Extensional Fault-Bend Folding and Synrift Deposition: An Example from the

Central Sumatra Basin, Indonesia*

John H. Shaw1, Stephen C. Hook1, and Edward P. Sitohang2
Search and Discovery Article #40004 (1999)
1
2

Texaco Exploration and Production Technology Dept., 3901 Briarpark, Houston, Texas 77042.
PT CALTEX Pacific Indonesia, Rumbai, Pekanbaru 28271, Indonesia.

* Published in AAPG Bulletin, V. 81, No. 3 (March 1997), P. 367-379; Figures 2,4, and 10 revised for online
presentation.

Abstract
We describe an analytical method for interpreting the geometry and structural history of
asymmetric half grabens in rift basins with extensional fault-bend fold theory. Using seismic
reflection profiles from the Central Sumatra basin and balanced forward models, we show how
local variations in tectonic subsidence relative to deposition rates yield distinctive patterns of
folded synrift strata and unconformities that record basin history. If the deposition rate exceeds
the local subsidence rate, folded growth strata form upwardly narrowing kink bands that have
been described previously as growth triangles. In contrast, if the deposition rate is less than or
equals the local subsidence rate, growth strata are folded and truncated at the surface on halfgraben margins. Subsequent increases in deposition rate relative to subsidence rate form angular
unconformities near the half-graben margins. These unconformities develop without the
necessity of erosion and are folded by continuing fault slip. Strata above and below the
unconformities are concordant in the deeper parts of the half grabens. Thus, angular
unconformities on half-graben margins are helpful for defining sequence boundaries that may
reflect changes in deposition and tectonic subsidence rates. In addition, fault-bend fold
interpretations yield fault geometry and measures of horizontal extension, both of which control
three-dimensional half-graben geometry and accommodation space. We show how along-strike
variations in fault geometry produce intrabasinal structures that may form prospective fairways
or local depocenters.
Introduction
Half grabens form during crustal extension that is accommodated by normal faults, which
commonly flatten with depth, causing collapse of the hanging wall and formation of inclined
rollover panels (Hamblin, 1965). Many workers have presented geometric and physical models
of hanging-wall collapse along vertical or steeply dipping shear surfaces (e.g., Gibbs, 1983;
Jackson and Galloway, 1984; White et al., 1986; Rowan and Kligfield, 1989; Groshong, 1990;
Nunns, 1991; White and Yielding, 1991; Withjack et al., 1995), including Coulomb shear along
active fold hinges (Xiao and Suppe, 1992). The theory of Xiao and Suppe (1992) described how
these active fold hinges, called active axial surfaces, are pinned at depth to fault bends and
extend upward through prerift and synrift sections. As strata pass through these active axial
surfaces due to fault slip, they are deformed into kink bands or inclined rollover panels. In areas
of continuously curved or listric normal faults, where fault geometry can be strongly affected by

sedimentary compaction, hanging-wall shear is generally distributed throughout the hanging-wall

block (Figure 1A). Typically, syntectonic hanging-wall strata thicken gradually and fan toward
the fault. In contrast, slip along normal faults composed of two or more planar segments
produces hanging-wall shear along discrete axial surfaces related to fault bends (Figure 1B).
Above faults composed of planar segments, rollovers are composed of planar segments, and
growth strata thicken abruptly toward the fault above rollover panels.
We present examples from Indonesia of
extensional fault-bend folds above faults
composed of roughly planar segments in
which discrete axial surfaces are consistent
with rollover formation by Coulomb collapse
(Xiao and Suppe, 1992). We use Xiao and
Suppe's (1992) theory to interpret the
geometry and kinematic history of these
structures, thus contributing a welldocumented example of an extensional faultbend fold in a basement-involved rift system
with lacustrine strata. This structural and
depositional environment contrasts with the
gravity-driven normal faults and dominantly
marine sediments of the Gulf Coast margin,
thus establishing a broader applicability for
extensional fault-bend fold theory (Xiao and
Figure 1 (A) Broadly curved rollover panel above a listric normal
Suppe, 1992). In addition, we explore the
fault (from Xiao and Suppe, 1992). (B) Planar rollover panels above a
normal fault that is composed of planar segments. Rollover panels are effects of extensional fault-bend folding on
bounded on the left by active axial surfaces, which are pinned to fault
patterns of synrift strata where deposits both
bends.
overfill and underfill the developing
accommodation space.
Patterns of folded synrift strata and unconformities record ratios of deposition relative to
tectonic subsidence rates and are used to model basin development. Finally, we show how
measures of horizontal extension and fault geometry derived in the fault-bend folding
analysis can be used to infer three-dimensional basin architecture.
Extensional Fault-Bend Folding
Purely rigid-block translation of the hanging wall over a normal fault that flattens with depth
produces a large void between fault blocks that cannot be supported at depth. Collapse of
hanging walls into these voids forms inclined fold limbs or "rollovers" above nonplanar faults
(Hamblin, 1965); these rollovers have been observed in rift basins worldwide (e.g., Bally, 1983;
James, 1984; Nunns, 1991). Xiao and Suppe (1992) modeled this hanging-wall collapse by
Coulomb shear along inclined axial surfaces (Figure 2). During progressive fault slip, the
hanging wall is sheared through active axial surfaces that are pinned to bends in the fault.
This hanging-wall shear along active axial
is often accommodated in rocks and

Figure 2 Extensional fault-bend fold models developed above a

surfaces
normal fault that flattens with depth (after Xiao and Suppe, 1992). (A)

Incipient fault with a concave-upward bend; (B) antithetic hangingwall rollover panel developed by shearing along the active axial
surface in response to fault slip; (C) additional fault slip widens the
rollover panel, which narrows upward into syntectonic (growth)
strata forming a growth triangle. Growth strata deposited in the
hanging-wall block are thickest above the more inclined fault
segment.

analog models by secondary faults that form

above bends in the master normal fault and are
translated away from these bends by slip on
the underlying detachment (Dula, 1991;
McClay and Scott, 1991; Xiao and Suppe,
1992; Withjack et al., 1995). Above concaveupward fault bends where the dip of the fault
lessens with depth, rollover panels and active
axial surfaces are generally oriented antithetic
to the master fault (Figure 2) (Xiao and Suppe,
1992). Rollover panels are bounded by active
axial surfaces and by parallel inactive axial
surfaces, which mark the rocks that were
initially along the active axial surface prior to
fault slip.
During progressive fault slip, inactive axial surfaces are translated away from active axial
surfaces and, thus, intervening rollover panels widen as fault slip increases (Figure 2).
The geometries of normal faults and associated rollover panels control the size and shape of
accommodation spaces in half grabens where sediments can be deposited. Hanging-wall
subsidence induced by fault slip produces an accommodation space in the half graben, which is
defined by the maximum structural relief of the top pregrowth horizon between hanging-wall and
footwall blocks (Figure 3A). In situations where sediments evenly fill or overfill this
accommodation space above a single normal fault that flattens with depth, synrift strata are
thickest above the most inclined fault segments and thin in the direction that the fault shallows
(Figure 2). If normal faults are composed of two or more planar segments, separate
compartments develop above each fault segment in the half grabens (Figure 3B). Compartments
are separated from each other by active axial surfaces that are pinned to fault bends. Each halfgraben compartment has a distinct subsidence rate that is controlled by the dip of the underlying
fault segment.The rollover accommodation space is defined by the structural relief across a
rollover panel, which represents the maximum structural relief between adjacent half-graben
compartments (Figure 3B).

Figure 3 Extensional fault-bend fold models showing basin

compartments and accommodation spaces developed above normal
faults that flatten with depth. (A) Half-graben accommodation
space is the area defined by the maximum structural relief of the
top pregrowth horizon between hanging-wall and footwall blocks
and the half-graben shape. (B) Hanging-wall compartments 1 and 2
correspond to the two segments of the underlying fault and are
separated by the active axial surface, which is pinned to the fault
bend. Each basin compartment has its own subsidence rate induced
by fault slip that is controlled by the dip of the underlying fault
segment. The rollover accommodation space is the area defined by
the maximum structural relief between adjacent compartments
and the half-graben shape.

If sediments are coevally deposited in adjacent compartments (i.e., sediments are deposited
on both sides of an active axial surface), sediments overfill the rollover accommodation
space (see Figure 4C, compartments 1 and 2). Due to differences in subsidence rate and
rollover accommodation space, deposition rates and strata thicknesses typically change
between adjacent half-graben compartments. During progressive fault slip, however, strata
are translated between compartments as they migrate through active axial surfaces. In
addition to this translation, strata are folded around active axial surfaces and incorporated
into kink bands or rollover panels that widen with progressive fault slip. Rollover widths of
growth strata reflect the amount of fault slip that has occurred since their deposition.
Sediments deposited early in the rift history, therefore, record wider rollover widths than do
sediments deposited later. As a result, these syntectonic strata form upwardly narrowing
rollover panels called growth triangles (Figure 4) (Xiao and Suppe, 1992).Growth triangles
are bounded by active axial surfaces and inactive axial surfaces in growth strata, which are
called growth axial surfaces. Growth axial surfaces record the positions of sediments
initially deposited along active axial surfaces and, therefore, record paleoboundaries
between adjacent half-graben compartments. As a result of different subsidence and
deposition rates between compartments, strata abruptly change thickness across growth
axial surfaces (Figure 4).
Figure 4 Sequential models (A-D) of half-graben development above
a normal fault that flattens to horizontal through two bends. In (B)
and (C), growth strata slightly underfill the half-graben
accommodation space and are folded by active axial surfaces (green
dashed lines). Growth sediments are deposited in compartments 1
and 2, and form a distinct growth triangle above rollover panel 1.
However, in (B) and (C), sediments are not deposited in
compartment 3; growth strata in compartment 3 have been folded
and translated to their present positions and crop out at the surface.
In (D), growth strata overfill the half-graben accommodation space,
forming an angular unconformity above rollover panel 2 in
compartment 3; however, strata above and below the unconformity
become concordant in the deeper parts of the basin.

Note that the growth axial surface above rollover panel 1 dips more
steeply in strata that overfilled the half-graben accommodation
space and dips more gently in strata that slightly underfilled the
half-graben accommodation space.

In contrast, where sediments underfill or exactly fill the rollover accommodation space, other
fold geometries result (see Figure 4C, compartments 2 and 3). Under these conditions, deposition

is confined to the more rapidly subsiding compartment 2, which is separated from the adjacent
compartment 3 by an active axial surface (Figure 4). Growth strata deposited in the more rapidly
subsiding compartment 2, however, are translated into the adjacent compartment 3 due to
horizontal motion of the hanging wall; this motion is induced by fault slip. As these growth strata
are sheared through the active axial surface, they are folded into the rollover panel and crop out
in angular fashion at the surface. Although subsequent erosion may further alter the geometry of
growth strata at the surface, the angular exposure is initially developed by folding and translation
of strata into areas of nondeposition. Subsequent deposition of either postrift or synrift sediments
above the truncated growth strata generates an angular unconformity. Typically, angular
unconformities are interpreted to reflect distinct periods of deformation, erosion, and then
deposition; however, the growth fault-bend fold models in Figure 4 demonstrate that angular
unconformities can develop in half grabens without erosion or a hiatus in deformation due to
increases in deposition rate relative to subsidence rate, where half-graben compartments change
from sediment-underfilled to overfilled conditions. In Figure 4D, strata both above and below the
angular unconformity are syntectonic and become concordant in the deeper parts of the half
graben.
Examples from the Central Sumatra Basin
Figure 5 Map showing the location of
the Central Sumatra basin on the
Island of Sumatra, Indonesia.

In the Central Sumatra basin (Figure 5), growth triangles and unconformities, similar to those
generated in our fault-bend fold models, are observed in seismic images of Tertiary lacustrine,
fluvial, and marine strata (Figure 6). Using a trough in Central Sumatra as an example for our
model, we interpret the structural geometry and history of half grabens as extensional fault-bend
folds. Distinct axial surfaces separating inclined from near-horizontal strata in this basin (Figure
6) suggest that the underlying normal faults are composed of planar segments. Furthermore, the
migrated seismic reflection profiles in Figure 6 image strata above and below the angular
unconformities that become concordant toward the center of the troughs. Based on extensional

fault-bend fold models (Figure 4), these lateral changes from discordant to concordant strata
suggest significant increases in deposition rates relative to subsidence rates through time.
Collectively, these patterns of folded strata enable us to decipher the structural and depositional
history of these half grabens using extensional fault-bend fold theory (Xiao and Suppe, 1992).

Figure 6 Examples of growth triangles and angular unconformities in half grabens that are imaged in migrated seismic reflection profiles from the
Central Sumatra basin. Similar growth triangles and unconformities are modeled in Figure 4 and are used to decipher the underlying fault
geometry and structural history of the basin. Note how strata above the angular unconformities in the east become concordant to the west in the
deeper parts of the half grabens. Datum (0 km) is sea level.

The migrated seismic reflection profile in Figure 7 , which is displayed in depth, images a half
graben in the Central Sumatra basin where Oligocene strata thicken westward above an eastdipping normal fault that is locally defined by a prominent fault-plane reflection. In the
uppermost part of the synrift section, at least three axial surfaces separate horizontal strata on the
left (west) from inclined strata in rollover panels on the right (east) (Figure 7B). In the
extensional fault-bend fold models (Figure 4), the steeply dipping axial surfaces that deform the
synrift section are pinned at depth to bends in the basin-forming normal fault. Therefore, we
interpret these fold hinges in Figure 7 as active axial surfaces that are each pinned at depth to a
discrete bend in the underlying normal fault. Active axial surfaces are best located by identifying
changes in the dip of reflections in the uppermost growth sequences (Figures 6, 7). These dip
changes should be consistent with the sense of simple shear induced by the fault bend. For the
concave-upward fault shapes described here, the bed dip should be antithetic to the fault dip and
should steepen in the direction that the fault deepens. Alternatively, convex-upward fault bends
may yield panels that are synthetic to the fault dip (Xiao and Suppe, 1992). In Figure 7, we

extended the westernmost active axial surface downward through fold hinges and used this
orientation, which likely reflects the Coulomb shear angle (Xiao and Suppe, 1992), to help
define the other, more poorly imaged axial surfaces. In other cases, fold hinges may be more
curved and less discrete if the fault bends also are curved. Thus, a range of axial surface dips
(inclined shear orientations) should be tested (e.g., White et al., 1986; Groshong, 1990).
Moreover, subtle dip changes in rollover panels are generally produced from subtle changes in
fault dip or other processes (e.g., differential compaction), and the interpreter must decide upon
the appropriate resolution of structural dip changes.
Only one segment of the fault is defined by a
fault-plane reflection on the seismic profile in
Figure 7; the adjacent fault segments are not
imaged. The dips of the folded strata, the
imaged fault segment, and the axial surfaces,
however, can be used to predict the complete
fault shape (Groshong, 1990; Dula, 1991;
Xiao and Suppe, 1992). In extensional faultbend folds, the magnitude of deflection of
strata in a rollover panel is equal to the
magnitude of fault deflection over the same
width measured along the hanging-wall shear
(axial surface) orientation (Figure 8). In
Figure 8, reflections define an axial surface
dip of 66W and a bed dip of approximately
15W in the westernmost rollover panel.
Basing our prediction on the direction and
magnitude of deflection of strata in the kink
band, we believe that the fault steepens to a
dip of about 39E in the region west of the
fault-plane reflection. Similar analyses for the
remaining fault segments yield the entire fault
trace on the seismic profile (Figure 7B).
Along YY' in Figure 7, the fault consists of
several segments that generally flatten with
depth to a near-horizontal detachment.

Figure 8 Fault geometry derived from rollover shape. Enlarged

portion of the seismic line in Figure 7 annotated with a folded horizon,
an active axial surface, and the lower fault segment (solid red line)
based on fault-plane reflections (see Figure 7A). The dip of the upper
fault segment (dashed red line) is derived from the rollover geometry.
The deflection of the folded horizon (1), measured at a distance (L)
along a line parallel to the
hanging-wall shear (axial surface) orientation, equals the deflection of
the fault (2) along the same line. Depth is below sea level; horizontal
scale equals vertical scale.

By identifying active axial surfaces and determining fault geometry, we have defined two basic
geometric elements of extensional fault-bend folds. Also significant, however, are the positions
of inactive axial surfaces, which define the widths of rollover panels. In Figure 7, inactive axial
surfaces in synrift section (growth axial surfaces) are readily observed in the uppermost synrift
section because they bound dip domains of growth triangles. In contrast, the positions of inactive
axial surface in pregrowth or basement sections are not as apparent. A fundamental relation
between kink-band width and fault slip, however, enables us to define the positions of inactive
axial surfaces. In extensional fault-bend folds above a single normal fault that flattens with
depth, the true widths of all antithetic kink bands or rollover panels are the same (Figure 9). This
kink-band width is a measure of horizontal extension and records the offset of any pregrowth

horizon measured between lines parallel to the hanging-wall shear (axial surface) orientation that
are pinned to correlative hanging-wall and footwall cutoffs (Figure 9). In the example from the
Central Sumatra basin (Figure 7), we define the fault offset of the top pregrowth (basement)
horizon based on the fault shape and reflections tied from well control. Based on the fault-bend
fold models, this fault offset measured between lines parallel to the hanging-wall shear
orientation equals the width of all antithetic kink bands developed in the half graben. Therefore,
the offset of the top basement horizon across the normal fault in Figure 7 can be used to define
the positions of inactive axial surfaces in the rest of the half graben.

Figure 9 An extensional fault-bend fold model with two rollover panels developed above bends in a normal fault that flattens to a horizontal
detachment. The widths of both rollover panels are the same and are equal to the horizontal extension on the detachment, although slip on each
fault segment varies slightly based on fault dip. Rollover widths are also equal to the horizontal offset of any pregrowth horizon (e.g., bed X)
across the fault measured between hanging-wall and footwall cutoffs projected along the hanging-wall shear (axial surface) orientation.

The recognition of axial surface shapes and positions in growth and pregrowth sections, along
with the determination of fault geometry, describes the trough imaged in Figure 7 as a half
graben developed by extensional fault-bend folding. Proper application of fault-bend folding
theories yields area-balanced and retrodeformable interpretations (Suppe, 1983; Xiao and Suppe,
1992). Retrodeformable sections can be kinematically restored to a reasonable, predeformation
state without changes in rock area. To demonstrate the internal consistency of the interpretation
in Figure 7B, we generate a balanced-forward model of the trough in Figure 10 using the fault
geometry, compacted stratigraphic thicknesses, and shear (axial surface) orientation observed in
the seismic profile. The retrodeformable model conserves rock area, avoids gaps between fault
surfaces by shear along active axial surfaces, and forms rollover panels that have widths related
to fault slip. The final stage of the model in Figure 10 depicts all the major structural elements of
the trough imaged in Figure 7, including the shape of the graben, the three growth triangles, and
the angular unconformity between Pematang and Sihapas strata. The consistency between the
geometries of the reflections and interpretation in Figure 7B and the final model in Figure 10
indicates that our interpretation of the trough as an extensional fault-bend fold is internally
consistent and viable.
The first stage of the sequential forward model in
Figure 10 depicts the incipient normal fault and
active axial surfaces prior to fault slip. Each stage
includes deposition of a major stratigraphic unit
with fault slip recorded by the width of the folded
synrift strata. In the second through fourth stages,

Figure 10 Sequential, kinematic models of the development of the

trough imaged in Figure 7. Fault geometry, shear (axial surface)
orientation, and compacted stratigraphic thicknesses were taken
from Figure 7B and used to construct these forward models. The
initial stage represents basement geometry prior to rifting, and
subsequent model stages represent the structural and
stratigraphic geometries of the trough at the end of deposition of a

The final model (stage 5) depicts folded syntectonic

Pematang synrift strata are generally confined to the formation.
sediment patterns (growth triangles and an unconformity) similar
trough and alternatively fill and slightly underfill the to those observed and interpreted on the seismic profile in Figure
half-graben accommodation space. In the final stage 7.
of Figure 10, lowermost Sihapas synrift strata are
deposited everywhere and overfill the half-graben
accommodation space. This change from underfilled
to overfilled conditions implies an increase in
deposition rate relative to subsidence rate between
Pematang and Sihapas sections.

This increase generates an angular unconformity on the basin margin even though strata above
and below the unconformity become concordant in the deeper part of the trough. In addition, the
dips of the growth axial surfaces reflect this ratio of deposition rate relative to subsidence rate. In
the Pematang section, which had a relatively low deposition rate relative to subsidence rate, the
growth axial surface has a shallow dip (Figure 7). In contrast, the growth axial surface dips more
steeply in the lowermost Sihapas section, which had a higher rate of deposition relative to
subsidence rate.
The trough imaged in Figure 7 is one of several Tertiary half grabens in the Central Sumatra
basin that share a similar structural history (Eubank and Makki, 1981; Heidrick and Aulia, 1993).
Our interpretation and modeling of the trough imaged in Figure 7 as an extensional fault-bend
fold has important implications for the structural and depositional histories of the basin. We
conclude that the master normal fault in the trough flattens with depth and soles to nearhorizontal detachment. The growth triangles imaged on the seismic profiles are consistent with
deposition of the lacustrine and fluvial Pematang Group during formation of the rift. Based on
compacted thicknesses and fault slip recorded in growth triangles, Pematang strata filled or
slightly underfilled the half-graben accommodation space. Thus, the Pematang deposition rate
was generally equal to or slightly less than the subsidence rate, producing shallowly dipping
growth axial surfaces (Figure 7). Most significantly, the Brown Shale member of the Pematang
formation, which has sourced the more than 7 billion barrels of oil recovered from the basin (Oil
& Gas Journal, 1993), corresponds to a very shallowly dipping segment of the growth axial
surfaces (Figure 7B). This shallowly dipping growth axial surface records a low rate of
deposition relative to subsidence rate that may reflect sediment-starved conditions in a relatively
deep lake, which is an environment suitable for the deposition and preservation of organic
materials. The upward extension of these growth triangles in the lowermost marine Sihapas
Group also suggests that these sediments were locally deposited during the latest stages of
rifting. We demonstrate that the angular unconformity on the eastern side of the basin between
Sihapas strata and the dipping Pematang section (Figures 5, 6) could have been generated by a
dramatic increase in deposition rate relative to subsidence rate without significant uplift and
erosion between deposition of fluvial-lacustrine and marine units. This change in deposition rate
relative to subsidence rate may represent either a decrease in slip rate during the waning stages of
the rift or an increase in the deposition rate of marine vs. older lacustrine and fluvial sediments.
Controls on Three-Dimensional Basin Geometry

Extensional fault-bend fold models demonstrate that the sizes and shapes of the accommodation
spaces in half grabens are controlled by normal fault geometries, slip, and axial surface
orientations in the hanging-wall block (Xiao and Suppe, 1992). These controls also affect threedimensional basin geometry; therefore, we apply the analytical techniques used to interpret and
model in two-dimensions to explore and map the three-dimensional geometry of the half graben.
The hanging-wall shear orientation can be defined by observing the dip of axial surfaces in
seismic profiles. In many cases, this dip corresponds to the Coulomb shear angle of the rocks in
extension and is roughly constant in basins composed of the same rock types (Xiao and Suppe,
1992). Given a roughly constant hanging-wall shear orientation, first-order highs and lows within
the basin are controlled by normal fault geometry and slip. Thus, where fault geometry is
constant along strike, intrabasinal highs and lows are controlled by fault slip. Regions of greater
fault slip will have greater subsidence than areas of less slip. Alternatively, where horizontal
extension is constant, lateral changes in fault inclination also form intrabasinal structures. Folds
above shallowly dipping fault segments will remain high relative to folds along strike that overlie
steeper fault segments. We explore these effects of fault slip and geometry in the Central
Sumatra trough half graben by using fault-related fold theory to recognize and map horizontal
extension and to define fault geometry.
In extensional fault-bend folds that form by simple shear, the offset of the hanging-wall and
footwall cutoffs of any pregrowth horizon is a measure of horizontal extension above a normal
fault that flattens with depth. This measure is independent of fault dip magnitude (Figure 9). In
Figure 11, we map this horizontal extension across the trough imaged in Figure 7 using the
hanging-wall and footwall cutoffs on the top of basement. In general, this horizontal extension is
roughly constant at about 3.3 km over the mapped area. Thus, we speculate that variations in
horizontal extension along strike do not significantly affect the lateral geometry of the trough and
its accommodation space. Given this roughly constant horizontal extension, we expect to see a
direct correlation between fault geometry and the shape of the half-graben accommodation
space.

Figure 11 Map of the basin-forming normal fault imaged on

seismic profile YY' (Figure 7) and fault offset, measured
between projected hanging-wall and footwall cutoffs of the
top pregrowth horizon (inset). The width of the fault offset
varies only slightly along its mapped extent and is
approximately equal to the magnitude of horizontal
extension (see Figure 9). The normal fault shallows from a
maximum dip in the west to a near-horizontal detachment
below -15,000 ft (-4.6 km) in the east. The dip of the
intermediate fault segment below 12,000 ft is steepest just
south of line YY' (denoted by closely spaced contours) and
decreases in both directions along strike (denoted by more
widely spaced contours).

The fault map in Figure 11 was derived from the fault-plane reflections and rollover geometries
in the trough imaged in Figure 7 and six other east-west-trending seismic reflection profiles. A
simplified version of this fault geometry with three fault segments is shown in the threedimensional model of Figure 12. The fault plane dips most steeply at shallow depths and flattens
through two major (>10) bends to a near-horizontal detachment. In the center of the trough
along line YY', the intermediate fault panel is steep and the normal fault flattens to a horizontal
detachment at about -5.3 km (-17,500 ft). Along strike on the northern and southern edges of the
trough, the dips of the intermediate fault panel are less and the horizontal detachment lies at only
about -4.6 km (-15,000 ft) (Figures 11, 12). As a result, the normal fault has a cuspate or bowllike shape, with the steepest part of the intermediate fault segment lying just south of line YY'. A
fault-bend fold model based on this fault shape with laterally constant horizontal extension
(Figure 12) demonstrates that subsidence and accommodation space are greatest along the center
of the trend.

Figure 12 Perspective views of a three-dimensional fault-bend fold model of the trough imaged in Figure 7. (A) Cuspate normal fault that flattens
with depth to a near-horizontal detachment, which is simplified from the fault map in Figure 11. (B) Cutaway view of hanging-wall rollover panels
formed by plane strain with all transport vectors in plane XY. Horizontal extension, which equals slip on the deep near-horizontal fault segment,
is constant along strike. The central fault low corresponds to a central basin fold low along section ZZ' (inset) .

Therefore, we suggest that fault geometry, and not variable displacement, is responsible for
defining the structurally lowest depocenter in the trough, which is imaged on strike lines through
the basin (Figure 13). In addition to defining low spots, these measures of fault slip and geometry
can define structural high points in the troughs that may serve to focus hydrocarbon
accumulations. By identifying highs and lows along strike on normal faults, interpreters can
quickly recognize depocenters and regional highs (Tearpock and Bischke, 1991), which can be
tested by more detailed reflection contouring. Extensional fault-bend fold interpretations provide
a method of defining fault planes using fold shape in cases without continuous fault-plane
reflections or fault cuts in wells.

Figure 13 Migrated seismic reflection profile ZZ' along the strike of the trough shown in Figure 11 that images a central low area bounded to the
north and south by structural highs. Basin highs and lows are caused by lateral changes in fault geometry, as shown in the model of Figure 12.
The omitted portion of the profile includes an area of younger folding associated with faults other than the normal fault mapped in Figure 11.
Trace of seismic line ZZ' is shown in Figure 11. Horizontal scale equals vertical scale; datum (0 km) is sea level.

Summary and Conclusions

We demonstrated through our interpretation of seismic profiles and forward models that
extensional fault-bend folding has controlled the structural evolution of a half graben in the
Central Sumatra basin. In addition, we recognized that syntectonic deposits of fluvial-lacustrine
and marine strata form growth triangles and unconformities, which were produced by variations
between the rates of local deposition and subsidence. We present a general method for using
these patterns of folded growth strata and fault-bend fold theory (Xiao and Suppe, 1992) to
define basin structure, including fault geometry. Fault and fold maps based on our interpretations
also demonstrated the effects of variations in fault geometry on half-graben subsidence and
accommodation space. Fault highs and lows along strike in the trough are overlain by fold highs
and lows that form ridges and depocenters. Collectively, fold and fault shapes provided the basis
for forward kinematic models of half-graben evolution that were used to test the viability of our
geologic interpretation. General consistencies between fold and fault shapes generated in forward
models and imaged on seismic reflection data demonstrate that extensional fault-bend folding
(Xiao and Suppe, 1992) is a viable theory for the origin of asymmetric half grabens in basementinvolved rift systems. Analytical techniques based on this theory can be applied with limited
seismic reflection data to generate geometrically and kinematically reasonable interpretations
that define intrabasinal structures prior to contour mapping of seismic reflections. In addition,
fault-bend fold models provide new interpretations of unconformities and folded patterns of
syntectonic section that help to decipher the structural and depositional histories of rift basins.
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The authors thank Hongbin Xiao and John Suppe for helpful insights into their extensional fault-bend fold theory,
which provided the foundation for this work. Exceptional reviews by M. Scott Wilkerson and Walter F. Dula, Jr.,
improved the manuscript. In addition, discussions with Karsani Aulia, Richard E. Bischke, Peter A. Brennan, Chris
D. Connors, Paul W. Genovese, Tom L. Heidrick, and Elizabeth A. Lorenzetti provided insights into our structural
interpretations and presentation of the theory. Seismic reflection data were provided by PT CALTEX Pacific
Indonesia.