A. EMAN U EL, C .H. KASAN ZU AN D M.

K AG YA

Geochemical characterization of hydrocarbon

source rocks of the Triassic-Jurassic time interval in
the Mandawa basin, southern Tanzania: Implications
for petroleum generation potential

A. Emanuel, C.H. Kasanzu and M. Kagya

University of Dar es Salaam, P.O. Box 35052, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Email: mtongi89@yahoo.com; kcharls16@yahoo.com; kagyameshack@gmail.com

© 2020 Geological Society of South Africa. All rights reserved.

Abstract

Triassic to mid-Jurassic core samples of the Mandawa basin, southern Tanzania (western coast of the Indian Ocean),
were geochemically analyzed in order to constrain source rock potentials and petroleum generation prospects of
different stratigraphic formations within the coastal basin complex. The samples were collected from the Mihambia,
Mbuo and Nondwa Formations in the basin. Geochemical characterization of source rocks intersected in exploration
wells drilled between 503 to 4042 m below surface yielded highly variable organic matter contents (TOC) rated between
fair and very good potential source rocks (0.5 to 8.7 wt%; mean ca. 2.3 wt%). Based on bulk geochemical data obtained
in this study, the Mandawa source rocks are mainly Type I, Type II, Type III, mixed Types II/III and Type IV kerogens,
with a predominance of Type II, Type III and mixed Type II/III. Based on pyrolysis data (Tmax 417 to 473oC; PI = 0.02
to 0.47; highly variable HI = 13 to 1 000 mg/gTOC; OI = 16 to 225 mg/g; and VR values of between 0.24 to 0.95% Ro) we
suggest that the Triassic Mbuo Formation and possibly the mid-Jurassic Mihambia Formation have a higher potential
for hydrocarbon generation than the Nondwa Formation as they are relatively thermally mature.

Introduction

The northeast-southwest-trending Mesozoic Coastal Basin
complex of Eastern Africa is an important source region for
hydrocarbon exploration and production along the western
margin of the Indian Ocean (Figure 1). It formed during the Late
Jurassic-Early-Cretaceous in the realm of Gondwana, following
separation of the Africa-Arabia plate from Madagascar and India
(Reeves et al., 2002; Hudson, 2011; Kasanzu et al., 2016).
Exploration records in the basin date back to the early 1950’s
but the first discovery of gas was made in 1974 whereas the
current figure stands at 57.54 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) in the
country (TPDC, 2020). The overall understanding of the tectono-
thermal and geological evolution of the basin in Tanzania has
increased during the 21st century, and a number of gas fields has
been discovered in the southern part of the coastal basin
complex (see Hudson, 2011). Several basins within the coastal
setting have been established; these include Mandawa, Ruvu and
Ruvuma (Figure 1). These basins comprise calcareous and clastic
sedimentary marine and terrestrial facies that span the time
interval between Triassic and Neogene in age (Hudson 2011;
Figure 2). Kagya (1996) reported that most hydrocarbons in the
basin complex originated from the Lower Jurassic-Cretaceous
source rocks. The basin extends farther south to Mozambique
where over 100 Tcf of gas has been reported by Brownfield
(2016).
A number of studies regarding geology, palaeontology,
palynology, stratigraphy, petrophysics and tectonics in the
coastal basin complex in Tanzania have been documented and
published (Emmanuel et al., 2017; Mtabazi et al., 2019; Mjili and
Mulibo, 2018). Despite comprehensive exploration activities in
Mandawa, no discoveries of hydrocarbons have been reported

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 GEOCHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF HYDROCARBON SOURCE ROCKS OF THE TRIASSIC-JURASSIC TIME INTERVAL IN THE
MANDAWA BASIN, SOUTHERN TANZANIA: IMPLICATIONS FOR PETROLEUM GENERATION POTENTIAL

Figure 1. (Top left) Prevalent Gondwana extensional tectonics within the African plate related to mantle upwelling and seafloor spreading that led
to sediments accumulation along the western coast of the Indian Ocean during the Mesozoic. Only coastal basins relevant to our study are shown in
red color (in the Gondwana map; top left). The position of the coastal basin complex of Tanzania is indicated as a square insert in the western margin
of the Indian Ocean (Gondwana reconstruction map modified from Kasanzu et al., 2016). (Right) Geographical location of the Mandawa basin (red
rectangle) and other onshore and off-shore basins in the region (modified from TPDC, 1992).

except for the oil seeps in some exploration wells (TPDC, 2020).
None of the wells encountered hydrocarbons but the
carbonaceous shales in the basin have a good potential for
hydrocarbon generation (e.g. Hudson, 2011; Zongying et al.,
2013; Brownfield, 2016). Therefore, the aim of this work is to
provide a comprehensive investigation on the Triassic-Jurassic
siliciclastic and evaporitic facies in order to evaluate their source
rock characteristics.
Geological setting and litho-stratigraphy
The western coast of the Indian Ocean is directly linked to
fragmentation of the supercontinent Gondwana during the
Cretaceous and Jurassic time intervals (Figure 1; Jokat et al.,
2003). This protracted extensional tectonic event consisted of
the following phases:
• early mantle-related surface uplift during the Carboniferous;
• Permian rifting and deposition of lacustrine sediments in
grabens (Chauvet et al., 2009);
• a Jurassic period of transgression that led to the deposition of
evaporites and organic-rich claystones in marine conditions
and;
• tectonic stabilization that is related to African plate
reorganization following breakup during the mid Cretaceous
(Hudson and Nicholas, 2014; Kasanzu et al., 2016).
The Mandawa basin, whose aerial coverage is about 15 000 km2,
comprises lithofacies that were deposited during the Triassic –
Neogene time interval (Nicholas et al., 2007; Hudson, 2011;
Hudson and Nicholas, 2014). The stratigraphy in the basin has
been categorised into five units; namely Pindiro, Mandawa,
Mavuji, Kilwa and Songo Songo (Figure 3). These stratigraphic
units comprise evaporites, carbonaceous sandstones, siltstones,
shales, claystones and deltaic unconsolidated sands (Hudson,
2011). Detailed stratigraphic configuration of the basin is
summarised in Figure 3.
Development of the Mandawa basin has been suggested
to be influenced by two break-up stages of Gondwana
supercontinent that began at about 300 Ma (Salman and Abdula,
1995, Nicholas et al., 2007). Aeromagnetic data suggest three
sets of subsurface structures in the basin that Nicholas et al.
(2007) and Hudson (2011) interpret to be associated with
regional rifting and drifting of Gondwana. These lineaments
include the dominant north-northwest – south-southeast, the
minor east-northeast – west-southwest and north-northeast –
south-southwest trends (Figure 4).
Depositional environments in the area range from fluvial,
deltaic to deep marine settings (Hudson and Nicholas, 2014).
Samples used in this study are from four wells (i.e. East Lika-1,
Mita – Gamma-1, Mbuo-1, and Mandawa-7; Figure 2). Note that
Mita Gamma-1 intersects both Mihambia silicic limestones
(maximum thickness = 192 m) and Nondwa shales (maximum
thickness = 1544 m); East Lika-1 intersects Nondwa and Mbuo

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 A. EMAN U EL, C .H. KASAN ZU AN D M. K AG YA

Figure 2. An overview of the geology of the investigated area in the Mandawa basin. Drilled wells are indicated on the map. The area is mainly
dominated by southwest-northeast and northwest-southeast trending faults that are related to Gondwana tectonics during fragmentation and opening
of the Indian Ocean. Samples used in this study are from four wells (i.e. East Lika-1, Mita – Gamma-1, Mbuo-1, and Mandawa-7). Note that Mita
Gamma-1 intersects both the Mihambia and Nondwa Formations; East Lika-1 intersects Nondwa and Mbuo sequences; Mbuo-1 and Mandawa-7
intersect both Nondwa and Mbuo Formations. Depth drilled is between 503 to 4042 m below surface. Core sample sources from each borehole are
indicated in Table 1. Map modified from Hudson (2011).

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 GEOCHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF HYDROCARBON SOURCE ROCKS OF THE TRIASSIC-JURASSIC TIME INTERVAL IN THE
MANDAWA BASIN, SOUTHERN TANZANIA: IMPLICATIONS FOR PETROLEUM GENERATION POTENTIAL

Figure 3. The stratigraphic sequence and nomenclature of the Mandawa sub-basin. Studied formations are indicated. Note that some of are known
for richness in fossils such as the dinosaurs in the Tendaguru Formation (from Hudson, 2011).

sandstones (maximum thickness = 1238 m) sequences; Mbuo-1
and Mandawa-7 intersect both the Nondwa and Mbuo
Formations (see Figure 3 for local stratigraphy).
Materials and methods
The evaluation of hydrocarbon potential of source rocks in the
basin was based on determination of organic matter content
(expressed as total organic carbon (TOC) and Rock-Eval
pyrolysis parameter), S2 (pyrolysable hydrocarbon; details of the
method are given in Ordonez et al., 2019). The analysed
73 samples (each 1 m long) are from the Triassic-Lower Jurassic
Mbuo Formation, Lower Jurassic Nondwa Formation and the
Mid-Jurassic Mihambia Formation.
For Rock-Eval and TOC determination, 100 mg of pulverised
samples were heated to 600oC. The pulps were digested using
concentrated HCl (37% for 18 h) to remove inorganic carbonates
and HF (40% for 24 h) to remove silicates. A Carlo Erba NA
1500 NCS analyzer was used and TOC values were determined
by the difference between total carbon concentrations and
carbonate-carbon concentrations as measured by a Coulometrics
5011 analyzer. A Rock-Eval II unit together with a TOC module
was applied during the analyses. A total of 73 samples from
evaporites, shales and claystones were prepared prior to analysis
by washing using clean, distilled water to remove all
contaminants. Sampled depths range between 503 m to 4042 m
below surface. The data used for this study were from analyses
carried out by the geochemical laboratories of Robertson

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Research of England (UK), Geolab-Nor of Norway and
University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Laboratories in the UK.
Results and discussions
Characterization of the Triassic to Jurassic source rocks from
selected Mandawa wells was conducted for the purpose of
analysing their quantity and quality of organic matter and their
capability of generating oil and gas (see Table 1 and Figure 2).
Data from Mbuo Formation show a wide range in TOC
abundances ranging between 0.5 and 7.4 wt%. TOC contents for
the Mihambia rocks are lowest among all evaluated stratigraphic
sections (i.e. 0.7 to 2.1 wt%). On the other hand, the Nondwa
Formation exhibits relatively high TOC values that range
between 0.6 and 8.7 wt%. Rock-Eval pyrolysis (e.g. S2) is
Figure 4. A pseudo-gravity geophysical map illustrating the basement lithological contacts superimposed on the lineament structures as interpreted
from magnetic data (from Didas, 2016).
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A. EMAN U EL, C .H. KASAN ZU AN D M. K AG YA
frequently applied as a method to assess hydrocarbon
generating potentials and thus classifying organic matter types
(Peters 1986; Dembicki 2016). S2 values are in the range of 0.2
and approximately 13 mgHC/grock, 0.31 to 88.52 mgHC/grock and
0.39 to 2.83 mgHC/grock for the Mbuo, Nondwa and Mihambia
Formations, respectively. Hydrogen Index (HI) which is
a measure or indicator of the type of hydrocarbon (gas or
oil) to be generated had values ranging between 51 to
1000  mgHC/gTOC. The Tmax method, which is temperature at
maximum S2, which is an indicator of source rock maturity had
values ranging between 417 and 473oC, thus indicating maturity
variations from immature to mature source rocks. Oxygen
Indices are between 16 to 225 mg/g (Table 1).
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 GEOCHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF HYDROCARBON SOURCE ROCKS OF THE TRIASSIC-JURASSIC TIME INTERVAL IN THE
MANDAWA BASIN, SOUTHERN TANZANIA: IMPLICATIONS FOR PETROLEUM GENERATION POTENTIAL

Table 1. Geochemical results of Rock-Eval Pyrolysis and TOC analysis conducted on samples of the Triassic/Lower Jurassic Mbuo Formation, Lower
Jurassic Nondwa Formation and Mid Jurassic Mihambia Formation.

Rock Eval Pyrolysis

Fm/Litho. Age ID Z (m) TOC (wt%) S1 S2 OI PI H Tmax(oC) VR

(mgHC/grock) (mgHC/grock) (mg/g) (mg/g) I(mg/gTOC) %Ro

Mihambia Mid D1 1820 0.77 0.13 0.39 135 0.25 51 435

(Undifferentiated Jurassic D2 1859 2.12 0.19 1.95 23 0.09 92 440
facies) D3 1942 0.74 0.15 0.39 172 0.28 53 433
D4 1981 1.85 0.28 2.83 16 0.09 153 436 0.88
D5 2003 2.13 0.30 1.85 38 0.14 87 436
D6 2012 1.53 0.83 2.62 59 0.24 171 441
D7 2012 1.40 0.87 1.06 23 0.45 76 443

Nondwa Lower D8 171 0.65 0.07 0.42 153 0.15 64 426

(evaporites Jurassic D9 415 0.63 0.07 0.45 94 0.14 72 434
and D10 712 1.45 0.09 0.93 83 0.09 64 432 0.42
claystones/ D11 903 0.79 0.08 0.60 59 0.12 76 429
shales) D12 956 3.05 0.40 9.70 40 0.04 318 431 0.39
D13 1058 1.27 0.14 1.37 94 0.09 108 431
D14 1128 2.00 0.30 1.98 107 0.13 99 433 0.39
D15 1348 4.06 1.76 23.35 17 0.07 575 425 0.36
D16 1715 2.68 0.91 10.45 33 0.08 390 433 0.46
D17 503 5.30 1.00 32.33 32 0.03 610 417 0.26
D18 546 1.90 0.37 15.68 70 0.02 825 425
D19 546 3.80 0.53 26.17 46 0.02 689 429
D20 610 2.50 0.34 13.17 146 0.03 527 419
D21 617 2.30 0.25 8.95 124 0.03 389 418
D22 620 2.60 0.33 16.80 112 0.02 646 419
D23 696 2.60 0.14 7.08 20 0.02 272 433
D24 806 7.50 2.48 57.00 18 0.04 760 433 0.24
D25 807 5.90 2.41 58.84 23 0.04 997 434
D26 807 8.70 4.06 88.52 16 0.04 1000 436 0.57
D27 2017 2.27 1.30 4.90 49 0.21 216 433
D28 2057 0.97 0.70 1.48 130 0.32 153 437
D29 2076 1 0.43 2.85 16 0.13 285 443
D30 2103 1.66 0.41 1.99 60 0.17 120 445
D31 2134 0.97 0.12 0.56 225 0.18 58 441 0.81
D32 2134 1.85 0.20 1.22 36 0.14 66 446 0.81
D33 1241 1.30 0.09 2.37 31 0.04 182 432 0.37
D34 1298 0.97 0.14 0.93 49 0.13 96 430 0.43
D35 1320 0.60 0.13 0.31 65 0.30 52 426 0.46
D36 1417 1.06 0.13 0.73 33 0.15 69 435 0.53
D37 1445 1.01 0.15 0.59 60 0.20 58 433 0.51
D38 1472 0.97 0.11 0.85 118 0.11 88 431 0.50
D39 1475 0.77 0.07 0.53 125 0.12 69 424 0.52

Mbuo Lower D40 2804 4.42 0.74 2.78 0.21 63 441 0.51
(claystones, Jurassic/ D41 2805 1.5 1.96 2.82 121 0.41 188 422 0.65
shales) Triassic D42 2877 1.63 0.10 1.12 65 0.08 69 435
D43 2877 3.28 2.51 6.46 64 0.28 197 432 0.64
D44 2889 3.29 0.64 2.14 0.23 65 442 0.52
D45 3068 7.41 1.44 12.97 0.1 175 437 0.54
D46 3090 3.21 1.50 7.32 0.17 228 441 0.51
D47 3145 7.16 1.02 4.65 0.18 65 436 0.64

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 A. EMAN U EL, C .H. KASAN ZU AN D M. K AG YA

Table 1. Geochemical results of Rock-Eval Pyrolysis and TOC analysis conducted on samples of the Triassic/Lower Jurassic Mbuo Formation, Lower
Jurassic Nondwa Formation and Mid Jurassic Mihambia Formation. (Continued)

Rock Eval Pyrolysis

Fm/Litho. Age ID Z (m) TOC (wt%) S1 S2 OI PI H Tmax(oC) VR

(mgHC/grock) (mgHC/grock) (mg/g) (mg/g) I(mg/gTOC) %Ro

Mbuo Lower D48 3188 5.54 2.36 4.38 26 0.35 79 432

(claystones, Jurassic/ D49 3205 2.85 0.46 1.54 0.23 54 445 0.74
shales) Triassic D50 3219 4.99 3.03 10.73 33 0.22 215 430
(Continued). D51 3334 2.3 0.24 2.76 0.08 120 444 0.85
D52 3469 1.61 0.31 1.63 0.16 101 443 0.84
D53 3523 1.2 0.43 0.62 73 0.41 52 436 0.74
D54 3528 3.15 0.67 5.42 0.11 172 446
D55 3604 1.23 1.83 2.07 0.47 168 437 0.95
D56 3670 1.21 0.39 0.79 124 0.33 65 437
D57 3700 1.32 0.53 0.67 116 0.44 51 436 0.74
D58 3758 1.61 0.75 1.00 73 0.43 62 438
D59 3850 0.66 0.47 0.59 88 0.44 90 428 0.74
D60 3986 1.34 0.36 0.70 86 0.34 52 441 0.85
D61 4011 3.36 1.73 2.82 26 0.38 84 443 0.79
D62 4042 1.48 0.68 1.94 105 0.26 131 443 0.85
D63 2809 3.29 0.85 8.48 16 0.09 257 445 0.85
D64 2809 2.87 0.42 4.00 27 0.10 139 448
D65 2811 2.37 0.08 0.33 32 0.20 13 473
D66 2811 2.22 0.07 0.37 38 0.16 16 447
D67 1606 0.54 0.21 0.64 174 0.25 119 432 0.52
D68 1622 1.11 0.29 0.87 68 0.25 78 436 0.57
D69 1661 0.56 0.15 0.51 189 0.23 91 430 0.59
D70 1759 1.07 0.19 0.79 85 0.19 74 433 0.55
D71 1832 0.55 0.12 0.24 109 0.33 44 457 0.58
D72 1881 0.79 0.11 0.48 100 0.19 61 446 0.62
D73 1887 0.78 0.17 0.35 90 0.33 45 458 0.59

Fm=formation; Litho=lithology; Z=Depth; TOC- Total Organic Carbon; GP- Genetic Potential (S1+S2); HI=Hydrogen Index (S2/TOC *100); S1=Free hydrocarbon;
OI=Oxygen Index (S3/TOC *100) ; S2=Pyrolysed hydrocarbon; PI=Production Index (S1/S1+S2) Tmax=Temperature of maximum S2 (°C).

Quality of organic matter
Identification of kerogen type for a particular source rock is
essential for the prediction of oil and gas potential (Elyasi 2016;
Ela et al., 2018). In this study, we evaluated quality of the
formation units on kerogen types using the parameters of TOC
and S2 (Hydrocarbon Potential). We applied the TOC vs S2 cross
plot after Clayton and Ryder (1984) with the backing of kerogen
type classification using the Hydrogen Index (HI) vs Oxygen
Index (OI) approach as in Espitalie et al. (1984). The results
show that most of the Triassic/Lower Jurassic Mbuo Formation
source rocks that were intersected in wells Mandawa-7, Mbuo-
1 and East Lika-1 belong to kerogen Type III with a few samples
suggesting mixed kerogen Types II/III (Figure 5). This scatter
can be caused by variations in TOC due to either oxidation
leading to addition of CO2 to the system (see Grohmann
et al., 2018). Kerogen Type III and mixed II/III characterize
terrestrial and mixed terrestrial/marginal marine depositional
environments, respectively (Peters et al., 2005). The pseudo van
Krevelen diagram using Hydrogen Index (HI) and Oxygen Index
(OI) also shows the presence of Type I, II, III and Type IV with
the majority of the samples indicating Type II and Type III
(Figure 6).
The majority of the Lower Jurassic Nondwa Formation data
plots in the gas-prone Type III, grading to mixed Types II/III,
Type II and Type I, which usually are of terrestrial origin. A few
samples scatter in the mixed Types II/III fields (Figure 5). These
samples indicate terrestrially derived organic matters. On the
other hand, the organic matter contents in the Mihambia rocks
are mainly composed of gas-prone Type III and inert Type IV
kerogens (Figures 5 and 6).
Thermal maturity
In this study, thermal maturity level of the source rocks was
determined by using the pyrolysis method; Tmax (oC), PI and
vitrinite reflectance (% Ro) data were calculated as in Espitalie
et al. (1984). The plot of HI versus TMax shows that Mbuo and

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 GEOCHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF HYDROCARBON SOURCE ROCKS OF THE TRIASSIC-JURASSIC TIME INTERVAL IN THE
MANDAWA BASIN, SOUTHERN TANZANIA: IMPLICATIONS FOR PETROLEUM GENERATION POTENTIAL

Figure 5. A pseudo van Krevelen diagram of Hydrocarbon Potential (S2) versus pyrolysis TOC showing kerogen types of the samples from Mandawa.

Mihambia Formations source rocks are within the mature zone
of oil window with minor exceptions indicated in immature and
condensate zones (Figure 7). On the other hand, Nondwa
Formation source rocks plot in the immature zone grading into
mature oil window (Figure 7).
The maturation range using Tmax is largely dependent on the
type of kerogen. Source rocks with Type I have a narrow range
whereas Type II kerogens are characterised by a wider range
due to the complexity of their molecular structure (Bordenave,
1993). In this study, Tmax values for the Lower Jurassic Mbuo
Formation source rocks range between 422 and 473oC (mean
= 440oC), indicating a mature source rock (Table 1). The Mid-
Jurassic Mihambia Formation has an average Tmax value of 437oC,
also implying a mature kerogen, however, interpretation of
this unit should be taken with caution due to limited data
(7 samples; see Table 1). The Lower Jurassic Nondwa Formation
exhibits the lowest Tmax values (417 to 446oC; mean = 431oC),
which suggests immature, an early mature to mature grade
(Table 1). Generally, the Triassic to Jurassic formations of the
Mandawa sub-basin are mature (Figures 7 and 8).
Generation potential
The generation potential (GP) of a source rock is evaluated
using the Rock-Eval pyrolysis method (El Nady et al., 2014;
Makky et al., 2014). The genetic potential is the sum of the
S1 and S2 values. According to Hunt (1996), source rocks with
GP (mgHC/grock) <2; 2 to 5; 5 to 10 and >10 are considered to

Figure 6. A pseudo van Krevelen diagram of HI versus OI for kerogen Figure 7. A pseudo van Krevelen diagram of Hydrogen Index
classifications in the studied area for Mbuo, Mihambia and Nondwa (mgHC/g TOC) versus pyrolysis Tmax (°C), showing kerogen types and
Formations. The plot shows that the majority of the samples falls within thermal maturity Note: the Nondwa source rocks are indicated in the
Types II and III whereas Types I and IV are minor. immature field.

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 A. EMAN U EL, C .H. KASAN ZU AN D M. K AG YA

have poor, fair, good and very good generation potential,

respectively. The GP versus TOC cross plot (Figure 9) is applied
with the backing of the HI versus TOC cross plot (Figure 10) of
Jackson et al. (1985) to interpret generation potential with
respect to source rock’s kerogen type and maturity.
The Mbuo Formation with respect to current maturity is
indicated to have poor to very good gas generation potential
(Figure 8; averages: TOC = 2.41 wt%, S2 = 2.79 mg HC/grock,
HI = 102.44 mg HC/gTOC) and at these potential ratings, the source
rock is more likely to generate gas at peak maturity. The TOC, S1
and S2 data in Figure 9 further suggest gas generation potential
for Mbuo. On the other hand, the data for the Nondwa Formation
suggest the existence of fair, very good and excellent source rocks
trends for oil and gas generation. However, some isolated zones
are indicated to be poor sources (Figure 9; averages: TOC =
Figure 8. A binary plot of Production index (PI) versus calculated
2.35 wt.%, S2 = 12.28 mg HC/grock, HI = 312.28 mg HC/gTOC).
vitrinite reflectance (%Ro) for the studied samples from Mandawa rating
Despite a limited number of data, the Mihambia Formation
thermal maturity ranking.
source rocks are suggested to be a fair to good source of Type
III kerogen, and as such, they have the potential for gas
generation (See Figures 7 and 9). The mean TOC, S2 and
HI values for this formation are 1.51 wt%, 1.58 mg HC/grock,
and 97.57 mg HC/gTOC, respectively. These results are further
illustrated by their HI and TOC cross plot in Figure 10.

Conclusions

Considerations on geochemical data such as TOC and Rock-Eval

pyrolysis, computed HI, PI and vitrinite reflectance data in our study
add important information for the Mandawa Basin as follows:
• The Triassic-Jurassic stratigraphic units of the Mandawa
basin are characterised by highly variable kerogen types
comprising Type I, Type II, Type III, Type IV and mixed Figure 9. Source rock characterization based on genetic potential and
Type II/III with a predominance of Type III kerogen, which richness of the analysed samples.
are rated between fair and very good potential.
• Our investigation indicates that, potential source rocks are
the Mbuo and Mihambia Formations (averages: TOC =
2.41 wt%; 1.51 wt%: HI = 102.44; 97.57g HC/gTOC, respectively).
However, validation of the Mihambia is inhibited by limited
core recovery and thus more investigation is needed in this
unit. Further evidence for Mbuo potentiality is supported by
PI and calculated vitrinite reflectance, %Ro insights.
• Tmax and HI constraints indicate that Mbuo samples are in
general mature while Nondwa and Mihambia are mixed
immature and mature.
• Based on S1, S2 computed values (averages: ca. 0.79 and
2.79 mgHC/grock; respectively) and vitrinite reflectance values
(average: approximately 0.68 %Ro), the Mbuo Formation is
suggested to be an effective source rock and significantly Figure 10. Source rock characterization for type of hydrocarbon to be
potential for hydrocarbons generation in the basin. generated for analysed samples from Mandawa (modified from Al-Areeq
et al., 2018).
Acknowledgements

The authors thank the Tanzania Petroleum Development
Corporation (TPDC) for analytical facilitation of our samples. The
authors would like to extend acknowledgements to the SAJG
Scientific Editor Marlina Elburg, Bastien Linol and an anonymous
reviewer for their comments and constructive criticism.
The second author (CHK) dedicates this article to the
memory of the late Prof. Maarten de Wit (Nelson Mandela
University, SA) as his former advisor. He was a true scholar who
thrived on learning and helping others learn.

SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY

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 GEOCHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF HYDROCARBON SOURCE ROCKS OF THE TRIASSIC-JURASSIC TIME INTERVAL IN THE
MANDAWA BASIN, SOUTHERN TANZANIA: IMPLICATIONS FOR PETROLEUM GENERATION POTENTIAL
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