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INTRODUCTION
THE PRESENT BENIOFF ZONE b e n e a t h t h e C e n t r a l
A n d e s i s s e g m e n t e d i n t o r e g i o n s of s t e e p a n d f l a t
s u b d u c t i o n (Fig. 1) ( B a r a z a n g i a n d I s a c k s , 1976).
T h e o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e s u b d u c t i n g N a z c a p l a t e h a s
been correlated with the structural geometries that
a r e d e v e l o p e d i n t h e f o r e l a n d ( J o r d a n et al., 1983).
R e g i o n s of s t e e p s u b d u c t i o n a r e c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h i n -
s k i n n e d f o l d - a n d - t h r u s t g e o m e t r i e s a n d r e g i o n s of
near-horizontal subduction with thick-skinned basem e n t u p l i f t s . T h e g e o l o g y of n o r t h w e s t e r n A r g e n t i n a , however, suggests t h a t this c o r r e l a t i o n m a y be
o v e r l y s i m p l i s t i c i n s o m e p a r t s of t h e C e n t r a l A n d e s
a n d t h a t p r e - e x i s t i n g s t r u c t u r e s c o n t r o l t h e s t y l e of
f o r e l a n d d e f o r m a t i o n ( A l l m e n d i n g e r et al., 1982;
A l l m e n d i n g e r et al., 1983).
T o t h e n o r t h of 24S, t h e f o r e l a n d c o n s i s t s of t h e
C o r d i l l e r a O r i e n t a l a n d t h e S i e r r a s S u b a n d i n a s (Fig.
2). T h e s e m o u n t a i n s y s t e m s a r e N / S - t r e n d i n g , d o m i n a n t l y e a s t - v e r g i n g f o l d - a n d - t h r u s t b e l t s w i t h local
west-verging back-thrusts.
To t h e s o u t h of 24S,
b a s e m e n t is i n v o l v e d i n t h e d e f o r m a t i o n , t h e Cor-
351
352
8
t~
tO
g,)
Q..
cO
o~
c-
30
74
62
Fig. 1. The Central Andes showing the Altiplano/Puna Plateau and the major geological provinces of the foreland. The contours
show the depth to the subducting Nazca plate in kilometers (from Isacks, 1988); regions of steep and flat subduction are indicated.
100 km
353
ARGENTIN
vv:
v
v ~
vvvvv
~
v v J
vvvvvvvvv'v'~
. v v v v
vvvvvvvvvvv
P VV ~y VV ~V y V
p V ~ V V V
. .//..
Sierras
Puna
Subandinasy"
./
"/
: : : :~/~/Siitem:ai!
: ~
" Santa B&rbara
Jujuy
iii
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii"
. vvvvvvvvvvv:
w'~
v
v v vvvvvvv
Oriental iii:ii ~
Puna
Area
Tucuma.n
27
Sierras
Pampeanas
i
Cenozoic
volcanics
Major faults
{.~S:
66"
I
'34
times, the basal decollement of the deformation reused the substructure of the old rift and that listric
normal faults were reactivated in their entirety as
thrust faults. The model predicts that the foreland
has been shortened 25% during Andean deformation.
RIFT REACTIVATION
In order for old structures to have controlled
later structural geometries they must not only exist
but have been favorably oriented for reactivation
during latest deformation. In any area in which the
possibility of fault reactivation arises, several questions must be answered.
354
__
22o::::::.~-C.::::
/i!ii
_/"
.BOLIVIA
ii!iiii!iii
c.,LE
[ .
!/
.
/i!ili::i
Salta III"
. . . . .
"
"
Ci!iiii!iiii
A = Alemania
ER = El Rey
LO = Lomas de Olmedo
M = Met~.n
S = Sey
TR = Tr~s Cruces
.26 . . . . . . . .
StudyArea:
o.~.iiiil;;i
iiii,
.2/
interval 1,000 m
Q
Intrusive
First phase
volcanic
SSBiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii:
.
......
~
0
100 krn
isopach, contour
Second phase
volcanic
Fig. 3. The modern limits of syn-rift Salta Group strata -- the Pirgua Subgroup -- showingdepocentersand syn-rift intrusive and
volcanic rocks (modifiedfrom Marquillas and Salfity, 1988). The inset map shows the relatiom~hipof the syn-rift strata to the
geologicalprovinces of northwestern Argentina.
EARLY
p - e = 0.1 -~1
::i : : ~ i : ~ : ~ ~ ~ : ~ :
~ ...................................
CRETACEOUS
MIOCENE
LATE EOCENE
MIDDLE
e = -0.25
-~
_
~_-
~.~,~:~ : ~ , J
::::~llllml!|
,, =~
I~JL,an .
Sierra de Met=tn
.
~ ~ ~~
S i s t e m a de S a n t a Bhrbara
6500 '
t
1 - - - -
Nemania
---~2~ ~ .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Amblayo Valley
Cordillera Oriental
RIo Calchaqul
',~
PRESENT
6600 '
I
~,~rT~
40 km
:~:::~-'~'~::~
]r I I I I I I I--LI IL
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I/m-[I l
~;
6400 '
I
I
I
Fig. 4. Model of the Cordillera Oriental a n d S i s t e m a de S a n t a B a r b a r a a t 2530'S latitude. T h e cross-sections show t h e development of t h e foreland from pre-rift to rift-inversion in three
s t a g e s b e g i n n i n g in t h e Early Cretaceous. N e a r surface f a u l t trajectories are based on field observations; sub-surface trajectories are a s s u m e d . E a c h cross-section is area-balanced. See
Fig. i for location.
Quaternaryalluvium, upper
Tertiaryforeland basin strata
CO
~a
~a
5o
c~
(0
~a
>
356
Quaternary t :
Miocene
- Pliocene
Paleocene
- Eocene
Pirgua Sugroup
Early
I
Cretaceous
M2:76.4 3.5 a a
to 78 _+5 Ma
MI: 9 7 5 Mato
128 5 Ma
Late Precambrian
-Early Cambrian
Salta
Group
M3:63-+2 Ma
(Intrusive)
Late
Cretaceous
--
I
I
I o.1,0oom
Fig. 5. Stratigraphy of the southern Cordillera Oriental and northernmost Sierras Pampeanas between 2515'S and 2630'S. M1,
M2, and M3 represent three phases of magmatism. In this region, M1 and M2 are represented by volcanic rocks, and M3 by
intrusives. Ages of volcanic and igneous rocks from Galliski and Viramonte (1988).
ture. They combined to form a terrain that was inhomogeneous prior to and during Andean deformation (Mon, 1979).
The Puncoviscana Formation. The oldest exposed unit in the region is a thick series of parallelbedded clastics with common conglomeratic intercalations b u t rare syngenetic volcanics and carbonates (Fig. 5) (Omarini, 1983). Provenance of the
elastics was to the east (Jezek and Miller, 1985). The
sequence is late Precambrian to Cambrian in age
(Acefolaza, 1979) and, on the basis of its stratigraphy and provenance, is thought to represent a
prograding submarine-fan sequence deposited along
the stable proto-Pacific margin of Gondwana (Jezek
and Miller, 1985).
The sequence was deformed and metamorphosed
primarily during the early Paleozoic (Willner et al.,
1987).
In the Late Cambrian, the continental
margin became active and the Puncoviscana wedge
was shortened through folding and, possibly, thrusting. Shortening continued into the Ordovician with
357
65
Puncovlscana Fro.
structural depth
shallow
int.-shallow
,
deep-int.
deep
,_
K:;i:~i:;if
StudyArea
=A
granitic
intrusions
faults
C
A
AI
Cafayate
Angastaco
Aleman[a
Tucum&n
25 km
and, in turn, its development modified the Puncoviscana wedge itself, creating new structures that
may have been favorably oriented for reactivation
during subsequent Andean deformation. The form of
the basin at present reflects uplift and deformation
since the end of the Cretaceous; the present margins
may be erosional and not depositional.
This basin is one of a series that formed during
the Cretaceous from the Atlantic coast to Peru along
a northwesterly trend (Fig. 7). The series includes
the Chaco-Paranense and Salta Basins of Argentina,
and the Subandean and Andean Basins of Bolivia
and Peru (Fig. 7). The links between the Salta, Subandean, and Andean Basins are well established
(Riccardi, 1988; Macellari, 1989), but that between
the Salta Basin and the Chaco-Paranense Basin is
more tenuous, being based on subsurface data (Russo
et al., 1979). During the late Campanian through
the Maastrichtian-Paleocene, the Salta Basin was
also linked to the back-arc Andean Basin of northern
Chile (Salfity et al., 1985; Riccardi, 1988; Macellari,
1989).
358
(
J
f
.I
359
Bo,,v,a
Argentina
23
iiiiii
Jujuy
"""
Shale
Salta
Conglomerate 50%
Sandstone
First cycle
volcanics
~
Second cycle
volcanics
Study
Area
Tucum&n
27
641
100 km 6/o_]
T"
Fig. 8. The distribution of syn-rift conglomerate, sandstone, and shale (Pirgua Subgroup) in the Salta Basin (modified from
Moreno, 1970): A, Alemania subbasin; M, Met~n subbasin.
origin for the Salta Basin (Bianucci et al., 1981;
Salfity, 1982; Galliski and Viramonte, 1988).
A n d e a n Foreland Basin Strata. The rift basin
and the older, deformed passive margin sequence are
overlain unconformably by 4000-6000 meters of sedim e n t a r y rocks that were derived from the uplift of
the Andes Mountains (Figs. 5 and 9). The strata
exposed in the southern Cordillera Oriental are
early Miocene to late Pliocene in age (Diaz and
Malizzia, 1983; Grier and Dallmeyer, 1990); those
exposed in the northern Sierras P a m p e a n a s are late
Miocene to Pliocene in age (Bossi et al., 1987). The
sequences in both locations are dominated by
braided stream and alluvial fan deposits, although
the pre-Pliocene strata exposed in the southern
Cordillera Oriental are much coarser than those
exposed in the northern Sierras Pampeanas (Grier
and Dallmeyer, 1990).
360
--
]~
]/%
%/%]%/
N
. . . . .
: .~.,~
:~
....
]
C)
0
(1)
....
.-:,~....
0
'%]]]]
(D
m__
Dam
:,:,;.:,:,:,"
San Carlos
,]%~ J~ %]]]]]
r%
,
, ]
~:~
]
~,
%]
,,~ ]
]
,f.
]]
%.%]
]%]~
~],t%,,,
--26 .
,%]
, ]
.* *. *. ] . ] . ] .] ]. ] . ] .] ]. % ]
"*. %
] ] ] , ~ ] ] ] ~ ' ]
" ,(g'-4
]
]g'~
r]
' ] %] ] % ] ] ." %
/ %
] '~ %] ~] % ~
' ] ] ] ] , ] ~* ] ] ] ] ]
"~1
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' ]
.." ]
' ]
,., ]
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,g'
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% %
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% %
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e %r.]]
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] ] ] ] ] g ] ] ] ]
] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ]
] ] ] ] ] g ] ] ] g ]
!,
--~ alluvium
Andeanforeland
basin strata
"13
"O
(D
g / J i g ] g ]
] ] ] ] ] ] ] / ] ]
~ ] ] g ] ~ ] ] ] ] ] ]
% %
] ] ] ] ] ] ] / ] ] ] ]
] ] ] ] ] g ] ] ] ] ]
~ ] ] ] ] 1 ] ] ] ] ] ]
pst'rift 1 Salta
syn-rift Group
PuncoviscanaFrn./
metasediments
'~ granite
_q.
del Va~le
t';';" o
lok
g ] / t ] ] / g Y t ] g g ]
~ s ] ] 2 ] ] 1 ] ] ] i
:,
Fig. 9. Geological map of the southern Cordillera Oriental and the northernmost Sierras Pampeanas.
361
tion.
Quaternary fans along the west side of
Cumbres Calchaquies (at the latitude of Colalao del
Valle, Fig. 9) are tilted 2-3 toward the mountain
front. A fault observed in Quebrada La Vifia at the
northeast corner of Sierra de Quilmes has an orientation of 052/52 SE and thrusts part of the Quilmes
Geometry. The study area is divided into two block over a Quaternary conglomerate. In both
structural domains across a NW-SE trend that cases, the Quaternary strata unconformably overlie
crosses the Calchaqui Valley several kilometers to deformed Tertiary strata.
the south of San Carlos (Fig. 9). The southern part of
In contrast to the Sierras Pampeanas, the
the Cordillera Oriental lies to the north of this trend southern Cordillera Oriental has been described as a
and the northern part of the Sierras Pampeanas to basement-involved fold-and-thrust belt (Vilela and
the south. The structural geometries observed in the Garcia, 1978; Turner and Mon, 1979). Major structwo mountain systems are different: the Sierras tures are more closely spaced than they are in the
Pampeanas are basement uplifts and the Cordillera Sierras Pampeanas (10-15 km spacing as opposed to
Oriental is a basement-involved fold-and-thrust belt. 20-30 km spacing) and they are developed not only in
The basement uplifts that are observed in the the Puncoviscana Formation and the Andean foreSierras Pampeanas are Precambrian to Cambrian land basin strata but in strata that are associated
schists and gneisses of the Puncoviscana Formation with the Salta rift basin.
or equivalents and have been uplifted along N- to
In the study area, major faults trend N-S to
NE-striking reverse faults. They are typically asym- NNE-SSW and dip to the east (Fig. 9). Only one
metric, with a steep eroded slope on the fault- major east-verging thrust fault--in the Amblayo
bounded margin. Remnants of a peneplain are ex- Valley--is observed. Most minor faults also have
posed, in some cases, on the tilted tops of the blocks submeridional trends but dip to either east or west.
where the Cenozoic cover has been eroded (Caminos, Syn-rift Salta Group strata or Puncoviscana Forma1979; Jordan et al., 1990). The block-bounding tion are commonly exposed in the hanging walls of
faults, in general, dip steeply where they are exposed the large-scale faults and post-rift Salta Group, and
at the surface although, locally, shallow dips have Andean foreland basin strata in the footwalls (Fig.
been observed. They are observed to parallel major 9). Major fold axes parallel the fault trends. Major
planes of schistosity (Gonz~lez Bonorino, 1950). anticlines are found in the hanging walls of the
Their orientation at depth is uncertain, but it has faults, and major synclines and minor anticlines in
been suggested, for geometric considerations, that the footwalls. Many of the folds are oversteepened
the faults must flatten with depth (Gonz~ilez Bono- on their west-facing limbs as a result of out-of-therino, 1950; Jordan and Allmendinger, 1986). The syncline thrusting, particularly in thick sequences of
blocks have been thrust over as much as 4000 meters syn-rift strata. The N/S-trending folds and thrust
of Tertiary and Quaternary strata. Minor folding faults do not involve Quaternary strata.
and faulting is observed in the basin strata, and the
As in the Sierras Pampeanas, the orientation of
terminations of the mountain-bounding faults are the dominant structures suggests that they were
often expressed as anticlines in these strata.
produced during an episode of E-W to WNW-ESE
The two northernmost Pampean ranges--Sierra shortening. Again, minor cross-cutting features
de Quilmes and Cumbres Calchaquies--lie in part show that one or more other episodes of deformation
within the study area (Fig. 9). The Sierra de also occurred. One set of features shows a consistent
Quilmes is uplifted along its east side by a series of NW-SE to WNW-ESE trend (Fig. 9). The major fault
faults that are exposed only at the north end of the that bounds the east side of the Calchaqui Valley
block and are inferred along the length of the north of Rio de Las Conchas is scalloped. The fault
northeastern part of the block (Ruiz Huidobro, 1972; consistently steps to the west along WNW-ESE to
Vilela and Garcia, 1978; Galv~n, 1981). Cumbres NW-SE trends. E/W-trending minor folds are obserCalchaquies is fault bounded to the east and west ved in the hanging wall of the main thrust at the
(Caminos, 1979), and a number of minor blocks are corners of some of the scallops and may represent
observed at its northern end: Filo Las Minas, Filo fault terminations or transpressional features relaParanilla and Loma Negra (Fig. 10). Remnants of ted to later deformation. A left-lateral strike-slip
the basement-capping peneplain have been observed fault that runs along the Rio Calchaqui, to the east
on both ranges (Strecker, 1987). The ranges are of Angastaco, parallels the trend of these scallops
separated by the Calchaqui or Santa Maria Valley, (Fig. 11). The abrupt terminations of the Tonco and
which is 20-25 km across.
Amblayo synclines are aligned along a similar trend
The mountain-bounding faults trend N-S, as do (Fig. 9). On a minor scale, near-vertical, NW/SE- to
faults and fold axes that are observed in the de- NNW/SSE-trending left-lateral strike-slip faults are
formed Tertiary strata immediately to the west of observed in the vicinity of Mina Don Otto on the east
Cumbres Calchaquies (Fig. 9). This suggests that side of the Tonco syncline (Raskovsky, 1968).
major structures were produced during an episode of
Other trends are also observed in the cross-cutE-W shortening. Other features indicate that shor- ting structures (Fig. 10). In Quebrada Las Chacras a
tening continues in a subsequent episode of deforma- NNE/SSW-trending, low-angle strike-slip fault cuts
362
Fig. 10. Cross-cutting structures in the region of Quebrada La Yesera. See Fig. 9 for location.
363
I
1 O0 km
v'v'.'.'~
Vv
v
v
v
A R G E NTINA i::i
~~v~/~ .'~
v
v
v
:::::9
: i i i!i i!i l
~vvVvVvVvV
23 -
vvvvvVvVvVv
'
!iiiiiii
~vvvvv% ~
(~/J:
Sierra...~.s
:S!!a:d!n.as.~: ." . i/
Sistemade
SantaB&rbara
Puna
. . . . .
:: ~
:il::Salta . . . . . .
tiii!ii;
.
Puna
Area
Tucum&n
27
[~
Cenozoic
volcanics
Sierras
Pampeanas
68
I
66
I
64
Fig. 12. The kinematics of Mio-Pliocene deformation (modified from Marrett et al., 1989). Kinematic analyses are displayed as
fault plane solutions. Solid boxes represent average shortening directiorL~; open boxes, average extension directions.
stratigraphic relations outside the study area suggest that the change in kinematics occurred between
2.35 and 0.78 Ma (Marrett et al., 1989).
The kinematics of Mio-Pliocene deformation are
homogeneous throughout the southern Cordillera
Oriental, the northern Sierras Pampeanas, and the
adjacent Puna margin (Fig. 12). The maximum
shortening direction is between E-W and NNW-SSE.
Shortening is horizontal and extension is vertical.
Maximum shortening is perpendicular to major Andean structures. The kinematics of Plio-Quaternary
deformation are less homogeneous (Fig. 13). Strikeslip kinematics prevail, although thrust faults and
normal faults are observed locally. Maximum shor-
364
100 k m
v
v
v
v
v
v
BOLIVIA
.
v
ARGENTII~
'V V
~yq
V
V
Y
V
q
Y
Puna
v
v
vvv
v v
vVvVv
v v
v v v v v v
v v v v v v .
v v v v v v v
vvvVvVvVv~vvv:
i:i:i:i:ii
~ V V
;V p
V
;VVVVV
Santa B~rbara
v VvV v v v
Jujuy
iiiiiliiiiii : : : : : : : : :
W:iSalta . . . . . . .
Cordillera
Oriental
% ~ v v v V v V v V v V v
:::::::::::::t
t
Puna
9tudy Area
I Tucum~.n
Cenozoic
volcanics
Sierras
68
1
66
I
64
Fig. 13. The kinematics of Plio(?)-Quaternary deformation (modifiedfrom Marrett et al., 1989). Kinematic analyses are displayed
as fault plane solutions. Solid boxes represent average shortening directions; openboxes,average extension directions.
shortening along the boundary between the Cordillera Oriental and the Sierras Pampeanas. The
older episode of deformation within the study area is
correlated with regional Mio-Pliocene deformation
on the basis of similar kinematics and similar fault/
stratigraphic relations. The younger episode is correlated with regional Plio-Quaternary deformation
in the same manner.
365
A)
Fault
B)
Skyline
strata--~ SaltaGroup
syn-rift strata~ |
PuncoviscanaFm.
Fig. 14. A) P h o t o g r a p h of the Las Chacras fault (see Fig. 10 for location). B) Sketch of the fault/stratigraphic relations, which
suggest t h a t t h e fault is a reactivated normal fault.
366
65
- 250
26
Fig. 15. The vergence of Andean structures within the southern subbassins of the Salta rift basin.
367
Jujuy
Salta
O_
i
.
i::::::!:
! !! :o! i !:
Elevation
> 6,000 m
roll 4,500-6,000
3,000-4,5oo
~-] 1,500-3,000
I Io-1,5oo
....
:::::..
~:~:~:~;~;:~" ~ : ~ , ~
:. 66o
'
Tucum,~n
65o
boundary
Fig. 16. The relationship betweentopographyand the southern par~of the Salta rift basin.
368
The Relative Alignment of the Direction of Rift Extension and the Direction of Subsequent Shortening
Given a suite of rift structures, the structures
that will develop during rift inversion will depend on
the orientation of the shortening direction relative to
the rift axis (Fig. 17b). If shortening is sub-parallel
to the direction of rift extension, normal faults will
be reactivated as thrust faults. As the shortening
direction becomes oblique to the rift axis, there will
be an increasing component of strike-slip movement
along reactivated normal faults and an increasing
thrust component across transverse faults. If shortening parallels the rift axis, rift inversion is not
possible although reactivation of transfer faults
within the rift may occur and the entire rift may
control the position of first order lateral ramps.
T H E R I F T I N V E R S I O N MODEL A P P L I E D
TO T H E A N D E A N F O R E L A N D
A rift inversion model in which shortening parallels the rift extension direction during major deformation and is oblique to the extension direction
during subsequent minor deformation explains the
geometries observed in the southern Cordillera Oriental and the Sistema de Santa B~rbara. The rift
extended E-W along N/S-trending normal faults.
One set of transverse faults trends WNW-ESE to
NW-SE. The trend of the southern rift margin was
NW-SE in the Alemania subbasin and NE-SW in the
Met~n subbasin. During major Andean deformation, the shortening direction was sub-parallel to the
rift-phase extension direction, and the N/S-trending
normal faults were reactivated as thrust faults.
Transverse structures may have been reactivated as
tear faults, although such reactivation has not been
documented. During subsequent deformation, the
shortening direction was oblique to the rift extension
direction and thrust faults (reactivated normal
faults) were in turn reactivated as strike-slip faults.
Because the strike length of the normal faults is
much greater than that of the transverse faults,
strain compatibility requires that the latter were
reactivated principally as thrust faults instead of
strike-slip faults as the model predicts. Movement
on these faults created the transpressional structures that are observed adjacent to oblique trending
faults (Figs. 9 and 11). Burial of the rift during early
Andean deformation allowed the translation of the
rift fill beyond the rift's western margin and accounts for the development of low-angle thrust faults
within the Salta Group and the overlying Andean
foreland basin strata.
In addition to explaining the geometries of the
Andean foreland, the rift inversion model has been
used to infer the subsurface geometry of the Salta
Basin in cross-sectional form. Some assumptions
were made about the original rift and about Andean
deformation because no subsurface data are available. Where this was necessary, the simplest possible assumptions were made.
The cross-section runs E-W at approximately 25
30'S latitude and extends from 6625'W on the west
side of the Valle Calchaqui to 6352'W to the east of
Met~n (Figs. 2 and 4). Present-day surface geometries can be generated by interactively extending
369
A)
}J
Transverse faults
perpendicular to normal faults
Transverse faults
oblique to normal faults
B)
I
Riffmargin
Shortening parallel
to the direction of
original rift extension
Shortening oblique
to the direction of
original rift extension
Shortening perpendicular
to the direction of
original rift extension
Fig. 17. Riftinversion: a) The effecton inversiongeometriesofthe relative orientation oftransverse structures and rift-controlling
normal faults, b) The effecton inversiongeometriesofthe relative alignment ofthe shorteningdirectionto the original directionof
rift extension.
370
3 71
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