figures 2
and 3 illustrate the database and the correlation
between seismic lines and wells. Fault and horizon
interpretations were carried out on a workstation
using Landmark’s SeisWorks software.
A seismic tectonostratigraphic approach was fol-
lowed in the present study. Regionally persistent
seismic horizons were mapped across the study
area. After regionally consistent seismic tectono-
stratigraphic framework was constructed, biostrati-
graphic data were used to calibrate the seismic
interpretation. Regional events were dated based
on ties to apparent depositional hiatuses (condensed
sections, erosional unconformities, periods of non-
deposition, etc.) interpreted from biostratigraphic
well control. Critical well ties were achieved using
check shot surveys and synthetic seismograms.
There was generally good correlation between the
seismic tectonostratigraphy and the biostratigraphic
interpretations. Integration of these interpretations
67
resulted in a consistent and robust tectonostrati-
graphic framework.
Tectonosequences
Seismic units bounded by regional unconformities
are tectonosequences that represent deposition
during tectonically controlled phases of basin deve-
lopment. The tectonosequence boundaries reflect
major changes in regional tectonic settings
(Hubbard 1988) and they are referred to as TB1 to
TB5 from oldest to youngest (Figs 3 & 4). The
tectonosequences are referred to as TS1 to TS5
(Table 1 & Fig. 5) from oldest to youngest. The
geometry of the tectonosequences is illustrated by
2D seismic sections. These sections are located in
Figure 2 and are either oriented along the strike of
the basin or orthogonal to the major tectonic
elements. These data allied to biostratigraphical
information from wells, provide important evidence
for the timing of deformation in offshore North
Sinai. Five tectonosequences interpreted on seismic
sections are summarized below (from oldest to
youngest); Figure 6.
Tectonosequence 1
(Upper Jurassic– Santonian)
Most of the rocks of tectonosequence 1 represents a
syn-rift package that comprises the initial clastic,
basin-fill and shows significant growth into
opposed, fault bounded depocentres. They were
deposited during the development of Mesozoic
ENE oriented rift basins in North Sinai as well as
in the other parts of north Egypt (Orwig 1982;
Moustafa et al. 1998), owing to opening of the
Neotethys between North Africa-Arabia and
Eurasia (Biju-Duval et al. 1979; Argyriadis et al.
1980). The top of tectonosequence 1 is truncated
by erosion in the Mango area (Fig. 5), but the bound-
ary becomes a disconformity in the western part of
the area of study. Tectonosequence 1 consists predo-
minantly of clastic-dominated successions of the
Cretaceous age unconformably overlying the
shallow marine Upper Jurassic carbonates as a
result of the sharp drop in global sea level in the
Late Tithonian (Guiraud 1998).
The basin geometry of the tectonosequence 1,
illustrated by the isochron map (Fig. 7), shows
several sub-basins bounded by extensional faults.
Tectonosequence 2
(Campanian – Maastrichtian)
Deposition of tectonosequence 2 locally continued
away from the crests of the evolving anticlines
leading to onlap of tectonosequence 2 sediments
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68 M. YOUSEF ET AL.

Fig. 3. Correlation panel between the main lithostratigraphic units on well data and the interpreted seismic packages.
TB1– TB5 refer to tectonosequence boundaries 1 –5.
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STRUCTURE AND TECTONICS OF OFFSHORE NORTH SINAI, EGYPT 69

Fig. 4. Offshore North Sinai basin cartoon, showing key surfaces mapped. TB1–TB5 refer to tectonosequence
boundaries 1– 5.

on older rocks in the flanks. It is thin (,200 ms
TWT) over the crests of the anticlines and gradu-
ally thickens (.450 ms TWT) in the synclines
(Figs 5 & 8). This syn-compressional tectono-
sequence consists predominantly of shelf and slope
mudstones. The onset of Tethys convergence
between the Eurasian and African plates in post-
Santonian time was characterized by positive inver-
sion of the previously formed NE trending exten-
sional basins in offshore North Sinai (Yousef et al.
2006). This inversion led to the development of a
series of NE–SW trending folds (Fig. 9a).
Tectonosequence 3
(Palaeocene – Upper Oligocene)
Tectonosequence 3 is the second syn-compression
tectonosequence identified in offshore North Sinai
and is also associated with the folding event, but
with a magnitude less than that in tectonosequence
2. It is characterized by onlap and truncation rela-
tionships at its margins owing to the active defor-
mation of the antiforms, giving an indication of
the continuation of the post-Santonian basin inver-
sion until the Late Oligocene. Folding and faulting
are not as extensive as those of TB2 and TB3 but
only gentle folding is obvious (Fig. 9b). Tectono-
sequence 3 represents deposition in shelf and slope
environments. It is also thin (,200 ms TWT) over
the crests of the anticlines and gradually thickens
(.450 ms TWT) in the synclines (Figs 5 & 8).
Tectonosequence 4 (Miocene)
Tectonosequence 4 defines a northward-thickening
sedimentary wedge, which thins locally over the
crests of the anticlines, delineated by the TB4 and
TB5 at its base and top, respectively (Fig. 5). It is
almost missing along the present-day shoreline in
the south, but thicken to .800 ms in the northern
part of the study area (Fig. 5). Tectonosequence 4
comprises open marine deposits, as well as an
evaporite sequence deposited during the Late
Miocene (Messinian) drying up of the Mediterra-
nean (Hsü et al. 1973). This evaporite sequence con-
sists predominantly of anhydrite and gypsum with
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70 M. YOUSEF ET AL.
Table 1. Summary of the principal features of the tectonostratigraphic units in offshore North Sinai
Tectonosequence Age
thickness (ms)
TS5 Pliocene – Pleistocene
TS4 Miocene
TS3 Palaeocene – Late Oligocene
TS2 Campanian –Maastrichtian
TS1 Late Jurassic – Santonian
local halite deposits that irregularly cover marine
sediments of the Middle to Late Miocene age.
This is linked to the final convergence of the
African and Eurasian plates at the end of the
Miocene, where the Late Messinian records
the closing of the Strait of Gibraltar and the sub-
sequent evaporation of the Mediterranean Basin
(Dolson et al. 2001).
Tectonosequence 5 (Pliocene – Pleistocene)
Tectonosequence 5 is the youngest tectonosequence
in offshore North Sinai and is represented by a
northward-thickening wedge above the TB5. It
increases in thickness from nearly 200 ms along
the present-day shoreline in the south to nearly
2500 ms along the northern edge of the study area
in the north (Figs 5 & 8). Tectonosequence 5 is
characterized as a package of relatively undeformed,
horizontal to gently inclined parallel reflectors
showing moderate to high amplitude and remark-
able lateral continuity (Fig. 5). It exhibits a wedge-
like geometry and displays extensional faulting
with detachment at or near its base. This Neogene
extension was gravity driven with general exten-
sion directions to the NE. It comprises mainly
Nile-derived sediments (marl, shale, and sandstone)
prograding into the Mediterranean Sea.
Evidence for basin inversion in offshore
North Sinai
Tectonic structures
The continental margin of offshore North Sinai is a
unique example of an apparently simply structured
continental margin that, when studied carefully,
TWT Lithology
0 – 2200 Shale and siltstone with sandstone
intercalations
400– 600 Shale, mudstone and siltstone with
intercalations of sandstone and
minor limestone interbeds
Evaporites of restricted realm
700– 1000 Dark grey to dark green, locally
pyritic or glauconitic shale
Shallow shelf limestone with few
dolomite streaks
0 – 500 Shallow shelf carbonates
1500– 2000 Dark coloured shale, occasionally
highly calcareous, with interbeds
of sand, sandstone and minor
streaks of dolomitic limestone
displays complex structural patterns owing to resur-
gent and superimposed tectonic activity from the
Early Mesozoic to Recent. Detailed study of seis-
mic data interpreted with recently acquired gravity
and magnetic data, revealed structural deforma-
tion represented by large buried inversion anticlines
that played an important role in the geological
history and the hydrocarbon potential of the area.
The interpretation of different tectonics structures
in the area is given in the following paragraphs.
Mango structure. The Mango structure is a 24-km
long, ENE-oriented (Fig. 10d), doubly plunging
anticline with a relatively steep northwestern flank
and breached crest. Three wells have been drilled
to test the potential of the Lower Cretaceous sand-
stones and Upper Cretaceous to Eocene carbonates
in this structure. The Lower Cretaceous succession
is conformable, with the overlying and underlying
sequences downdip in the southern flank and the
severe erosion at the crestal part of the structure
was not observed downdip in the southern flank. The
stratigraphic succession, between the Top Jurassic
and Top Santonian represented by tectonosequence
1, shows an increase in thickness towards the main
bounding fault indicating normal slip on that fault
during Jurassic – Santonian time. On the other
hand, tectonosequences 2 and 3 are progressively
onlapping the northward uprising tectonosequence
1. The east-northeasterly orientation of the Mango
doubly plunging anticline, as with other inverted
structures of offshore North Sinai, resulted from
inversion-related folding over a deep-seated ENE-
oriented fault. Minor NW-oriented normal faults
(Fig. 10b) on the northeastern side of the doubly
plunging anticline indicate lengthening in the
NE– SW direction, as elsewhere in offshore and
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STRUCTURE AND TECTONICS OF OFFSHORE NORTH SINAI, EGYPT 71

Fig. 5. 2D seismic section through the Mango structure, offshore North Sinai (see location in Fig. 2). Fault-controlled
subsidence in the offshore North Sinai basin resulted in growth of the Upper Jurassic– Santonian TS1 towards the
Mango structure main bounding Fault. Later inversion formed the asymmetrical anticline affecting the TS1– TS4.
TB1–TB5 refer to tectonosequence boundaries 1 –5.

onshore North Sinai (Moustafa & Khalil 1989;
Abd-Allah et al. 2004).
Goliath structure. The Goliath structure is a 20-km
long, NNE-oriented (Fig. 10d), doubly plunging
anticline with a relatively steep NW flank on the
northeastern side of the area of study (Fig. 9a).
Goliath-1 well was drilled on the crest of the struc-
ture and indicated a major stratigraphic break
between the Coniacian– Maastrichtian carbonates
and the underlying Lower Albian clastics of
tectonosequence 1 (Fig. 11a). The Goliath structure
is bounded on the north by a NNE-oriented fault
and, like the Mango structure, it represents an
example of inverted Late Jurassic – Early Cretac-
eous half-graben.
North Sinai 21-1 structure. The North Sinai 21-1
structure is a 20-km long, ENE-oriented
(Fig. 10d), doubly plunging anticline in the central
part of the area of study (Fig. 9a). It has a relatively
steep northwestern flank. The North Sinai 21-1 well
was drilled on the crest of the structure. Updip
thickening of tectonosequence 1 (Fig. 8) was
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72 M. YOUSEF ET AL.
Fig. 6. Tectonostratigraphy of offshore North
Sinai basin.
observed in this structure in addition to an extensive
erosional truncation giving indication of an early
extensional phase during the Late Jurassic to the
Early Cretaceous, followed by a compressional
phase starting from the post-Santonian time. On
the other hand, the overlying tectonosequences 2
and 3 show a rather progressive onlapping on the
crest of the elevated structure.
Ziv structure. The Ziv structure is an 8-km long,
NNE-oriented (Fig. 10d), doubly plunging anticline
with a relatively steep SE flank on the northeastern
side of the area of study (Fig. 9a). Ziv-1 well was
drilled on the crest of the structure and indicated
an increase in thickness of tectonosequence 1
towards the main bounding fault (Fig. 8). The Ziv
structure is bounded on the south by a NNE-oriented
high-angle reverse fault representing an example
of inverted Late Jurassic –Early Cretaceous half
graben. This reverse fault has the same orienta-
tions of the normal fault affecting the Top Jurassic
surface (TB1) (Fig. 10b). Similar onshore obser-
vations were reported by Shata (1959), Al-Far
(1966), Bartov et al. (1980), Jenkins (1990) and
Moustafa (2010).
Tineh structure. The Tineh structure is a 7-km long,
NE-oriented (Fig. 10d), doubly plunging anticline.
Three wells have been drilled to explore and
evaluate the hydrocarbon potential of Oligocene
clastic sequence in this structure. The Tineh-1
well, drilled on the crest of the structure, encoun-
tered significant oil indications in some sand reser-
voirs, interbedded with shales, within the Late
Oligocene section.
Numerous grabens and half grabens formed
during the rifting stage and block tilting recognized
in Israel and Sinai (Bartov et al. 1980), as well as in
northern Egypt (Keely & Wallis 1991) characterize
the Top Jurassic (TB1), Figures 5 and 8. Rose
diagram of the mapped faults (Fig. 10a) indicates
that they are oriented N30–60E.
A few normal faults (Fig. 12) are affecting the
Top Miocene (TB5), which acts as a detachment
surface for such faults to the north of the study
area. A rose diagram of the mapped faults at the
Top Miocene surface (Fig. 10c) indicates that they
are oriented N60 –70E. TB5 is a major erosional
unconformity in the Late Miocene (Fig. 11a, b),
which marks a change in the reflectivity pattern
(Fig. 5) related to the transition from the shale of
tectonosequence 5 (Pliocene–Pleistocene) to the
Messinian evaporite complex of the uppermost
part of tectonosequence 4 (Miocene). This change
is interpreted to be associated with the presence of
Messinian evaporite-bearing series (Vidal et al.
2000). This event is proposed herein to be a tec-
tonically driven event related to late-stage conver-
gence of the African plate against Europe causing
the closure of the Strait of Gibraltar and evapo-
ration of the Mediterranean Sea (Halbouty &
El Baz 1992).
Structural evolution of offshore North Sinai
The North Sinai fold belt (part of the so-called
Syrian Arc system) shows examples of inversion
structures represented by asymmetrical, doubly
plunging anticlines that have thick syn-extension
strata in the core. These inversion anticlines occur
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STRUCTURE AND TECTONICS OF OFFSHORE NORTH SINAI, EGYPT 73

Fig. 7. Time-thickness (isochron) map of offshore North Sinai basin for tectonosequences 1. Contour interval is of
200 ms.

onshore (Fig. 1) and also extend offshore as indi-
cated in the present study (Figs 5, 8 & 11b). In
order to simulate the structural evolution of the
inverted structures in offshore North Sinai,
‘seismic flattening’ was done by Landmark’s
SeisWorks/2D software. This operation allows
simulating the appearance of the strata below the
flattened horizon at the time that horizon was
deposited. Seismic displays before and after the
flatten option have been activated for a Goliath-
inverted structure in the northeastern part of the
area of study, as will be summarized in the follow-
ing sections.
Goliath-inverted structure. The Goliath structure
is a large northeasterly trending anticline (Fig. 9a)

Fig. 8. 2D seismic section through Ziv and North Sinai 21-1 structures, offshore North Sinai, see Figure 2 for location.
TB1–TB5 refer to tectonosequence boundaries 1 –5.
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74 M. YOUSEF ET AL.

Fig. 9. Time-structure maps of offshore North Sinai basin for tectonosequence boundaries 2 and 4 (a and b). Contour
interval is 200 ms.

and has been interpreted as an inversion-related
asymmetrical fold. Because of the onlapping of
the Campanian–Maastrichtian sediments onto the
structure, the main episode of compression is
believed to have occurred in post-Santonian time.
By flattening the top Jurassic horizon (TB 1)
(Fig. 13a), a northwestward thickening Upper
Jurassic section is clear towards a southeasterly
dipping fault, in the form of a half graben, indicating
an extensional phase during that period. This NE–
SW trending fault is bounding the Goliath structure
on the NW (Fig. 9a).
Another stage of extension took place during the
Neocomian time. This is evident from the flattening
of the Top Neocomian horizon (Fig. 13b). More
syn-depositional tilting and thickening of the
Upper Jurassic and Neocomian sections are
obvious towards the same main bounding fault.
Seismic data show that the Early Mesozoic exten-
sional phase, started from the Late Jurassic (and
may be earlier) and continued until the Late
Santonian time. This is also clear from flattening
at the top Santonian horizon (Fig. 13c).
Extension, followed by contraction (Basin
Inversion), is evident from flattening of the top
Cretaceous horizon (TB 3) (Fig. 13d). As a result
of the switch in tectonic mode from extension to
compression, the Goliath half graben becomes a
positive structural feature, with a significant
erosional truncation surface between the Albian
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STRUCTURE AND TECTONICS OF OFFSHORE NORTH SINAI, EGYPT 75

Fig. 10. Rose diagrams showing the trends of subsurface structural elements in the offshore North Sinai basin.

clastics and the Campanian–Maastrichtian carbon-
ates (Fig. 5). The normal fault bounding the NW
side of the Goliath basin was reactivated as a high
angle reverse fault with a switch in depocentres
from growth into the fault to growth away from
the fault, to the SE of the inversion anticline. The
syn-inversion Campanian– Maastrichtian sediments
are progressively onlapping the flanks of the elev-
ated structure, attaining a minimum thickness over
the crest of the elevated structure with gradual
increase in thickness over the flanks (Fig. 13d ).
Figure 13e shows continuation of the compressive
event until the Oligocene time, leading to a continu-
ous uplift of the hanging wall against the footwall
along the main fault.
Flattening at the top Miocene (TB 5) is shown in
Figure 13f. Owing to the reduced connection of the
Mediterranean basin with the world oceans during
that time, an unconformity that irregularly cuts
down into the underlying successions resulted due
to the onset of the Messinian Salinity Crisis. Flatten-
ing such surface would only reflect the magnitude of
erosion and its inflected topography on the under-
lying successions (Ayyad 1997). An indication of
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76 M. YOUSEF ET AL.

Fig. 11. Seismic sections through the Goliath structure (a) and the south Tineh area (b), see Figure 2 for location.
The Top Neocomian is not shown in the footwall of the fault of section (a) owing to bad seismic resolution.
TB1– TB5 refer to tectonosequence boundaries 1 –5.

Early Miocene gentle folding is evident from
southern Tineh area (Fig. 11b).
Timing of deformation. Most of the mapped struc-
tures in offshore North Sinai are located within
five NE-oriented inverted structures, whereas the
intervening areas are undeformed or only slightly
deformed. The five inverted structures are con-
trolled by major deep-seated reverse faults.
Three phases of structural deformation affected
the Mesozoic –Cenozoic succession in the study
area and led to the development of the mapped
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STRUCTURE AND TECTONICS OF OFFSHORE NORTH SINAI, EGYPT
Fig. 12. 2D seismic section showing growth extensional faults affecting tectonosequences 4 and 5, see Figure 2
for location.
structures. These are Late Jurassic to Early Cretac-
eous, post-Santonian to Middle Miocene, and
Neogene. Dating of the post-Santonian deformation
is based on the presence of a stratigraphic gap and
progressive onlapping between the Campanian–
Maastrichtian carbonates and older rocks in the
Goliath-1 well. Additional data from the Mango
structure constrain the age of this phase of defor-
mation. At that locality, the progressive onlap
within tectonosequence 2 onto growing anticlines
marks the climax of the basin inversion in northern
Egypt. Basin inversion continued during and after
the deposition of the Paleocene to Langhian
(Middle Miocene) rocks, but its effect can only be
seen in close vicinity of the basin-bounding faults.
The third phase of deformation is contemporaneous
with Neogene regional subsidence of the shelf
margin offshore North Sinai.
Jurassic–Early Cretaceous rifting. The earliest
phase of deformation is represented by rifting in
the area of the eastern Mediterranean Basin. It is
mostly considered to be of Late Triassic age
(Robertson 1998; Guiraud & Bosworth 1999;
Garfunkel 2004). In the Western Desert and North
Sinai, owing possibly to the lack of information
about the Triassic, rare data suggest that significant
extension and associated basin subsidence began
during Jurassic time (Moustafa et al. 1998). Tec-
tonic deformation was registered along most of
northern and Central Africa basins, around the
77
Jurassic –Cretaceous transition times (Guiraud
et al. 2005). Frequent uplift and block-tilting, some-
times accompanied by slight folding, occurred along
the northern Egyptian margin and the Levant
(Guiraud 1998; Le Roy et al. 1998; Coward &
Ries 2003). These deformations, underlined by
hiatuses in the series and unconformities, represent
the distant effects of stronger tectonic activity that
occurred in southeastern Europe, referred to as
the ‘Cimmerian’ or ‘Berriasian’ orogenic event
(Nikishin et al. 2001; Stampfli et al. 2001). It led
to the development of ENE-oriented basins
bounded by major normal faults of the same orien-
tation and they have half graben geometry with a
northward tilt toward the boundary faults.
Detailed seismic interpretation of key tectonic
events in the present study has indicated that the
Jurassic –Cretaceous rifting took place in several
pulses:
† Late Jurassic;
† Neocomian;
† Aptian –Santonian.
Post-Santonian–Middle Miocene basin inver-
sion. Basin inversion in the offshore North Sinai
started in the post-Santonian time and proceeded
by the reverse reactivation of the NE-trending
extensional faults (Yousef et al. 2006). These are
the same old faults that had normal slip during the
early rifting phase. The unconformity detected at
the contact between the tectonosequences 1 and 2
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78 M. YOUSEF ET AL.

Fig. 13. 2D seismic sections through the Goliath structure (refer to Fig. 11a), flattened on (a) top Jurassic (TB1), (b) top
Neocomian and (c) top Santonian (TB2).

marks the start of basin inversion in the area of
study. In most of the study area, it was concluded
that basin inversion continued during and after the
deposition of the Palaeocene to Oligocene rocks,
but its effect can only be seen in close vicinity of
the inversion anticlines. Continued folding of the
Cenozoic rocks up to the top Langhian (Fig. 11b)
indicates that convergence leading to positive
inversion in the area continued till that time. It
also indicates continuation of closure of the
Neotethys till that time.
In the northern Western Desert, basin inversion
started in the Late Cretaceous and probably pro-
ceeded by way of oblique-slip reactivation of old
NE-oriented basin-bounding faults (Sultan &
Halim 1988; Bosworth et al. 1999).
Neogene extension. During the Neogene time,
post-Middle Miocene sediments were deposited,
onlapping the northward-subsiding shelf margin as
a result of a regional subsidence of the North Sinai
passive margin. Several NW-oriented normal
faults with small throws cut tectonosequences 4
and 5 (Neogene) in the study area (Fig. 12). They
were formed in response to gravity driven extension
in Miocene and post-Miocene times.
Discussion
Basin development and inversion
The development of the Mesozoic ENE –NE
oriented rift basins in Egypt is probably related to
the rifting between North Africa-Arabia and
Eurasia (Biju-Duval et al. 1979; Argyriadis et al.
1980; Garfunkel & Derin 1984; Dercourt et al.
1986; Mart 1987) when small continental blocks
drifted away from North Africa (Robertson &
Dixon 1984) during the opening of the Neotethys
and the formation of a passive continental margin
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STRUCTURE AND TECTONICS OF OFFSHORE NORTH SINAI, EGYPT 79

Fig. 13. (Continued) (d) top Cretaceous (TB3), (e) top Oligocene (TB4) and (f) top Miocene (TB5).
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Pennsylvania State University on September 15, 2016
80 M. YOUSEF ET AL.
in northern Egypt and eastern Mediterranean
(Moustafa & Khalil 1988, 1989; Cohen et al.
1990; May 1991; Keeley 1994; Guiraud 1998;
Moustafa et al. 1998; Ayyad et al. 1998). This
phase of rifting was accompanied by alkaline volca-
nic activity that was reported in different parts in
Egypt, for example, Gebel Arif en-Naqa and Um
Bogma in Central Sinai (Weissbrod 1969; Bartov
et al. 1980; Meneisy 1986), south Eastern Desert
(Serencsits et al. 1979), and north Western Desert
(El Shazly 1977). But in the study area of offshore
North Sinai and its vicinity no volcanic activity
related to such rifting event has been recorded.
The inversion of the Early Mesozoic basins in
North Sinai is related to the convergence between
Africa-Arabia and Eurasia, during the closure of
the Neotethys (Smith 1971; Moustafa & Khalil
1989; Moustafa et al. 1991, 1998; Moustafa &
Khalil 1994, 1995; Guiraud & Bosworth 1997).
The study of the Atlantic spreading data revealed
that Africa-Arabia moved WNW relative to
Eurasia during this event (Smith 1971). This was
also synchronous with the obduction of the ophio-
lites along the northern and northeastern margins
of Arabia, the onset of separation of India and
Madagascar, and the development of the European
Alpine Chain (Guiraud & Bosworth 1997).
Fold development and mechanism of
basin inversion
The type of deformation of the Syrian Arc System,
including offshore North Sinai, was attributed by
many authors to thin-skinned tectonic deformation
(e.g. Chaimov et al. 1990, 1992, 1993; McBride
et al. 1990; Al-Saad et al. 1992; Abdel Aal &
Lelek 1994; Guiraud & Bosworth 1997; Bosworth
et al. 1999). Although Searle (1994) does not
accept this type of deformation, he relates the
system to disharmonic folding in the Mesozoic
sediments above Triassic evaporites with no major
regional thrust. This diversity in the interpretation
of the origin of the Syrian Arc folds is probably
related to the different studied portions of the
Syrian Arc System by different investigators, in
addition to the little subsurface data on these folds.
On the other hand, the origin of the folds within this
system was considered by most authors as thrust-
related folds. These folds were interpreted differ-
ently from one area to another. They are considered
as drape folds over reverse faults (Moustafa &
Khalil 1989) or over thrust faults (Abdel Aal &
Lelek 1994), fault-bend folds (Chaimov et al.
1992, 1993; Abdel Aal & Lelek 1994; Salel &
Séguert 1994), forced push-up folds (Moustafa &
Yousif 1990; Abdel Aal & Lelek 1994; Moustafa
et al. 1998), fault-propagation folds (Salel &
Séguert 1994; Moustafa & Khalil 1995), and detach-
ment folds (Abdel Aal & Lelek 1994; Salel &
Séguert 1994).
The term positive inversion refers to a switch in
tectonic mode from extension to contraction,
whereas the term negative inversion refers to a
switch from contraction to extension (Williams
et al. 1989). In positive inversion extensional
basins are contracted and become regions of posi-
tive structural relief (McClay 1995). In these
basins, pre-existing extensional faults are reacti-
vated by reverse slip (Cooper & Williams 1989).
Reactivation might affect isolated extensional
faults within the basin or all major faults. Syn-
inversion sedimentation over reactivated faults
produce growth anticlines that are characteristic of
positive structural inversion (McClay 1995).
Inversion-related folding, in the area of study, is
represented by fault-propagation folds with steep
forelimbs and gently dipping back limbs. Fault-
propagation folding occurs when a propagating
fault loses slip and terminates upsection by transfer-
ring its shortening to a fold developing at its tip
(Mitra 1990). No intra-basin faults have been
evolved and this could be due to the pre-existing
structures, with localization of strain and fault
lengths as inherited by updip propagation from the
pre-existing fabric (Walsh et al. 2002; Paton
2006). The folding and faulting are synchronous
as indicated by the studies of Jamison (1987) and
Mitra (1990) in other study areas.
Inversion is dependent on pre-existing basin con-
figuration in the initial subsidence, usually exten-
sional phase, and the resolution of compressional
forces in the later shortening phase (Lowell 1995).
However, deformational forces responsible for
inversion are oriented from 0–908 to the pre-
existing basin-bounding faults. The zero direction
is pure strike– slip that is not favourable in effecting
inversion. Clay model experiments (Lowell 1985)
show that pure strike–slip superposed on an earlier
normal fault fabric is simply resolved as horizontal
slip on the old normal fault surfaces with little
to no evidence of the compressional component of
strike –slip. Compression at 908 to existing struc-
tures should be highly effective in inversion
(Letouzey et al. 1990). The offshore North Sinai is
a prime example of compression-dominant inver-
sion. During the closure of the Tethys, which resulted
because of the convergence of the African-Arabian
plate and the Eurasian plate (Olivet et al. 1984)
in post-Santonian time, NW– SE oriented com-
pression inverted the NE–SW trending Late
Jurassic –Early Cretaceous half grabens (Yousef
et al. 2006); Figure 9a. This is further evidenced by
reactivation of the older normal faults and possibly
creation of new thrusts, so that several kilometres
of thrust overlap occurred NE of el-Arish City.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Pennsylvania State University on September 15, 2016
STRUCTURE AND TECTONICS OF OFFSHORE NORTH SINAI, EGYPT
Conclusions
Five regional unconformities were observed and
mapped on seismic sections in the study area.
These tectonosequence boundaries (TB1 to TB5)
reflect major changes in regional tectonic settings.
Most of the mapped structures in offshore North
Sinai are located within five NE-oriented inverted
structures, whereas the intervening areas are un-
deformed or only slightly deformed. The inverted
structures are controlled by major deep-seated
reverse faults with doubly plunging anticlines
in which there is thick syn-extensional strata in
the core. Similar inversion anticlines also occur
onshore (Moon & Sadek 1921; Sadek 1928; Shata
1959; Bartov et al. 1980; Moustafa & Khalil 1994).
The inversion structures, in offshore North Sinai,
are characterized by fault-propagation folds with
steep frontal limbs and gently dipping back limbs.
Five tectonosequences (TS1 to TS5) related to
the main deformational events are recognized: (a)
Upper Jurassic –Santonian syn-rift tectonosequence
(TS1); (b) Upper Santonian–Upper Cretaceous
compressional tectonosequence (TS2) deposited
contemporaneously in the synforms developed
between rising antiforms; (c) Paleocene –Upper
Oligocene compressional tectonosequence (TS3) is
also associated with the folding event, but with a
magnitude less than that of tectonosequence 2; (d)
northward thickening Miocene tectonosequence
(TS4); (e) wedge-like Pliocene-Pleistocene tectono-
sequence (TS5), which displays extensional faulting
with a detachment near its base. Tectonosequence
boundaries (TB1 to TB5) are regional unconformi-
ties reflecting major changes in regional tectonic
setting. TB1 corresponds to rifting and block
tilting that started during the Jurassic or earlier in
North Sinai. TB2 corresponds to the end of this
rifting phase. TB3 and TB4 correspond to major
regional unconformities, denoting a continuous
compressional tectonic event in offshore North
Sinai till Langhian (Middle Miocene) time. TB5
corresponds to an erosional unconformity in the
Late Miocene, culminating with the Messinian
crisis at 6.7 Ma.
Three phases of structural deformation affected
the Mesozoic –Cenozoic succession in offshore
North Sinai. Phase 1 is a Jurassic to Early Cretac-
eous rifting phase, which has been indicated in
this study to have taken place in several pulses
during the Late Jurassic, Neocomian, and Aptian-
Santonian times. Phase 2 is a post-Santonian to
Middle Miocene inversion phase, and Phase 3
represents the Neogene extension phase.
BP Egypt is thanked for providing the 2D seismic and well
data, hardware and software, and for giving permission to
publish this paper. We are grateful to P. Bentham and
J. Cotton (BP Egypt), for fruitful discussions regarding
81
the tectonic evolution of offshore North Sinai. M. B.
Longacre, M. Hakim and T. Bevan from BP Egypt are
also gratefully acknowledged. We would like to thank C.
Homberg (Pierre and Marie Curie University), D. Paton
and an anonymous referee for constructive comments
that improved the manuscript.
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