Journal of Sedimentary Environments

https://doi.org/10.1007/s43217-022-00090-x

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Extensive salt deposition and remobilization influencing petroleum

prospectivity of the Mandawa Basin: remote sensing manifestation
confirmed by seismic results
Elisante E. Mshiu1 · Emily Barnabas Kiswaka1 · Bahati Mohamed1

Received: 13 July 2021 / Revised: 18 November 2021 / Accepted: 25 January 2022

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022

Abstract
This work reports remote sensing aided identification of salt deposition and remobilization within a sub-rounded structure
with approximately equant dimensions in the Mandawa Basin. A calculated surface flow direction has revealed the sub-
rounded structure from Shuttle Radar Topography Mission—Digital Elevation Model (SRTM DEM) data. Internally, the
body contains several structural highs and lows reflected by multiple peaks and troughs displayed by profiles drawn across
the body. Seismic interpretation results confirmed these structural highs and lows, and they conform to salt build-ups (salt
pillows and domes) and sedimentary minibasins, respectively. Seismic work, a follow-up investigation of the remote sensing
findings, involved qualitative interpretation of 24 seismic profiles, 7 of which were chosen to represent the findings. East Lika
1 well stratigraphy was used to assign the age of the studied interval, and confirm that features of interest are associated with
salt deposition and remobilization. Moreover, the East Lika 1 well tie corroborated that the interpreted salt deposition and
the associated build-ups are within the Nondwa Formation of the Pindiro Group. Remote sensing observation, coupled with
seismic interpretation, has revealed that the Mandawa salt basin is more extensive than reported before. Oil seeps, which are
potential indicators of a working petroleum system, have been reported in the Mandawa Basin. One of these seeps is adja-
cent to a mapped salt dome. This observation probably indicates the influence of salt tectonics in the Mandawa petroleum
system. Further work on a better quality seismic dataset may help resolve the problem of hydrocarbon whereabouts as far as
the influence of salt tectonics is considered.

Keywords  Remote sensing · Sub-rounded · Equant · Mandawa Basin · Salt domes · Seismic interpretation · Oil seep

1 Introduction despite the potential indication of a working petroleum sys-

Remote sensing has been widely used to map different
geological features for both social-economical and aca-
demic reasons (e.g. Becker, 2006; Bhaskar & Kumar, 2011;
Hewson et al., 2020; Ielp et al., 2016; Jaiswal et al., 2003;
Kazimoto & Mshiu, 2020; Santos et al., 2019; Shahid et al.,
2000; van der Meer et al., 2014; Zumsprekel & Prinz, 2000).
The work’s social-economical and academic aspects may be
understood well if one thinks about the absence of commer-
cial hydrocarbon discoveries in the Mandawa Basin (Fig. 1)
Communicated by E. Pereira.
* Emily Barnabas Kiswaka
ekiswaka70@gmail.com
1
School of Mines and Geosciences, University of Dar es
Salaam, PO BOX 35052, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
tem. The Mandawa Basin is part of the coastal sedimentary
basins of Tanzania. The working petroleum system in this
basin was first proved by Mandawa-7 well (Fig. 2) which
penetrated good source rocks and some gas and oil shows
(Hudson & Nicholas, 2014); is evident from the discovered
oil seeps (an example of which is shown in Fig. 2). In the
current work, the remote sensing technique has allowed the
demarcation of a more or less circular body in the Mandawa
Basin (Figs. 2 and 3). The body, having approximately equal
dimensions, about 40 km wide in a planar view (Fig. 3), led
to two assumptions regarding its reflected feature. It was
thought to indicate either a batholith or salt build-up(s).
The first assumption was dismissed due to the absence of
scientific works reporting such features in the study area.
More weight was given to the second assumption due to the
presence of petroleum exploration wells that have penetrated
salt deposits (e.g. East Lika 1, Mandawa-7, and Mihambia-1

13
Vol.:(0123456789)

Fig. 1  Geological map showing structural elements within the study
area (blue dashed rectangle). Songo Songo, Kilwa and Mavuji groups
were not thought to have influenced salt remobilization thus are not
whose locations are shown in Figs. 1 and 2) and several
research works reporting salt deposition and remobiliza-
tion in the Mandawa Basin (e.g. Didas, 2016; Hudson &
Nicholas, 2014). These studies report that salt tectonics, a
complex process encompassing subsurface movement of salt
and resulting features (Belenitskaya, 2016), has influenced
the structural development of the Mandawa Basin (Didas,
2016; Hudson & Nicholas, 2014) of which the salt deposit
is thought to be manifested by the shown remote sensing
images (Figs. 2 and 3). The Mandawa salt deposits form
part of the Pindiro Group deposited during the Late Trias-
sic-Early Jurassic period; the oldest reported stratigraphic
interval in the basin (Hudson & Nicholas, 2014). The sec-
ond assumption has forced us to use available 2D seismic
lines to confirm the concept while looking for the seismic
13
E. E. Mshiu et al.
explained in this work; but are shown to complete the map (after
Hudson, 2011; Kent et al., 1971)
manifestation of a potential geobody. Thus, the focus of this
work was in the evaporitic interval, the Nondwa Forma-
tion of the Pindiro Group, which is of the Triassic to Eary
Jurassic age, but a slightly longer stratigraphic interval was
investigated to get a broad understanding of postdepositional
processes that may have culminated in the emplacement of
the features observed from remote sensing images.
1.1 Tectonics and geology
1.1.1 Tectono‑sedimentary development
The evolution of the coastal basins of Tanzania has been
largely controlled by tectonics (Kent et al., 1971). Major
tectonic events include the Permo-Triassic Karoo rifting,
Extensive salt deposition and remobilization influencing petroleum prospectivity of the…

Fig. 2  Remote sensing DEM image with topographic highs (white) pillows (green arrows) and domes, and the position of oil seepage
and lows (dark grey) in the study area (see Fig. 1 for location). This in the study area. The interpreted seismic lines (with respective salt
image shows locations of interpreted seismic lines, interpreted salt structures) are shown in Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12

Triassic rifting that initiated fragmentation of Gondwana and partly sea-level fluctuations and climate variations,
Supercontinent, Middle Jurassic rifting that culminated at have influenced the sedimentary development of the coastal
the opening of the Somali Basin and the East African Rifting basins of Tanzania (Fossum et al., 2020; Hudson, 2011; Kent
during Cenozoic (Kent et al., 1971). These tectonic events, et al., 1971; Wopfner, 2002). For example, the Karoo rifting

13

Fig. 3  Further details from a close-up view of the study area using
clustered flow direction method. a Close-up view of Fig.  2 with a
sub-rounded feature demarcated by white dashes, b positions of two
caused dominance of continental deposition, but occasional
marine incursion is also evident in the Mandawa Basin due
to localized rapid subsidence (Hudson & Nicholous, 2014).
During the Late Triassic, the marine incursion led to the
deposition of Nondwa evaporites in the Mandawa Basin
(Hudson & Nicholous, 2014).
1.1.2 Geology and stratigraphy of the study area
The Triassic to Eary Jurassic successions of the Mandawa
Basin is grouped under the so-called Pindiro Group which
is overlain by the Mandawa Group (Hudson, 2011; Fig. 4).
The Pindiro Group comprises the lowermost stratigraphic
interval that overlies the metamorphic basement of the
Precambrian age unconformably (Hudson & Nicholous,
13
E. E. Mshiu et al.
profiles AA′ and BB′ in (c). These profiles have peaks and troughs
conforming to structural highs and lows in (b)
2014). Stratigraphically, the group consists of Mbuo,
Nondwa and Mihambia formations, which form part of
the syn-rift package emplaced during the initial stage of
Madagascar rifting from East Africa (Hudson & Nichol-
ous, 2014). The Mbuo Formation was deposited under
fluvial, alluvial and lacustrine environments; it contains a
matured organic-carbon-rich interval with poor petroleum
generation potential at a well location (Emanuel et al.,
2020). Source rock generation potential is not expected
to be uniform over the entire basin. Thus Mbuo Forma-
tion may have economic potential in other deeper basinal
areas as well. Either poor or economic generation potential
characterizes the Mbuo organic-rich intervals, the Mbuo
Formation may have still sourced seeping hydrocarbons
in the Mandawa Basin (Fig. 2). The Nondwa Formation,
Extensive salt deposition and remobilization influencing petroleum prospectivity of the…
Fig. 4  A chronostratigraphic scheme of the studied interval in the Mandawa Basin based on the works of Fossum et al. (2020), Godson (2017),
Hudson (2011) and Hudson and Nicholas (2014)
an evaporitic interval, was deposited under a restricted
marine environment (Hudson & Nicholous, 2014). The
youngest interval of the Pindiro Group, the Mihambia For-
mation, was deposited in a shallow to the marginal marine
environment (Hudson & Nicholous, 2014).
The thickness of the Nondwa Formation ranges from
58 to 2802 m, and is reported to be the oldest outcropping
unit, mainly due to salt diapirism (Godson, 2017; Hudson
& Nicholous, 2014). The Nondwa Formation contains
limestone and dolostones, gypsum, anhydrites and shales
characterized by complex internal folding resulted from
salt diapirism (Godson, 2017; Hudson & Nicholous, 2014).
Hudson and Nicholous (2014) suggested restricted marine
conditions during deposition of the Nondwa Formation
whereby Pande High and Ruvuma saddle may have formed
eastern and southern limits of the restricted basin, respec-
tively. This basin experienced an intermittent connection to
the open ocean in the North around the Kilwa area (Hudson
& Nicholous, 2014) and a semi-arid climate essential for
evaporates deposition (Hudson, 2011). The Nondwa evapo-
rites are thickest to the south of the Mandawa Basin because
the southernmost and central parts of the basin, during the
Late Triassic, experienced a high subsidence rate relative to
the surrounding areas (Hudson & Nicholous, 2014).
The Mandawa Group follows upward and is subdivided,
from oldest to youngest, into Mtumbei, Tendaguru, Kipa-
timu, Mbaro, Mitole and Nalwehe formations deposited
during the Middle Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous (Fossum
et al., 2020; Fig. 4). The Mtumbei Formation is character-
ized by oolitic limestone deposits; it was laid down when
the entire coastal area of Tanzania was under the marine
influence, leading to the development of a stable carbonate
platform during the Middle Jurassic (Kent et al., 1971). The
Late Jurassic-Cretaceous documented multiple regression-
transgression cycles that caused an alternation between flu-
vial derived sediments and marine carbonates during which
Tendaguru-Nalwehe formations were deposited (Fossum
et al., 2020). The Tendaguru Formation contains alternat-
ing marginal marine and continental successions (Bussert
et al., 2009). The Kipatimu Formation contains massive and
cross-stratified sandstone bodies alternating with purple to
greenish claystones and minor conglomerates which are
interpreted to have been deposited under fluvial and fluvio-
deltaic environment (Hudson, 2011; Kent et al., 1971). The
13

Mbaro Formation was deposited from lagoonal-tidal flat
sedimentation (Fossum et al., 2020). The Mitole Formation
is subdivided into basal oolitic limestone and fluvial-alluvial
upper sandstone members (Hudson, 2011). Fluvially derived
sediments dominate part of the Nalwehe Formation, inter-
preted to represent either deltaic deposition or deposition
within a river-dominated estuary (Fossum et al., 2020).
2 Methods and datasets
Two techniques have been used to accomplish this work.
They include remote sensing and qualitative seismic
interpretation.
2.1 Remote sensing
Remote sensing has been widely used to map surface geom-
etries/elements reflecting subsurface geology in several areas
(e.g. Ganapuram et al., 2009). Similar technique is applied
to accomplish this work. In the study area, a remote sensing
approach was used to demarcate a sub-rounded structure/
geometry, approximately equant in planar view (Figs. 2 and
3). The geometry of the sub-rounded structure was enhanced
by the preprocessed Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data
and clustering of the calculated surface flow directions from
Shuttle Radar Topography Mission—(SRTM DEM) data.
The latter is effective in enhancing surface geological fea-
tures. 30 m spatial resolution DEM data is a freely available
in the USGS earth explorer database. Preprocessing of the
DEM data was done to reduce geometrical errors and replace
the void pixels with average values from the surrounding
pixels, and ArcGIS software was the tool mainly used for
Fig. 5  Seismic well tie of the East Lika 1 well shown by the generated synthetic seismic profiles. The synthetic sections were generated to locate
the base evaporite marker that stratigraphically bears the salt deposit within the Nondwa Formation
13
E. E. Mshiu et al.
all the processes. The obtained sub-rounded structure in
the study area is characterized by structural highs and lows
whereby many profiles were selected to construct different
cross-sections across it. All cross-sections display peaks and
troughs that conform to structural highs and lows, respec-
tively, within the sub-rounded structure (examples are shown
in Fig. 3B and C).
2.2 Seismic interpretation
Twenty-four (24) 2D seismic lines, through the Mandawa
Basin, have been analyzed using Petrel. Out of these lines,
seven seismic profiles are presented here to show major fea-
tures that have been recognized in the seismic interval of
interest. The analysis involved the traditional tracing of seis-
mic reflectors and discontinuities. This technique has been
widely used to map the subsurface geology (e.g. Kiswaka &
Felix, 2020). In the current study, stratal relationships and
geometries of sedimentary deposits were key to deciphering
the studied interval sedimentary development. The seismic
interpretation was focused on two major reflectors; base and
top salt reflectors. Age assignment for the Nondwa Forma-
tion relied entirely on East Lika 1 well; a synthetic seismic
section was generated to establish a relationship between
seismic reflections and stratigraphy of the East Lika 1 well
(Fig. 5). The ages of other reflectors and packages were
determined tentatively based on their stratigraphic posi-
tions relative to the salt reflectors. The synthetic generation
process encountered mismatching errors due to technical
errors in sonic log acquisitions and seismic processing and
interpretation uncertainties. The technical errors are taken
into consideration because of depth mismatches between the
used well logs and seismic images on the actual occurrence
Extensive salt deposition and remobilization influencing petroleum prospectivity of the…
of geological elements of interest (e.g. salt deposits) that can
be easily identified on both well logs and seismic images.
3 Results and interpretations
3.1 Seismic observation
Several dome-shaped structural highs with rounded and
pointed crests have been observed. These domes are found
in areas marked by zones of deteriorated seismic quality
(domes A-O in Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13) which
appear as tall vertical and slanted bodies cutting across the
overlying sedimentary layers. Other reflectors are onlapping
onto these tall domes (Fig. 7). The observed domes have
varied widths ranging from less than a kilometer (e.g. dome
D in Fig. 6) to more than 10 km (e.g. immediate interval
below the marked part of dome K in Fig. 9). In some places,
the domes are surrounded by depressions up to 10 km wide
(e.g. Figs. 7, 8 and 11). Immediate sedimentary strata above
Fig. 6  Uninterpreted (top) and interpreted (bottom) seismic line L-1
showing multiple salt domes across the Mandawa Basin. Domes
B-E have pointed crests while domes B and E underlie major normal
faults which sole out on top salt. Salt dome D is the thinnest of all salt
the domes, with rounded crests, are characterized by minor
folds and normal faults (Figs. 7, 12 and 13). Most of the
domes with pointed crests underlie normal faults that sole
out along the top salt (Fig. 6). Wedge-shaped sedimentary
packages, thickening towards the dome-shaped structures,
have been observed in some places (an example of which
is shown in Fig. 7). Generally, the domes have a chaotic
internal configuration whereby no defined pattern can be
established (Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13). Locally, the
dome structures are linked to pillow-shaped deposits sepa-
rated by up to 15 km wide depressions accommodating sedi-
mentary successions (Fig. 12). The pillow-shaped deposits
are mostly chaotic with occasional internal reflectors. The
basal parts of the sedimentary depressions flanked by the
pillow-shaped deposits contain numerous faults; are slightly
tilted from the center of the depression southward (Fig. 12).
Despite the limited quality of the used dataset, the sedimen-
tary depressions bounding the domes have been found to
overlie tilted reflectors (Fig. 11), indicating the existence
of deep-buried sedimentary successions older than those
domes reported in this work. No clear fault control is seen on domes
B and D despite having pointed crests. The red reflector is marking
top salt in all seismic lines presented herein. See Fig. 2 for locations
of all seismic lines
13

Fig. 7  Uninterpreted (top) and interpreted (bottom) seismic line L-2
showing three dome-shaped structural highs, faulting of the imme-
diate layers above the highs and a sedimentary wedge thickening
toward dome H. Other reflectors onlap onto the domes. Significant
forming domes and pillows. These deep-buried packages
overlie thick chaotic intervals without any defined reflector
configuration (Fig. 11).
3.2 Combined seismic and remote sensing data
The observed seismic domes and pillows and their asso-
ciated depressions conform to structural highs and lows
from SRTM DEM data. An example of this is shown in
13
E. E. Mshiu et al.
thinning and possibly completely salt removal due to loading may be
present across potential welds. Red arrows show salt intrusion paths
and the existence of further salt at depth
Fig. 2, whereby all domes are located in areas with struc-
tural highs revealed by the remote sensing image. The dark
areas between the domes represent seismic depressions
(Figs. 8, 9 and 12). From remote sensing data, few seismic
domes (e.g. dome B in Fig. 2) could not be linked to peaks/
structural highs. The structural highs on Fig. 2 seem to
extend further North-West and South-East, but there was
no seismic data to confirm the conformity between the two
in these areas.
Extensive salt deposition and remobilization influencing petroleum prospectivity of the…

Fig. 8  Uninterpreted (top) and

interpreted (bottom) seismic
line L-3 showing further salt
domes. Minibasins surround salt
dome E. This survey line was
interpreted to ensure maximum
coverage of the circular body
reflected by remote sensing
images

3.3 Interpretations the Mandawa Basin. The occurrence of salt domes with

The vertical bodies of deteriorated seismic quality (domes
A-O in Figs.  6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13), which cut
through the superjacent sedimentary successions, are
interpreted to represent salt domes (see Belenitskaya,
2016 and references therein for similar features). Sev-
eral of these domes have not been reported before in
rounded and pointed crests suggests that both active and
reactive diapirism modes of Jackson et al. (1994) were the
mechanisms of salt intrusion. Reactive diapirism mode
is supported by (i) presence of normal faults terminating
along top salt adjacent to the pointed crests of the domes
(Fig. 6), (ii) tilting nature of the basal salt (Fig. 12), (iii)
existence of slanted domes (Fig.  10), and (iv) sub-salt

13
 E. E. Mshiu et al.

Fig. 9  Uninterpreted (top) and

interpreted (bottom) seismic
line L-4 showing further
domes in the basin. Here upper
part of the widest salt dome,
dome K, in the study area is
shown. Some parts of dome K
(unmarked interval) are more
than 10 km wide

deformation (Fig. 12). Variation in width of the salt domes
may be due to different modes of diapirism; reactive dia-
pirism produced thin domes, whereas active diapirism
produced wide domes. The depressions surrounding salt
domes with pointed crests (Figs. 6 and 8) indicate that tec-
tonic forces and sedimentary loading influenced diapirism.
Previous works from other salt basins have shown that
similar depressions, on passive continental margins, may
document basal salt deformations and tilted basal salts due
to external factors, including tectonism (Peel, 2014). Tec-
tonic influence in the Mandawa diapirism is manifested by
the base salt’s slight tilting and localized faulting (Fig. 12).
The East African Rifting during Cenozoic (Kent et al.,
1971) may have been responsible for this.
Sedimentary wedges thickening toward the salt domes
(Fig.  7) imply gravitational gliding during deposition,
suggesting an interplay between sedimentation and salt
tectonics, and are interpreted to mark syn-kinematic pro-
gradation of clastic sediments. Prograding sedimentary
wedges can induce lateral expulsion of salt due to dif-
ferential loading. Salt domes bounded by depressions on
both sides convey salt centered view (Peel, 2014). These

13
Extensive salt deposition and remobilization influencing petroleum prospectivity of the…

Fig. 10  Uninterpreted (left) and interpreted (right) seismic line L-5 showing a tilted dome in the Mandawa Basin. The dome has a pointed crest
and is surrounded by minibasins. Red arrows indicate salt flow directions and the presence of further salt at depth

depressions are interpreted to represent salt withdrawal
minibasins (see Peel, 2014 and references therein for defi-
nitions) within the Mandawa Basin. A similar interpreta-
tion is given herein to account for the depressions between
pillow-shaped deposits (Fig.  12). The pillow-shaped
deposits represent salt pillows, marking the primary stage
of salt movement in the study area. Stages of salt remo-
bilization, starting with pillow formation followed by
diapir and post diapiric stages, are well summarized by
the Trusheim model (see Trusheim, 1987) of halokine-
sis (Mohr et al., 2005). Significant thinning, and possibly
complete salt removal due to salt withdrawal upon sedi-
mentary loading is interpreted to have occurred in some
areas of the Mandawa Basin. These areas form potential
welds (Fig. 7), which might be migration pathways for
hydrocarbons or act as an impediment for further move-
ment of hydrocarbons depending on different conditions
(see Wagner, 2010; Wagner & Jackson, 2011; Peel, 2014).
Faulting of the immediate superjacent strata, roofing
the salt domes with rounded crests, is interpreted to have
resulted due to pressure build-up from the accumulating
salt material. Salt accumulation produced convex bulges
reflected by minor folding of the layers roofing the diapirs
and pillows (Figs. 7, 12 and 13) showing that deposition
of supersalt strata followed basin geometry/topography.
Onlapping of the reflectors onto the tall salt diapirs (e.g.
Fig. 7) reflects the domes’ rotation and steepening due to
shearing of the overlying deposits during salt emplacement
(see Stewart (2006) for similar examples).
The chaotic nature of the salt pillows is due to velocity
disturbance and complex arrangement/folding of the layers
due to diapirism. Occasional reflectors within the salt bod-
ies (Fig. 13) are due to the layered nature of the deposits
within the Nondwa Formation.
The sedimentary package below the salt pillows and
domes represent the Mbuo Formation, which exists in the
area (see Hudson & Nicholas, 2014) and possibly other
older intervals that have not been penetrated by wells. This
is because the Carboniferous deposits have been reported
in other sedimentary basins of Tanzania (Kreuser et al.,
1990). The chaotic to transparent seismic interval below
the oldest sedimentary successions observed in this work
marks the metamorphic basement flooring of the Mandawa
Basin. Similar interpretation was given by Didas (2016).
The Mandawa Basin topography conform to remote
sensing, and seismic interpretation results confirm salt
deposition and remobilization at depth. The used remote
sensing data could not resolve some seismic domes (see
dome B in Fig. 2) because they are too small and are deep
buried.

13

Fig. 11  Uninterpreted (top) and interpreted (bottom) seismic line L-6 showing a chaotic structural high (dome N) separating two sedimentary
depressions (minibasins). The fills of both depressions overlie sedimentary successions that rest directly on the basement
4 Discussion
Based on the seismic investigation, at least fifteen diapirs
have been found in the Mandawa Basin (domes A-O in
Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13). The diapirs N and O occur
in areas that have been previously reported to have outcrops
of salt deposits, and several gypsum quarries are located
around these structures (Hudson & Nicholous, 2014). Due
to limited seismic quality, it is unclear whether diapir H has
reached the surface or ends at the seismic depth/level marked
in Fig. 7. Further work involving analysis of high-quality
seismic lines and field visits may clear the doubt, although
it is not uncommon for the Mandawa diapirs to have reached
the surface (Hudson & Nicholous, 2014).
Salt build-ups resulting from subsurface salt remobiliza-
tion and related structures are widespread and easily recog-
nized in all salt-tectonics basins. These structures, including
salt pillows and diapirs, result from halokinesis, encompass-
ing all processes involving gravity that influenced salts’
movement (Trusheim, 1987). Salt pillows are plano-convex
bulges with a concordant contact with the superjacent strata;
13
E. E. Mshiu et al.
they are equant and elongated in planar view, respectively
(Jackson et al., 1994). The halokinesis, which may culminate
in the formation of salt pillows, salt diapirs, salt withdrawal
minibasins, and other related deformations, is due to buried
salts’ re-establishment of equilibrium based on the Archi-
medes principle (Peel, 2014; Trusheim, 1987). Salt(s) buried
under great depth(s) reach a stage where they behave plasti-
cally and begin to flow when essential conditions are met.
These conditions include tectonically related halotectonic
movements, and non-tectonic factors leading to halokinetic
movements (Jackson et al., 1994; Mohr et al., 2005; Trush-
eim, 1987). Halokinetic movements are believed to have
taken place in most if not all larger salt basins of the word
(Trusheim, 1987). Halokinetic movements are triggered by
salt squeezing due to overburden weight; the movement
began from areas experiencing denser sedimentary load
whereby salts are displaced laterally depending on potential
gradient (Trusheim, 1987; Wagner & Jackson, 2011; War-
sitzka et al., 2013). Transformation of gypsum to anhydrite,
which involves water loss and volume shrinkage for about
38%, leads to increased salt mobility (Trusheim, 1987). The
Extensive salt deposition and remobilization influencing petroleum prospectivity of the…
Fig. 12  Uninterpreted (top) and interpreted (bottom) seismic line
L-7 showing pillow-shaped deposits bounding a depression filled by
sedimentary deposits. The pillows are linked with a dome-shaped
structure high further north of the seismic image. Here the base salt
is slightly tilted and fragmented. Red-dashed rectangle (A) is a close-
up view of the dome structure and part of the pillow deposit, as it
Nondwa Formation is characterized by different lithologies,
including gypsum and anhydrite (Godson, 2017). Part of the
anhydrite package, within the Nondwa Formation, may have
resulted from gypsum-anhydrite transformation, which is
one of the reasons that facilitate subsurface salt remobiliza-
tion (Trusheim, 1987). The potential gradient may result
from many factors, including tectonics re-arrangement and
tilting of the blocks, depositional basin geometry/topogra-
phy, and differential loading and compaction (Jackson et al.,
1994; Peel, 2014; Trusheim, 1987). The outcomes of haloki-
netic movements are that the salt intervals that experience
denser overburden will be thinned, supplying salt to the
swelling area(s) roofed by thin or weak overburden (Peel,
2014; Trusheim, 1987; Wagner & Jackson, 2011). All these
aspects are present in the Mandawa Basin.
In this work, differential loading is considered the major
cause of salt withdrawal, development of salt pillows, and
formation of minibasins (Figs. 7, 8, 11 and 12). Differential
is shown in Fig. 13. The pillow-shaped deposits overlie sedimentary
successions underlain by an interval characterized by chaotic configu-
ration (basement). Thicknesses of supersalt packages vary laterally,
and the layers follow geometry produced by the underlying salt bod-
ies (pillows and diapirs)
loading is interpreted to have resulted from a high influx
of fluvially-derived clastic sediments following multiple
regressive-transgressive cycles during the Late Jurassic-
Early Cretaceous (Fossum et al., 2020).
4.1 Salt withdrawal minibasins
Salt withdrawal minibasins are about 1–10 km wide sedi-
ment-filled depressions into a larger salt mass (Jacskon and
Talbot, 1991). The salt withdrawal minibasins within the
study area have similar dimensions and salt build-ups bal-
ance salt withdrawal in the adjacent areas (Peel, 2014). The
build-ups may differ depending on resulting shapes (e.g. salt
pillows, salt diapirs, and salt cored anticlines). The build-
ups in the current work contain salt pillows and salt diapirs
(Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13). Salt withdrawal miniba-
sins have distinctive geometry that allows their identification
13

Fig. 13  A close-up view of the dome-shaped structural high and part
of the pillow-shaped deposit shown in Fig. 12. Seismic reflectors are
seen within part of the pillow-shaped deposit of Fig. 12. Minor nor-
mal faults are seen above the dome structure
even when the basin configuration has been deformed tec-
tonically (Peel, 2014).
4.1.1 Petroleum potential
The potential of the identified salt withdrawal minibasins
and the associated diapirs is not discussed in detail since
the current work focused on identifying potential geologi-
cal feature(s) demarcated by remote sensing (Figs. 2 and 3).
However, due to social-economic reasons, it is worth high-
lighting how important the observed features are concern-
ing the petroleum prospectivity of the study area. Further
research, on a seismic dataset with better quality, will focus
on Nondwa salt tectonics’ influence in the Mandawa Basin’s
petroleum system.
About half of the world’s hydrocarbon reserves are asso-
ciated with salt basins due to the role played by salts and the
associated remobilization in the localization of petroleum
system elements (Belenitskaya, 2016; Harding & Huuse,
2015) which may also explain the unsuccessful petroleum
exploration in the Mandawa Basin. A key observation here
is that diapir O is very close to one of the oil seeps in the
study area (Fig. 2) proposing the likelihood of salt tectonics
as the main factor influencing oil accumulation and seep-
age. Salt tectonics has influenced petroleum prospectivity
and seepage locations in several similar sedimentary basins
worldwide (dos Reis et al., 2017; Macgregor, 1993). It has
13
E. E. Mshiu et al.
also been noted that intrusion of some of the diapirs (e.g.
Fig. 10) was triggered by extensional tectonics because of
the presence of major normal faults which sole out at the
top salt. Kent et al. (1971) have reported the dominance of
extensional regimes during the Jurassic and Cenozoic. The
observed major normal faults terminating at the top salt
(Fig. 6) may have originated from these tectonic phases,
which are thought to have created structural grains that
controlled the migration of hydrocarbons. We believe that
further work on a better seismic dataset may help reveal the
whereabouts of the long-searched hydrocarbon accumula-
tions in the Mandawa Basin.
Salt withdrawal minibasins are of economic interest since
they control petroleum system element’s development, dis-
tribution and timing (Peel, 2014). These elements include
source rocks, reservoir intervals, the position of traps and
migration pathways, timing (Peel, 2014). The salt layer may
become welded out when it is too thin for further withdrawal
(Jackson et al., 1994). A fully welded salt basin, which may
be due to salt withdrawal and dissolution (Wagner, 2010;
Wagner & Jackson, 2011), can contain minibasins that are
surrounded by salt diapirs displaying “a hub-and-spoke
geometry” (Peel, 2014). Petroleum reservoir and seal inter-
vals may be found in these minibasins (Jackson & Hudec,
2017). Areas with potential welds and several minibasins
have been identified in this work (Figs. 7, 8, 11 and 12).
The presence of these welds (Fig. 7) is an important factor
in the evaluation of the petroleum system in areas where the
source rock is enclosed or overlain by salt layers; it affects
the migration pathways whereby hydrocarbons may migrate
to the trap through areas characterized with complete welds
(Wagner & Jackson, 2011) depending on how long the welds
have been existing relative to the hydrocarbon migration
(Peel, 2014). The organic-carbon-rich intervals within the
Mbuo Formation (Emanuel et al., 2020), which may have
economical petroleum generative potential in other basinal
areas, are overlain by the Nondwa salt; thus, the identified
welds may have been migration pathways to potential reser-
voirs within the salt withdrawal minibasins shown in Figs. 7,
8, 11 and 12.
4.2 Conformity of remote sensing and seismic
results
An equant body identified by remote sensing image (Fig. 3)
conforms to an area characterized by several salt pillows and
diapirs as it is confirmed by seismic images (Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9,
10, 11, 12 and 13). The area conforms to and extends beyond
the reconstructed Late Triassic palaeogeographic distribu-
tion of the Nondwa salt reported by Hudson and Nicholas
(2014). Hudson and Nicholas (2014) showed that the salt
lake was situated around and slightly beyond the areas
where Nondwa Evaporites are shown in Fig. 1. However, the
Extensive salt deposition and remobilization influencing petroleum prospectivity of the…
potential salt deposit seems to extend further North, South
and East of the Mandawa Basin which suggests that the salt
basin, and respective deposition, extend beyond the current
perceived boundaries. Further studies on improved seismic
datasets may allow better mapping of the boundaries.
Several salt diapirs, identified on seismic lines, conform
to the cross-sections’ peaks across the equant body, retrieved
from remote sensing. This observation confirms that the
remote sensing images (Figs. 2 and 3) show a topographic
reflection of Nondwa salt deposition, remobilization, and
extent of the salt deposition within the Mandawa Basin. Few
identified salt diapirs (for example diapir B in Fig. 6) could
not be linked to the peaks of the cross-sections, and this is
because these diapirs are too small and deeply buried com-
pared to other diapirs that the peaks could reflect.
4.3 Associated uncertainties
One should be mindful that the used seismic dataset is
subjected to potential uncertainties reflected by a slight
mismatch between the generated synthetic seismic and the
actual seismic line crossing the East Lika 1 well. Here the
uncertainties are mainly from the sonic data and seismic
processing. The sonic tool’s anticipated miscalibration that
tends to accumulate when the log is integrated with depth
and difficulties in running sonic readings in the shallow
part of the hole are the major sources of error in the sonic
data. Seismic processing and interpretation uncertainties
are mainly due to considerable uncertainty on the correct
wavelet to be used during synthetic generation and incorrect
zero phasing of wavelets during seismic processing. Despite
these uncertainties, the seismic results presented herein are
reliable because all major seismic characteristic expressions
of salt deposition and remobilization have been observed
on seismic; salt deposition and remobilization, in the Man-
dawa Basin, have been highlighted by previous workers (e.g.
Hudson, 2011; Hudson & Nicholous, 2014; Didas, 2016;
Godson, 2017).
5 Conclusion
This work reports the demarcation of an area character-
ized by salt pillows and diapirs in the Mandawa Basin, all
uncovered with the help of remote sensing techniques. Digi-
tal Elevation Model (DEM) data has shown a topographic
manifestation of the Nondwa salt basin, salt deposition and
remobilization within the basin. The salt deposition was con-
firmed by a seismic well tie, whereas salt remobilization was
confirmed by characteristic seismic expressions of salt pil-
lows and diapirs. Results show that the salt basin and deposi-
tion were relatively extensive than what has been reported
before. Several diapirs, shown in the current work, have not
been reported previously. One of the shown diapirs is linked
to oil seepage, suggesting the influence of salt tectonics over
the petroleum system of the basin. Salt welds are thought to
be possible migration pathways of the petroleum generated
by the Mbuo shales. Potential reservoir and seal intervals
are believed to be housed by the salt withdrawal minibasins.
6 Recommendations
Further work, using an improved seismic dataset, is recom-
mended for more understanding of salt structures and the
associated petroleum system elements in the study area.
Acknowledgements  Comments and suggestions from Gabriela Avella
and two other anonymous reviewers improved the submitted manu-
script to be considered for publication. We thank Thomas Mugwe for
his contribution, which led to the improvement of the geological map
of the study area.
Author contributions  Not applicable.
Funding  Not applicable.
Availability of data and materials  Not applicable.
Declarations 
Conflict of interest  The authors declare that they have no known com-
peting financial interests or personal relationships that could have ap-
peared to influence the work reported in the submitted manuscript.
References
Becker, M. W. (2006). Potential for satellite remote sensing of ground
water. Groundwater, 44, 306–318.
Belenitskaya, G. A. (2016). Salt tectonics at the margins of young
oceans. Geotectonics, 50, 244–256.
Bhaskar, A. S., & Kumar, R. B. (2011). Remote sensing of coastal geo-
morphology to understand river migration in the Thengapatnam
area, southern India. International Journal of Remote Sensing,
32, 5287–5301.
Bussert, R., Heinrich, W. D., & Aberhan, M. (2009). The Tendaguru
Formation (Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous, southern Tanzania):
Definition, palaeoenvironments, and sequence stratigraphy. Fossil
Record, 12, 141–174.
Didas, M. M. (2016). Geophysical investigation of the subsurface struc-
tures of the Mandawa Basin, southeast coastal Tanzania. M.Sc.
thesis, University of Dar es Salaam. 155 pp.
dos Reis, R. P., Pimentel, N., Fainstein, R., Reis, M., & Rasmussen, B.
(2017). Influence of salt diapirism on the basin architecture and
hydrocarbon prospects of the Western Iberian Margin. In Permo-
Triassic Salt Provinces of Europe, North Africa and the Atlantic
Margins (pp. 313–329). Elsevier.
Emanuel, A., Kasanzu, C. H., & Kagya, M. (2020). Geochemical char-
acterization of hydrocarbon source rocks of the Triassic-Jurassic
time interval in the Mandawa basin, southern Tanzania: Implica-
tions for petroleum generation potential. South African Journal
of Geology, 2020(123), 587–596.
13

Fossum, K., Dypvik, H., Haid, M. H., Hudson, W. E., & van den Brink,
M. (2020). Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous sedimentation in
the Mandawa Basin, coastal Tanzania. Journal of African Earth
Sciences, 174, 104013.
Ganapuram, S., Kumar, G. V., Krishna, I. M., Kahya, E., & Demirel,
M. C. (2009). Mapping of groundwater potential zones in the
Musi basin using remote sensing data and GIS. Advances in Engi-
neering Software, 40, 506–518.
Godson, G. (2017). Characterization of Triassic hydrocarbon source
rocks of the Mandawa basin, Tanzania (Doctoral dissertation, The
University of Dodoma).
Harding, R., & Huuse, M. (2015). Salt on the move: Multi stage evo-
lution of salt diapirs in the Netherlands North Sea. Marine and
Petroleum Geology, 61, 39–55.
Hewson, R., Mshiu, E., Hecker, C., van der Werff, H., van Ruitenbeek,
F., Alkema, D., & van der Meer, F. (2020). The application of
day and night time ASTER satellite imagery for geothermal and
mineral mapping in East Africa. International Journal of Applied
Earth Observation and Geoinformation, 85, 101991.
Hudson, W. (2011). The geological evolution of the petroleum pro-
spective Mandawa Basin southern coastal Tanzania (Doctoral
dissertation, Trinity College Dublin).
Hudson, W. E., & Nicholas, C. J. (2014). The Pindiro Group (Trias-
sic to Early Jurassic Mandawa Basin, southern coastal Tanzania):
Definition, palaeoenvironment, and stratigraphy. Journal of Afri-
can Earth Sciences, 92, 55–67.
Ielp, A., Ventra, D., & Ghinassi, M. (2016). Deeply Channeled Pre-
cambrian rivers: Remote sensing and outcrop evidence from the
1.2 GA Stoer Group of NW Scotland. Precambrian Research,
281, 291–311.
Jackson, M. P., & Hudec, M. R. (2017). Salt tectonics: Principles and
practice. Cambridge University Press.
Jackson, M. P. A., & Talbot, C. J. (1991). A Glossary of Salt Tectonics.
Univ. Tex. Austin Bur. Econ. Geol. Circ. 91–4 (44 pp).
Jackson, M. P., Vendeville, B. C., & Schultz-Ela, D. D. (1994). Struc-
tural dynamics of salt systems. Annual Review of Earth and Plan-
etary Sciences, 22, 93–117.
Jaiswal, R. K., Mukherjee, S., Krishnamurthy, J., & Saxena, R. (2003).
Role of remote sensing and GIS techniques for generation of
groundwater prospect zones towards rural development—an
approach. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 24, 993–1008.
Kazimoto, E. O., & Mshiu, E. E. (2020). Reconnaissance assessment
of the Stenian-Tonian granitoids of southern Tanzania for metal
resources by using geological remote sensing and geochemical
techniques. Geochemistry, 80, 125533.
Kent, P. E., Hunt, J. A., & Johnstone, D. W. (1971). The geology and geo-
physics of coastal Tanzania. Natural Environment Research Coun-
cil, Institute of Geological Sciences, Geophysical Paper, 6, 1–101.
Kiswaka, E. B., & Felix, M. (2020). Permo-Triassic sedimentary fills
and tectonic phases off Mid Norway: Seismic investigation of the
13
E. E. Mshiu et al.
Trøndelag Platform. Norwegian Journal of Geology, 100, 2020.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​17850/​njg100-​2-3
Kreuser, T., Wopfner, H., Kaaya, C. Z., Markwork, S., Semkiwa, P. M.,
& Aslanidis, P. (1990). Depositional evolution of Permo-Triassic
Karoo basins in Tanzania with reference to their economic poten-
tial. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 10, 151–167.
Macgregor, D. S. (1993). Relationships between seepage, tectonics and
subsurface petroleum reserves. Marine and Petroleum Geology,
10, 606–619.
Mohr, M., Kukla, P. A., Urai, J. L., & Bresser, G. (2005). Multiphase
salt tectonic evolution in NW Germany: Seismic interpretation
and retro-deformation. International Journal of Earth Sciences,
94, 917–940.
Peel, F. J. (2014). How do salt withdrawal minibasins form? Insights
from forward modelling, and implications for hydrocarbon migra-
tion. Tectonophysics, 630, 222–235.
Santos, M. G., Hartley, A. J., Mountney, N. P., Peakall, J., Owen, A.,
Merino, E. R., & Assine, M. L. (2019). Meandering rivers in mod-
ern desert basins: Implications for channel planform controls and
prevegetation rivers. Sedimentary Geology, 385, 1–14.
Shahid, S., Nath, S., & Roy, J. (2000). Groundwater potential modelling
in a soft rock area using a GIS. International Journal of Remote
Sensing, 21, 1919–1924.
Stewart, S. A. (2006). Implications of passive salt diaper kinematics
for reservoir segmentation by radial and concentric faults. Marine
and Petroleum Geology, 23, 843–853.
Trusheim F. (1987). Halokinesis. In Structural Geology and Tecton-
ics Encyclopedia of Earth Science. Springer https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1007/3-​540-​31080-0_​49
van der Meer, F., Hecker, C., van Ruitenbeek, F., van der Werff, H., de
Wijkerslooth, C., & Wechsler, C. (2014). Geologic remote sens-
ing for geothermal exploration: A review. International Journal
of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation, 33, 255–269.
Wagner, B. H. (2010). An analysis of salt welding (Doctoral disserta-
tion). University of Texas at Austin, 236 pp.
Wagner, B. H., & Jackson, M. P. A. (2011). Viscous flow during salt
welding. Tectonophysics, 510, 309–326.
Warsitzka, M., Kley, J., & Kukowski, N. (2013). Salt diapirism driven
by differential loading—Some insights from analogue modelling.
Tectonophysics, 591, 83–97.
Wopfner, H. (2002). Tectonic and climatic events controlling deposi-
tion in Tanzanian Karoo basins. Journal of African Earth Sci-
ences, 34, 167–177.
Zumsprekel, H., & Prinz, T. (2000). Computer-enhanced multispectral
remote sensing data: A useful tool for the geological mapping
of Archean terrains in (semi) arid environments. Computers &
Geosciences, 26, 87–100.
Publisher's Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.