Environ Earth Sci
DOI 10.1007/s12665-011-1057-1
SPECIAL ISSUE
Structural controls on the occurrence and morphology
of karstified assemblages in northeastern Vietnam:
a regional perspective
Hai Thanh Tran • Bat Van Dang • Chi Kim Ngo •
Que Dinh Hoang • Quyen Minh Nguyen
Received: 1 July 2010 / Accepted: 4 April 2011
Ó Springer-Verlag 2011
Abstract Karstified assemblages occur widely in, and
distinctively shape, the geological landscape of the north-
eastern part of Vietnam. These carbonate rocks were
deposited during three major periods of basinal evolution
including: (1) Late Cambrian, (2) Early Devonian to Early
Carboniferous, and (3) Carboniferous to Earliest Triassic.
These sedimentary units contain primary sedimentary
structures and have undergone numerous post-depositional
geological processes including multiple deformational
events, which can be regionally correlated. Several
thrusting events and associated folding have led to signif-
icant thickening of the carbonate units. The subsequent
post-thrusting cross-folding events, followed by several
phases of brittle faulting and fracturing further modified the
spatial geometry and outcrop of these rocks. The combi-
nation and interaction of the primary structures with those
formed during the long-lived and complicated deforma-
tional history is an important controlling factor in local and
regional hydrogeological systems in the region. The geo-
logical structures now recorded in the carbonate units
ultimately govern the formation of the unique modern
surface and sub-surface geomorphology of the karstic ter-
rains in northeastern Vietnam. These structures should be
further investigated in the context of water resource
assessment and natural hazard prediction and mitigation.
Keywords Karst
Structural control
Groundwater

Northeastern Vietnam
H. Thanh Tran (&)
B. Van Dang
C. Kim Ngo

Q. Dinh Hoang
Q. Minh Nguyen
Department of Geology,
Hanoi University of Mining and Geology,
Hanoi, Vietnam
e-mail: tranthanhhai.humg@gmail.com
Introduction
The northeastern part of Vietnam, which covers parts of Yen
Bai, Tuyen Quang, Ha Giang, Thai Nguyen, Bac Kan, Cao
Bang, Lang Son, Quang Ninh, and Hai Phong provinces is
underlain by numerous rock types of varying composition,
ages and environments (Tran Duc Luong and Nguyen Xuan
Bao 1982; Tong Duy Thanh and Vu Khuc 2006; Tran Van
Tri and Vu Khuc 2009), which have undergone numerous
phases of tectonic deformation that extended from at least
from middle Paleozoic to present (Tran Thanh Hai 2009).
Previous geological works show that large parts of the area
are covered by thick and strongly karstified sedimentary
packages (Tran Duc Luong and Nguyen Xuan Bao 1982; Do
Tuyet 1998; Figs. 1, 2). These rocks comprise mostly car-
bonate associations that are intercalated with subordinate
terrigeneous and/or siliceous members. They were formed
during a long history of geological evolution, from Early
Cambrian to late Mesozoic and were variably deformed by
numerous regional deformational events, which have
resulted in the thickening and fragmentation or dismem-
berment of the rock units. It has been recently proposed that
the development of the unique karstified landscape in
northeastern Vietnam is the consequence of a combination
of composition, deformation (Tran Thanh Hai et al. 2004;
Tran Thanh Hai 2009) and recent exogenic processes under
heavy influence of tropical monsoon climate (Dang et al.
2009). In addition, the nature of both regional and local
hydrogeological systems related to the infiltration, migration
and storage of groundwater within such a unique landscape
(Nguyen Van Lam et al. 2009; Vu Thanh Tam et al. 2009)
are governed by the interaction between rock bodies and all
secondary geological processes.
The combination of endogenic and exogenic processes
has formed a natural spectacle within the karstified terrains
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Fig. 1 Summarized stratigraphic column of various parts of north-
eastern Vietnam, showing the stratigraphic position of major karstic
assemblages and their relationship with other units and time: (1) non-
deposition, (2) siliciclastic rocks, (3) Late Cambrian carbonate, (4)
Devonian-Early Carboniferous carbonate, (5) Carboniferous-Early
Triassic carbonate. Modified after (Tong Duy Thanh and Vu Khuc
2006)
of northeastern Vietnam and adjacent areas (Ta Hoa
Phuong et al. 2009; Tran Tan Van et al. 2009; Truong
Quang Hai 2009; Le Duc An and Uong Dinh Khanh 2009;
Li Zhengping and Liang Younging 2004; Li Yuhui et al.
2004), which includes the world-famous Ha Long Bay (a
UNESCO Natural Heritage site) and a World Geopark in
Ha Giang. However, the karstic regions are also vulnerable
and subject to natural hazards in which the most severe
impacts are from the collapse of structures, sink holes,
water pollution caused by groundwater action and cavern
development (e.g., Vu Thi Minh Nguyet and Goldscheider
2006; Canh et al. 2009; Dang Huu Diep and Hoang Thi
Hong Hanh 2009, Yuan Daoxian 2009; Dang et al. 2009).
As a very large population in northeastern Vietnam
resides within the karst areas, the constant shortage of
water resources and the abundance of natural hazards in
such areas commonly lead to negative affects on the well-
being of local communities as well as social economy (Vu
Thi Minh Nguyet and Goldscheider 2006; Dang et al. 2009;
123
Environ Earth Sci
Canh et al. 2009; Dang Huu Diep and Hoang Thi Hong
Hanh 2009). However, the importance of geological
structures within the carbonate units that govern the for-
mation and/or development of karst and its hydrological
systems, and in particular the controlling factors for
groundwater resources in northeastern Vietnam, have to
date not been thoroughly addressed. In order to more fully
understand the nature of karst landforms and their associ-
ated natural resources and hazards in northeastern Vietnam,
a comprehensive, multidisciplinary and qualitative research
program must be carried out. However, available data can
be used for a preliminary study of these karstified terrains.
This paper reviews the general geological features of the
carbonate associations in northeastern Vietnam and their
significance as regional controlling factors in the occurrence
and formation of karst morphology. These current geological
interpretations for the region can be used as indicators for the
assessment of groundwater resource and prediction and
mitigation of natural hazards in karstified areas.
General geological features of karstified assemblages
in northeastern Vietnam
Stratigraphy of karstified rocks
Northeastern Vietnam is underlain by thick carbonate
successions, which were deposited during a long and
complex geological history (Tong Duy Thanh and Vu Khuc
2006; Tran Van Tri and Vu Khuc 2009). On the basis of
presently available data (Tong Duy Thanh and Vu Khuc
2006; Tran Van Tri and Vu Khuc 2009), carbonate rocks in
northeastern Vietnam can be subdivided into several suc-
cessions (Figs. 1, 2).
The oldest carbonate successions recorded in the north-
western most part of northeastern Vietnam comprises thinly
to thickly bedded rocks of Late Cambrian age (Figs. 1, 2).
The composition of the rocks is variable, from thinly lay-
ered limestone intercalated with marl and/or siliceous
members to thick-bedded, homogeneous carbonate units
(Fig. 3a). These rocks are commonly dismembered, fault-
bounded and locally metamorphosed (Fig. 2) owing to
multiple deformations including flattening, shearing, thrust-
faulting and folding (Fig. 3b; Tran Thanh Hai 2009).
The second carbonate succession, which was deposited
from Early Devonian to Early Carboniferous (Tong Duy
Thanh and Vu Khuc 2006), is widespread in the far
northeastern and southeastern portions of northeastern
Vietnam (Figs. 1, 2). Its composition varies greatly from
thick-bedded or massive limestone (Fig. 3c) to thinly lay-
ered, immature carbonate units that are commonly inter-
calated with marl, chert, and local manganese-bearing
layers (Fig. 3d). Similar to the Late Cambrian carbonate
Environ Earth Sci

Fig. 2 Generalized structural

map of northeastern Vietnam,
showing the spatial distribution
of major carbonate successions
and their relationship to non-
carbonate successions as well as
major regional tectonic
structures. Note that most of the
carbonate successions are fault-
controlled and/or are
dismembered by faults

Fig. 3 Examples of field

occurrences of major carbonate
units in northeastern Vietnam:
(a and b) Late Cambrian
carbonate exposed in
northeastern Lao Cai province;
b strongly deformed and
metamorphosed Late Cambrian
carbonate rocks; c Thick- to
thin-bedded Late Devonian
limestone exposed in Cat Ba
Island area, Hai Phong city;
d thin-bedded Early
Carboniferous limestone
intercalated with chert and marl
layers in Cat Ba Island; e, f)
Thick-bedded to massive,
homogeneous, strongly
karstified limestone exposes
widely in Ha Long Bay, Quang
Ninh province (e) and Meo Vac
area, Ha Giang province (f)

succession, the Devonian-Carboniferous carbonates were
also affected heavily by tectonic deformation, which
resulted in significant thickening and dismemberment
owing to multiple deformational events (Tran Thanh Hai
2009).
The upper carbonate succession comprises thick units of
Carboniferous to Early Triassic limestone and associated
sedimentary members of various composition that are
regionally widespread in all parts of northeastern Vietnam
(Figs. 1, 2). The lower part of this succession commonly

123

comprises homogeneous, mostly massive to thick-bedded
limestone (Fig. 3e, f) that is regionally widespread. In
contrast, the upper part of this succession is more hetero-
geneous in composition and includes thinly layered lime-
stone members that are commonly intercalated with
terrigenous deposits (Tong Duy Thanh and Vu Khuc 2006).
These rocks are strongly fractured and dismembered
because of subsequent tectonic deformation (Tran Thanh
Hai 2009).
Structural control on the spatial occurrence
of karstified rocks
Results of recent geological works show that within
northeastern Vietnam, all rocks experienced a multiphase
deformational history, under the ductile, brittle-ductile and
brittle strain conditions, including repeatedly shearing,
folding and fracturing (Nguyen Cong Thuan 2005; Nguyen
Trong Dung 2006; Tran Thanh Hai 2009; Tran Thanh Hai
et al. 2004). Although the exact timing of each deforma-
tional event has not been precisely dated due to the lack of
systematic and qualitative geological works, the deforma-
tional events in northeastern Vietnam can be generally
interpreted to have taken place during numerous phases of
tectonic evolution that extended from Middle Paleozoic to
Cenozoic. As consequence of regional deformation, the
carbonate assemblages within the study area were therefore
variably deformed by different thermo-tectonic regimes
and under differing strain states. Results of such defor-
mational regimes have produced several types of tectonic
fabrics, in which those were formed during earlier phases
of deformation were then repeatedly reactivated or over-
printed by later phases of folding and brittle fracturing
(Tran Thanh Hai 2009; Tran Thanh Hai et al. 2004).
This investigation recognizes that the most strongly
deformed carbonate rocks are part of the Late Cambrian
succession, which were probably affected by an Ordovi-
cian–Silurian regional tectonic event that has been widely
Fig. 4 a Imbricate structure formed by systematic over-thrusting of
limestone units along shallow-angle thrust-faults that led to the over-
thickening of the Late Cambrian carbonate rocks in northwestern
most part of northeastern Vietnam. b A klippe structure of Early-
123
Environ Earth Sci
recognized across Vietnam and southern China (e.g., Faure
et al. 2009; Tran Thanh Hai 2009; Tran Van Tri and Vu
Khuc 2009) and consequently led to the uplift and erosion
of the carbonate units and subsequently created a sub-
Devonian regional unconformity prior to the deposition of
the Devonian-Carboniferous association (Fig. 1). This
deformational event led to the formation of regionally
extensive ductile thrust zones and associated isoclinal fold
systems, which resulted in significant tectonic transporta-
tion, over-thickening, repetition or dismemberment of the
carbonate units (Figs. 2, 4a).
Subsequently, all carbonate rocks in northeastern Viet-
nam were affected by several phases of regional defor-
mation, which have been interpreted owing to plate
collisions and terrain assembly to form proto-southeast
Asia during the Mesozoic (e.g., Hutchison 1989; Metcalfe
2005). During these tectonic events, all carbonate rocks
were affected by regionally widespread ductile to brittle-
ductile thrust/reverse shearing and associated folding
(Fig. 2). The overprinting of post-thrusting folding events
on older thrust-related structures has further complicated
structural grain of the carbonate units (Fig. 5a, b).
These earlier formed structures are truncated by several
generations of brittle, reverse, normal and strike-slip
faulting, and extensive fracturing (Fig. 5c) that occurred
during the latest phases of post-orogenic, intra-continental
tectonic activities during the Cenozoic (e.g., Tapponnier
et al. 1986, 1990; Searle 2006; Tran Van Tri and Vu Khuc
2009). The superposition of numerous types of structures
has resulted in a complex regional structural interference
pattern of the carbonate and other rock types (Fig. 2).
The structural pattern described above was then
strongly overprinted by neotectonic and modern exogenic
processes, including regionally extensive weathering,
erosion, water movement and other sub-aerial activities.
The combination of these processes has led to the rapid
destruction of carbonate units, especially along the zones
of structural weaknesses and created the current unique
middle Devonian limestone (D1–2) developed above the Late Devo-
nian siliciclastic rocks in Trung Khanh area, Cao Bang province. The
special karst morphology was formed by the removal of most of the
limestone in hanging-wall blocks a thrust system (dashed line)
Environ Earth Sci
Fig. 5 a A large-scale synclinal system formed by deformation of the
Carboniferous-Permian limestone in northeast of Cao Bang province;
b The hinge zone of a large antiformal structure that formed by
refolding of highly strained Late Devonian carbonate rocks in
southeastern margin of Cat Ba Island; c Sub-vertical brittle fractures
developed systematically in bedded Carboniferous-Permian limestone
in Ha Long Bay area. Note that the karst landscape is partly controlled
by the geometry of fold systems or the interaction between bedding
and fracture. See text for discussion
geomorphology of the karstified assemblages in north-
eastern Vietnam.
The role of regional structures on the movement
of groundwater and formation of karst morphology
in northeastern Vietnam
The importance of geologic structures in the formation of
the morphology in karstified rocks has been widely rec-
ognized (e.g., Gremaud et al. 2009; Häuselmann et al.
1999; Gabrovsek and Dreybrodt 2001; Harmon and Wicks
2009; Ford and Williams 2007, and references therein). In
general, karst evolution and its resultant morphology are
controlled by many geological factors, from lithologic
composition, geological structures and physical properties
of the rocks, to the sub-aerial environments in which the
karstified rocks are exposed (e.g., Palmer 1991; Palmer
et al. 1999; Ford 2002, 2006; Ford and Williams 2007;
Klimchouk 2006). Groundwater action to form caves and
subsequent unroofing of caves is a large-scale geomorphic
process that plays an important role in the formation of
karst topography (e.g., Klimchouk 2006).
The infiltration and migration of water in rocks are
generally attributed to the degree of porosity or voids
within the rocks bodies. In carbonate rocks, a wide range of
voids of differing origins affects their capacity to store and
transmit water (e.g., Ford and Williams 2007). In addition,
both primary sedimentary and tectonic structures such as
bedding, high-strain zones, hinge zones of macroscopic to
mesoscopic folds or joint and fracture systems, which are
important elements governing the migration and/or locali-
zation of groundwater within the karst systems, have been
identified (Worthington 1999). Häuselmann et al. (1999)
have demonstrated that the structural setting and tectonic
regime define the overall geometry of the carbonate units
and influence the development of the various phases of the
karst system. The tectonic structures commonly act as
channel systems allowing the migration of water through
the karstified units in which most of the conduits appear to
belong to old, deep phreatic systems (Häuselmann et al.
1999). Gremaud et al. (2009) found that the lateral move-
ment of groundwater in karstified rocks is commonly
stratification controlled, whereas the down-deep or cross-
layering migration commonly occurs along deeply pene-
trating fault systems. Ford (2006), on the other hand, has
emphasized the most common karst patterns are formed by
unconfined meteoric water, which migrates along the
fractures and other structures occurring in the karst rocks.
The northeastern Vietnam karst systems occur in areas
that are dominated by overprinting tectonic structures
derived from multiple regional deformation events (see
above). Numerous zones of structural weakness and/or
high porosity within the rock units created during long-
lived tectonism could act as channels for down-deep
movement of meteoritic water to form present-day karstic
landscapes. On the basis of field observation and structural
interpretation of the relationship between the localization
of karst systems and their hydrological behavior in differ-
ent carbonate units, major controlling factors of geological
structures to groundwater migration and subsequent karst
morphology development in northeastern Vietnam can be
distinguished; the most noticeable elements are summa-
rized in the following.
Primary sedimentary structures include the primary
bedding, the interlayering between carbonates and other
rocks with different permeability, and the unconformable
contact between the carbonate rocks and the underlying or
overlying siliciclastic rocks (e.g., Fig. 6a). The contacts
between layers of differing composition, especially the
unconformable contacts, are zones of potential weakness
and are vulnerable to deformation; they commonly become
123

Fig. 6 a An unconformity (dashed white line U) between the thick-
bedded to massive Carboniferous-Permian limestone (C-P, upper) and
Late Devonian siliceous limestone and marl (D3, lower) exposes north
of Pa Vi commune, Ha Giang province. White arrows indicate the
location of cavern developed above the unconformity. The uncon-
formity in this case is the area of ground water migration and/or
discharge. b Idealized geological cross-sections showing examples of
the structural relationship of carbonate rocks with other rock types
and structures and their relationship to the development of karst
systems as well as localization of groundwater found in Meo Vac
area, Ha Giang province. c Outcrop exposure of a thrust fault system
the locus of structural and mechanical failure with a high
degree of fragmentation. Depending on the strain condi-
tion, intense brittle brecciation or ductile mylonitization
can be generated along such contacts, or within the car-
bonate successions occurring adjacent to them. In this case,
significant enhancement of the porosity or void space along
the deformed contact zones could be achieved. Conse-
quently, such highly deformed zones become favorable
environments where water can be concentrated or migra-
ted, promoting the destruction of carbonate rocks (Fig. 6b).
The second important group of structures that play not
only a major role in the formation of the regional structural
grain but also influence the karst development in the car-
bonate units in northeastern Vietnam is the regionally
extensive development of thrust/reverse shear or fault
zones. As discussed earlier, thrust shearing is a very
common feature in northeastern Vietnam as the conse-
quence of Phanerozoic collisional tectonic processes.
Deformation along the thrust zones commonly led to the
formation of highly strained, brittle-ductile, and/or ductile
shear zones of tens of meters in thickness and tens of
kilometers in length. If such zones were formed ductilely
123
Environ Earth Sci
(traced by dashed red lines) developed by over-thrusting of the Late
Cambrian limestone above the siliciclastic rocks and its relationship
to the groundwater discharge area. In this case, the thrust zone
underneath of limestone assemblages acts as a confining bed along
which the groundwater in carbonate rocks is concentrated. Ground-
water occurs at the lowest point of thrust exposure. d Idealized cross-
section showing structural relationship between Triassic siliciclastic
and Carboniferous-Permian limestone in Yen Minh area, Ha Giang
province and the development of cavern and groundwater system. See
text for discussion
and were not reactivated during subsequent deformation,
they would become efficient confining beds, preventing
water from migration downward. In this case, groundwater
would be localized above such zones, transported along the
hanging wall, ultimately leading to karst formation
(Fig. 6c). One the other hand, if such zones were developed
or reactivated by subsequent brittle deformations, they
would become zones of intense fracturing with high per-
meability, and as such would be favorable channels or
aquifers for groundwater transportation and localization,
subsequently generating regionally extensive karst sys-
tems. In addition, thrust-faulting also led to significant
tilting, thickening and repetition of carbonate units, and the
formation of typical cuesta morphologic feature of the
karstified terrain in northeastern Vietnam (Figs. 3a, c, 4,
6a, c).
Folds are the third and very common type of structures
observed in carbonate units in northeastern Vietnam (see
above, Figs. 2, 5a, b). Regionally superimposed folding at
both macroscopic and mesoscopic scales has produced
numerous anticlinal/synclinal systems in variable orienta-
tions and led to the tilting or the thickening of the
Environ Earth Sci
carbonate units. The development of penetrative spaced
axial cleavage in competent layers such as carbonate beds,
on the other hand, leads to the strong fragmentation of rock
bodies, which may significantly improve their permeabil-
ity, and therefore either enhance the migration of water
downward or form the reservoir for groundwater within the
carbonate units. In addition, the common tilting of the
carbonate successions in major fold systems further
enhances the downward movement of water along the
geological contacts that are parts of the limbs of the folds.
The combination of the structures formed during folding
events consequently enhanced the action of water within
the karst units and therefore contributed to the complex
karst morphology (Fig. 5).
The intense development of numerous brittle structural
systems in northeastern Vietnam played a vital role in the
behavior of the groundwater systems and therefore led to
the formation of special karst morphology. The brittle
fracturing of the carbonate units is commonly sub-vertical
or steeply dipping, non-penetrative, intense brittle frag-
mentation, and brecciation. They are regionally extensive
and systematically concentrated as sets or systems occur-
ring sub-parallel to, or as part of, major fracture and fault
systems that deeply penetrate into the rock bodies (Fig. 7a,
b). Such fracture systems are highly porous and, in many
cases, produce numerous zones of high permeability that
form favorable channels for down-dip migration of mete-
oric water to the base of carbonate units or even to the
regional base level. The movement of water along such
fracture zones was the major cause for the formation of
extensive underground cavern systems, which later become
sites of ‘tiankeng’ development (e.g. Klimchouk 2006;
Fig. 3c, e, f).
The last important structural feature that governs the
morphology of karstic terrains in northeastern Vietnam is
the interaction of all types of overprinting structures that
Fig. 7 a A cavern system developed along the intersection between
sedimentary layering (gently dipping from right to left) and brittle
fracture system (steeply dipping in the left side of the photo)
northwest of Meo Vac Town, Ha Giang province. b Groundwater
discharges along a zone of brecciation developed within a brecciated
appear in carbonate units in a certain area. The develop-
ment of late, brittle, non-penetrative structural fabrics such
as joints, fractures and cleavage, not only produces zones
of high permeability within the carbonate units, but also
reactivates and modifies pre-existing structures formed
either during the formation of the rock units or by earlier
deformational events. Within the karstified terrains in
northeastern Vietnam, sink holes and underground channel
systems are commonly not restricted to, or preferably
developed along, any one structural system but occur at the
intersections between different types of regional structures
that penetrate deep into the lower parts of the carbonate
units. Such structural systems can create region-wide
underground channel systems down to base level that may
be more than thousand meters from the high mountain
peaks (e.g., Figs. 6b, d, 8; Vu Thanh Tam et al. 2009).
Finally, neotectonic regional unroofing of cavern sys-
tems in tropical conditions may play an important role in
the collapse of the karst systems and lead to the formation
of typical cone and tower karst morphology characterized
by large depressions, gorges, and valleys, saddles, hills,
caves, fengcong and fenglin structures (e.g. Klimchouk
2006) that form dominant karstic morphological features of
Vietnam (Figs. 3, 4, 5).
Conclusions
Analysis of the geological structural pattern and its rela-
tionship to the karstified assemblages in northeastern
Vietnam reveals that a complex regional structural frame-
work produced during a multiphase deformational history
during the formation and consolidation of the southeastern
portion of Asia continent played an important role in the
present-day occurrence, geometry and geomorphology of
the carbonate successions and the resultant unique karstic
zone in massive Carboniferous-Permian limestone in Ta Lung
commune, Ha Giang province. The intense spaced fragmentation of
the rocks had produced abundant of pore-space within the breccia
zone, which has become a favorable environment for groundwater
localization
123
 Environ Earth Sci

Fig. 8 Generalized structural

map of Pa Vi area, Meo Vac
district, Ha Giang province,
showing a typical example of
the interrelationship between
lithology, secondary structures,
and the localization of sink
holes/caverns and major karst
valleys in northeastern Vietnam.
Note that most of the cavern and
karst valley are concentrated at
the intersections between major
structure systems, including
several types of faults, major
factures and joint systems.
b Rose diagram showing the
trend and relationship of major
fracture systems. The fractures
were identified on the basis of
field observation and Landsat
image analysis

landscapes in northeastern Vietnam. The tectonic move-
ments during early stages of regional deformation gener-
ated extensive thrusting and associated folding, which led
to the tilting, fracturing, over-thickening, or dismember-
ment of the carbonate successions along high-strain zones
in ductile to brittle environments. In contrast, the over-
printing of the late brittle structures, in the form of non-
penetrative, highly fractured zones on older structures
resulted in the local augmentation of porosity within the
carbonate units. The combination of all structural elements
in the carbonate units, combined with the primary sedi-
mentary structures, is therefore is the most important
control on local and regional hydrological systems,
resulting in unique karst morphology. All types of struc-
tures contribute to the tilting, thickening and repetition or
displacement of the karstified units, whereas the cross-
cutting structures improve the porosity of the rocks as well
as form channel systems that enhance significantly the
infiltration, migration and/or localization of groundwater in
the carbonate units and led to the regional extensive
development of karst systems before they are shaped by the
modern exogenic processes
Thus, regional tectonic structures are important con-
trolling factors in the spatial occurrence of the carbonate
units, the behavior of hydrogeological systems, the present
geometry, landscape, as well as and natural hazards of the
karstified terrains in northeastern Vietnam. Proper identi-
fication of all types of structures within karstified units
therefore important and must be properly addressed in any
geological study of the karst areas, especially in assessment
of water resource and natural hazards.
Acknowledgments This work was partly supported by Vietnam’s
National Foundation for Science and Technology Development
(NAFOSTED), Project No. 105.06.70.09 and National Program on
Science and Technology for National Disasters Prevention, Envi-
ronmental Protection and Rational Utilization of Natural Resources of
Vietnam (KC-08/06-10). We are grateful to Dr. James LaMoreaux
and Dr. Jacqueline Halpin for their thoughtful reviewing and com-
ments that significant improved the quality of the manuscript.
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