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Insight on the Exploration Potential of the Ordovician Gas Play in Tunisia

Ghadames Basin, North Africa

Conference Paper · January 2018

DOI: 10.2118/192634-MS

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SPE-192634-MS

Insight on the Exploration Potential of the Ordovician Gas Play in Tunisia

Ghadames Basin, North Africa

Habib Troudi, Francis Chevalier, Wael Alouani, Wala Mzoughi, and Omri Abdelkader, OMV Tunesien Production
GmbH

Copyright 2018, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the Abu Dhabi International Petroleum Exhibition & Conference held in Abu Dhabi, UAE, 12-15 November 2018.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents
of the paper have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect
any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written
consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may
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Abstract
In Tunisian Ghadames sag basin, a significant portion of natural gas resources are looked within low
permeability Ordovician sandstones deposited immediately below the Early Silurian Tannezuft world-class
source rock.
The objective of this study was to develop an integrated approach to better estimate the amount of gas
stored in this emerging play via the analysis of four fundamental elements: 1) the thermal maturity of the
Silurian ‘hot shales’ source rock, 2) the trapping mechanism and the architecture of Upper Ordovician paleo-
valleys, 3) the impact of diagenesis-lithofacies association on petrophysical properties, and 4) the fracture
distribution/density and their contribution in the production.
The Early Silurian hot shales constitute the essential ingredient for the development of a pervasive gas
accumulation play. The gas generated at the deeper part of the basin has charged the underlying Ordovician
low-permeability sandstones mainly through complex faults system inherited from the basement. During
hydrocarbon maturation and charging, pore pressure increases at rates that exceed the normal gradients,
leading to local over-pressure as seen in several wells drilled down to the Ordovician reservoirs. Lateral
migration via regional faults is confirmed by numerous discoveries at the edges of the basin far away from
the gas kitchen.
Besides the structural closures accumulations, more complex structural/stratigraphic or purely
stratigraphic traps are deemed within the Late Ordovician, and documented for instance by the development
of incised paleovalleys filled with multiple fluvio-glacial and marine clastic sediments (i.e Algeria, Libya).
The discovery of hydrocarbon pay zones outside of structural closures and the result of the long term tests
confirm this hypothesis.
Based on seismic data it is generally very hard to recognize the paleorelief marking the base of the
Late Ordovician sequence. Key elements from core studies, regional correlations, isochore maps and
sequence stratigraphy have been combined accordingly, leading to a conceptual model within the observed
framework. It is then possible to identify the multiple incision surfaces associated with reservoirs of Jeffara
and M'Krata Formations.
2 SPE-192634-MS

The reservoir quality is considered as a major risk in deep areas (>4 km). Although, the primary pores
space have been occluded by quartz overgrowths and clay cementation or lost by lithostatic compaction.
The substantial gas rates observed in several wells drilled in the junction of NE-SW and NS fault trends
constitute an evidence of the contribution of open fracture into the flow.
This new insight into this play has been used by OMV to identify in Ghadames basin the area with
possible "Tunnel Valley features", analogues to those drilled in Libya Murzuk basin (Ghienne, 2003).

Introduction
This contribution focused on the exploration upside of low permeability Ordovician gas play in the Tunisia
Ghadames basin. The Ghadames basin is a large (~ 350,000 km2) intracratonic multi cycle basin in North
Africa encompassing parts of Algeria, Libya and Tunisia. The Latter is bounded by Hassi Messaoud ridge to
the west, the Telemzane –Nefusa Arch to the north-east and the Guergef uplift to the south-east (Figure 1).

Figure 1—Location map of the Ghadames basin.

In this basin, there are a variety of petroleum systems of widely different hydrocarbon productivity, hosted
within the intra-Paleozoic and Triassic clastic reservoirs (Figure 2).
SPE-192634-MS 3

Figure 2—Lithosratigraphic scheme of the Ghadames.

The Ordovician low permeability sand intervals have been reported as the most important gas resources,
extensively distributed in Algeria, Libya and Tunisia Palaeozoic basins (Figure 3). In 2017 the estimated
cumulative recoverable gas reserves in Algeria (Illizi basin) and Libya (Murzuk basin) went beyond 680
billion cubic meters and the total recoverable reserves is about 8500 million barrels oil equivalent.

Figure 3—Ordovician Fields distribution in Tunisia, Algeria and Libya basins.

In Tunisia Chotts basin the Ordovician low permeability and fractured sand intervals produce gas and
condensate respectively in Sabria, El Franig and Ghrib Fields. The cumulative gas reserves from these small
4 SPE-192634-MS

size fields is up to 10 billion cubic meters and the total recoverable reserves is estimated to 100 million
barrels oil equivalent.
In Tunisia Ghadames basin, the increased drilling activities starting from 2010 led to the discovery of Bir
Ben Tartar oil field and a huge amount of gas from several wells such as EB#407, Larich SSE-1, Karma-2st,
Bochra-1, Adam-6, OZ-1, HAY-1, Durra-1 and CEM-1.
In Tunisia Ghadames basin, 45 wells were drilled into the Ordovician section and most of them had
a strong gas background in more than one sand layer, and from 19 drill stem tests only 5 failed to flow
hydrocarbon to surface giving a minimum geological success of 74%.
Low permeability Ordovician sands are characterized by variable performances and the maximum
unstimulated rates reached 14 million cubic feet per day and globally the average rate is about 5 million
cubic feet per day. The general condensate-gas ratio (CGR) is moderately high and ranging from 70 to 160
standard barrels per million cubic feet with a clear increase of the condensate amount toward the northern
edge of the basin. No trace of inert gas and water has been observed so far in the Ordovician reservoirs.
Triggered by these encouraging results the Ordovician play becomes an emerging target in Tunisia and
its substantial gas resources will be tied to the new South Tunisia gas pipeline.

Petroleum Geology Background

Based on literature and the current work, this section will discuss the geodynamic process that formed the
Ghadames basin and will attach to predict the geological model for the Ordovician trapping mechanism.

Basin Evolution
The Ghadames basin has a stratigraphic record from basement to recent. The basement well imaged by
seismic is unconformably overlained by a thick sedimentary section structured during Paleozoic to Mesozoic
times.
This basin expressed a multi-phased evolution and the extensional features are clearly visible in Cambrian
deposits in the central part of the basin. Therefore, the initial phase of basin generation is extensional,
following the Pan-African Orogeny (Figure 4).

Figure 4—Regional transect (AA’) based on 2D /3D seismic lines and wells showing the present day structural
configuration of Ghadames basin, Telemzane Arch and the Chotts basin. The transect location is shown in Figure 5.
SPE-192634-MS 5

Figure 5—Hercynian subcrop and major structures in North African margin.

The (Infra-Cambrian?) and Cambrian succession, penetrated by several wells (Oz-1, Ra-1bis, SN-1,
PDG-1) can be seen as syn-extension deposits (filling of grabens, onlapping on faulted basement).
The Late Cambrian through Carboniferous times correspond to a long sag phase period and is dominated
by low but continuous subsidence without faulting, most likely a long lasting thermal subsidence. A
punctuated shortening event with local erosion during the Late Ordovician is plausible and confirmed by a
gap of 20MY at the base of Jeffara Formation in Bir Ben Tartar Field (Vecoli et al. 2009). At regional scale
this erosion is attributed to the Taconian unconformity. Above this unconformity a strong glaciation took
place inducing the generation of large stacked glacial paleo-valleys during Late Ordovician.
During the Silurian time the distribution of the Tanezzuft world class source rock is regionally influenced
by peri-glacial paleorelief or basement paleo-highs (Lüning et al. 2000).
The Hercynian orogeny superimposed a crustal-scale folding into North African basins. Faulting is
present, but the amount of missing section in the uplift zones cannot be explained by inversion faulting as
the offsets at faults are insignificant. Thus, is most likely related to a lithospheric folding mechanism and
the faulting being secondary features in those zones of the crust. The degree of truncation by the Hercynian
unconformity is more significant toward the northern edge of the basin, where most of the Carboniferous
and the major section of the Devonian are completely removed and only the Early Devonian remains above
the Silurian (Troudi, 2003).
During the Triassic-Jurassic times, after the tilting/folding uplift and erosion caused by the Hercynian
unconformity (Figure 5), the thermal subsidence restarted following a rifting phase of the Tethys to the north.
From Cretaceous to present the basin was impacted by a succession of shortening and extension
phases. Tilting and local uplift movements are visible at the northern basin margin along the Jeffara Fault
escarpment.
6 SPE-192634-MS

Ordovician reservoirs: Facies associations and depositional environment

The key aim of this chapter is to define the major facies association of the Ordovician section, the
interpretation of the large-scale sediment body geometry, and the application of relevant conclusions to the
geological interpretation of 3D seismic lines. The Ordovician section in Ghadames basin was encountered
at the depth of 3200 to 4200m with a progressive deepening from the NE to the SW and is mainly composed,
from the bottom to the top, of four related major formations (Figure 6): Kasba Leguine, Azzel shales, Bir
Ben Tartar, and Jeffra (including Jeffara main sands, Diamectite and Dalle M’Krata).

Figure 6—Ordovician reservoirs succession in Ghadames Basin, Tunisia

Kasba Leguine Formation. The Kasba Leguine Formation, Lower Ordovician in age, forms the best
reservoir in the western part of the Ghadames basin. In the most complete subsurface section three package
are defined KL1 to KL3. The stratigraphic contact between the Kasba Leguine Formation and the underlying
SPE-192634-MS 7

Sanghar Formation is marked by an erosive surface and the upper boundary is materialized by a sharp log
signature and a clear hard-ground with extensive lithification.
The Kasba Leguine Formation is characterised by massive fine-medium-coarse-grained sandstones with
minor thin stringers of claystones. Locally, erosive lags with enriched coarser sand grains and rip-up mud
clasts can be observed (Figure 7).

Plate 7—Principal lithofacies of Kasba Leguine reservoir.

The reddish sandstones rich in oolitic ironstones are characterized by stacked, medium-scale, low
to high angle planar cross-bedding; bioturbation are very scarce. In some degree cross-beds with
apparently opposing foreset laminae can be seen. Remarkable to note is the isolated occurrence of thick
unburrowed mudstone layers. Based on these sedimentary characteristics, a marginal marine to brackish-
water environment in a fluvio-deltaic or estuarine setting is interpreted as facies model for the Kasbah
Leguine Formation.
The upper most part of this Formation is marked by a progradational succession with strongly reddish,
cross-bedded sandstones. This sandstone succession could represent a fluvial or alternatively an estuarine
subtidal sand dune system.
The quite uniform and continuous sedimentation over a long distance could argue for a broad, low-
gradient embayment possibly supporting an incised valley or bay head delta complex.
8 SPE-192634-MS

The detailed petrographic thin-section samples of these sandstones show abundance of iron ooides
(haematite) and pores filled by iron chlorite. Formation of iron chlorite required a freshwater-marine mixing
zone typically found in brackish water and/or estuarine-deltaic (i.e. paralic settings).
The Kasba Leguine Formation is overlaid by the shales of the Azzel Formation. The Latter is dominated
by muddy fine-grained deposits grading upwards to very fine-grained muddy sandstone and was deposited
in a glacio-marine, tide influenced shelf to offshore environment. They are considered to be the time
equivalents of the Melez Shugran Formation in Libya (Figure 8).

Figure 8—Ordovician lithostratigraphic units distribution in Algeria -Tunisia - Libya

Bir Ben Tartar Formation. The Bir Ben Tartar Formation, Middle Ordovician in age, conformably
overlaying the Azzel Formation and is interpreted as peri-glacial deposits. The top of the Bir Ben Tartar
coincide with the main glacial erosion surface (Taconian unconformity). The Bir Ben Tartar formation is
dominated by micaceous sandstones with remarkable high gamma ray readings due to the high amount of k-
feldspars, plagioclase and heavy minerals such as zircon and monazite. Three facies have been recognized
in the Bir Ben Tartar Formation (Figure 9):
SPE-192634-MS 9

Figure 9—Principal lithofacies of Bir Ben Tartar reservoir.

Amalgamated wave-generated storm sandstones: This facies recognized in the lower part of Bir Ben
Tartar (7m to 12m in thickness) were deposited by tractional rip currents which transported sand eroded
from shoreface complexes into shelf settings. Thicker sandstones are interbedded with heterolithic units
deposited during periods of lowered cyclonic activity.
The sedimentary characteristics of these wave-generated storm sands, with evidences of fluvial and minor
tidal influence, argue for delta front sandstones. Due to the rather fining-upward log tendency these deposits
might have been formed in a more distal position within a large estuary bay setting.
The overlying erosion surface materialized by 5cm-thick pebble lag is interpreted as transgressive lag
succeeded by thoroughly bioturbated, glaciomarine shelfal-like deposits.
Offshore to outermost lower-shoreface facies: This facies overlay the underlying storm sands. This fine-
grained sediment includes hummocky cross-laminated and wave-modified storm beds. The vertical increase
of sands beds defines a successive coarsening-upwards para-sequences which records distal progradation.
Lower shoreface progradational facies: This facies, up to 5m in thickness, has an overall coarsening
upward character (sand over more heterolithic facies) which reflects the first progradation of wave-
winnowed and hummocky cross laminated facies. The heterolithic facies is made by thin, cross-bedded and
mudclast-bearing sand units which were reworked by storm into muddy, outer lower shoreface settings.
Trace fossils are very common including Planolites, Teichichnus and Skolithos. However, burrowing
activity appears to have diminished significantly during the later stage of progradation.
10 SPE-192634-MS

After a brief drowning of the older shoreface materialized by offshore fine, the upper part of the Bir Ben
Tartar Formation was marked by a significant progradation phase as suggested by the development of a
sand-prone Lower shoreface complex.
The upper most part of the Bir Ben Tartar Formation is marked by the development of regional dark
mudstones which are devoided of any trace of bioturbations. The offshore mud-facies reflects a gradual
deepening which initially resulted in drowning of the first progradational cycle.
The top of the Bir Ben Tartar coincides with the main glacial erosion surface (Taconian unconformity).
Jeffara Formation. The stacking pattern of the Jeffara Formation reflects the development of glacial
deposits as a result of glacier retreat and subsequent advances. The Jeffara Formation has a sharp erosive
surface which constitutes a regional marker. This prominent sequence boundary coincides with the basal
glacial erosion surface of the Lower Mamuniyat Formation in Lybia (see Figure 8). Based on logs response
and the sedimentary characteristics variations the Jeffara Formation maybe subdivided into three major
units:
Lower Jeffara main sand: The Jeffara main sand (Figure 10) is made-up of coarsening-upwards cycles
developed in response to progradational outbuilding of shoreface complexes. Three main sand- units (J3,
J2, and J1) have been recognized at the basin scale.

Figure 10—Principal lithofacies of Jeffara main sand reservoir.

The Lower Unit (J3) is composed of interbedded of faintly hummocky cross-laminated, fine-grained
sandstones and mudstone layers. These sedimentary characteristics are probably indicative of a storm
deposits. The sediments of the entire succession might represent delta front deposits. The distinct sharp-
SPE-192634-MS 11

based GR-log signature recognizable in several wells suggested that the lower unit (J3) was formed during
a period of retreat of glacial ice sheets i.e. falling and subsequent rising of relative sea-level.
The Middle unit (J2) is composed of a sharp-based, progradational sandstone interval. They can be
subdivided into at least two sub-units. Coarsening and fining-upward trends define an evolutionary history
that was characterized by repeated sea fluctuation. The unit (J2) is interpreted as wave-dominated, fluvial-
influenced and tide-affected delta front. It shows an upward evolution into a more storm wave-dominated
system.
The upper Unit (J1) appears to be dominated by heterolithic, bioturbated facies rich in tidal structures. The
deposits of these thick series show an overall transgressive character with internal progradational intervals.
In the uppermost part, a transgressive lag horizon is developed with associated reworked shoreface deposits
indicating the transgressive flooding on top of the Jeffara main sandstone interval.
Diamectite shale Member: Above the Jeffara main sand interval, a thick succession is including syn-
sedimentary deformed basinal dark grey mudstones grading upwards into siltstone. Fossils are very scarce
and poorly diversified (Planolites, Chondrites and Zoophycos) suggesting water columns to have been fully
stratified and the prevailing bottom condition to have been anoxic.
The upward transition from mudstones to siltstones is associated with evidence slumping and water
escape features consistent with high rate of sedimentation and the development of a low-angle slope within
the basin (Figure 11). In addition, ripple-drift lamination and lenticular siltstone are consistent with tractional
deposition of energy flows and suggest the local deposition of turbiditic sediments, as well as the presence
of sporadic lenticular sand bodies (turbiditic feeder channels).

Figure 11—Principal sandstone lithofacies identified within the Diamectite shale unit.
12 SPE-192634-MS

M’Krata Channel Member: The M’Krata Member, up to 15m in thickness, well known in Tunisia and
Algeria, is considered as time equivalent of the upper part of Libyan Bir Tlacsin Formation (see Figure 8).
Sedimentary characteristics indicate a pro-glacial environment and the overall M’Krata deposits are
interpreted as paleovalley or tunnel valley fills formed during glacial retreat and subsequent re-advance.
Glacier retreat is considered to have caused the formation of deep palaeovalleys cut by glacio-fluvial
streams, whereas during glacier advance the valley has been subsequently filled-up with glacio-lacustrine
sediments or the diamectite shale Member.
Based on core description and logs signature, three stacked lihofacies (Figure 12) have been identified
in M’Krata Member:

Figure 12—Principal lithofacies of M’Krata reservoir.

The Lower lithofacies is composed of heterolithic succession (mm -to cm-thick) of sand and mud layers.
A thick intercalation of chaotically sandstone is very common and mainly composed of pebbly coarse-
grained sandstone rich in pyrite and partly strongly iron dolomite-cemented.
The pyritic, muddy pebbly sandstone is interpreted to represent a glacio-fluvial debris-flow formed in a
subaqueous fan delta close to the glacial river inlet, whereas the chaotically sandstone resembles a diamectite
layer with broken and deformed clasts. Both layers reflect glacier-derived sediments supplied to glacial
lake. Another important characteristic of these sediments is their overall deformation and the occasional
occurrence of irregular deep cracks penetrating down into the underlying sand-mud interbeds. These cracks
are filled with overlying sediment and interpreted to represent desiccation or shrinkage cracks indicating
periods of subaerial exposure. Their formation is interpreted to be due to the repeated filling and draining
of the glacial lake.
The Middle lithofacies is dominated by fine-grained sandstones, mainly quartz-cemented, with repeated
mud interlayers and common large pyrite nodules. The sandstones are dominated by frequent climbing
SPE-192634-MS 13

current-ripple; aggradational wave-ripple lamination as well as common convolute bedding and water
escape structures. All these structures reflect a rapid and high sedimentation rates.
The overall middle lithofacies seems to be deposited in a glaciolacustrine setting and probably represent
deposits of a subaqueous fan delta front or less likely a braid-delta plain channel.
The Upper lithofacies consists of fine- to medium-grained sandstone showing a basal lag of calcite-
cemented and coarser grained sandstone with allochems. This lithofacies is considered as transgressive lag
indicated by the bioturbation, calcite cementation, occurrence of mollusc fragments and the locally coarser
grain size. The base of this unit is interpreted to be represented by a transgressive surface. It is considered
as onset of the lower Silurian marine transgression marking the end of the Ordovician.

Sequence Stratigraphic Interpretation

One of the objectives of this chapter is to establish a realistic sequence stratigraphic framework for
the Ordovician section in Ghadames basin based on facies analysis, regional transects and sets of gross
depositional environment maps.
First of all, it's important to mention that the high contents of radioactive heavy minerals (mainly thorium-
bearing monazites) and K-rich feldspar furthermore hamper a detailed continuous correlation particularly
of the Lower Ordovician Bir Ben Tartar Formation.
Three major depositional sequences have been identified in the Ordovician section (see Figure 6).
Sequence boundaries correspond mainly to a regional erosional surface, or maximum progradation of littoral
sand-bodies. The stacking patterns within each sequence and the associated unconformities are controlled
essentially by the rates of eustatic sea level changes (Troudi, 2006).

Sequence (1): Tremadocian-Arenigian

This sequence includes the Sanghar and Kasba Leguine Formations. The Lowest Sanghar Formation is
dominated by massive siltstone frequently grading to silty-claystone. This fining-upward trend suggests
a progressive deepening evolution and the installation of a long term transgression as documented by the
increase of mudstone intervals.
The Overlying Kasba Leguine Formation, characterize a marginal marine to brackish-water environment
in a fluvial-influenced deltaic or estuarine setting and the installation of high stand tract. The sharp-based log
signature and the uniform well-log pattern over a long distance reflect a forced-regression which coincides
with the base of valley filled with glaciogenic deposits.
The thickness distribution of Kasba Leguine Formations shows remarkable thickness increase toward the
NW flank of the basin and high chance for stratigraphic potential development.
The basal boundary of this sequence is not well defined as most of the wells have a total depth in top
of Sanghar Formation. The upper boundary of this sequence coincides with a sharp boundary and the
development of ferruginous hard-ground with extensive early lithification.

Sequence (2): Llanvirnian-Llandelian

This sequence includes El Azzel shales and the peri-glacial deposits of Bir Ben Tartar Formation. The Azzel
shale composition documented a progressive deepening and the installation of distal prodeltaic to offshore
deposits with local abnormal of upward increasing sand content.
The transition from El Azzel shale to the overlying Bir Ben Tartar is progressive. The earliest deposits
of Bir Ben Tartar is made of amalgamated storm sands accumulated in oxygenated shelf setting through
basin-wards transfer of material eroded from inboard shore-face complexes by tractional rip currents. The
occurrence of individual sharp-based sandstone and the cyclic coarsening-upwards cycles towards the top
of Bir Ben Tartar reflect a progressive regression, the installation of high stand tract and the maximum
progradation coincides with the Taconian regional event.
14 SPE-192634-MS

The amalgamated sand bars (2 to 8m) corresponding to mouth and/or shelf bar deposits may encompass
a high chance for stratigraphic trapping potential toward the North-East flank of the Ghadames basin.

Sequence (3): Caradocian-Ashigillian

The Late Ordovician glaciation is typically a short lived geological event with a profound influence on the
Northern Gondwana particularly in Ghadames basin.
The Ordovician glaciation in southern Tunisia records multiples cycles of advance and retreat of ice cap
and is represented by the sediments of the Jeffara Formation. All the cycles are not necessarily recorded
everywhere, as glacial incisions are not always superimposed but can also be juxtaposed laterally, pending
on the basin configuration.
The type cycle starts with glacial erosion (Taconian unconformity) commonly outline by a glacial
pavement developed at the base of the valley.
Immediately below the Jeffara main sand a thin regional offshore mudstone interval is developed and
corresponds to a brief transgressive episode interpreted as a maximum flooding surface. This shales interval
is considered as the time-equivalent of the limy Member recognized in Libya and Algeria.
The lowermost sand-body (J3) exhibits a prominent regional sharp-based GR-log response representing
a prominent glacial erosion surface or forced regression. In the present study the J3 sandstone unit has been
commonly considered as regressive systems tract. In some wells evidences of a sharp-based progradational
well-log response with reduced thickness can be noticed supporting a falling stage event.
In some wells the fining-upward GR-log pattern can be seen suggestive of a more proximal proglacial
setting with possible delta plain and tidal or distributary channel formation. The succession could represent
a fluvio-glacial lowstand due to the advancing ice sheet.
The overlying J2 and J1 sand-bodies filled the depositional lows developed at the end of the deposition of
J3 and they are interpreted as transgressive system tract with clear evidence a retrogradational parasequence
set based on well-log stacking pattern. The top of Jeffara main sand or the top of J1 is marked by a maximum
flooding surface
Above the Jeffara main sand interval, the Diamectite Member dominated by distal glaciomarine deposit,
reflects probably distal prodeltaic or slope setting. The high frequency of quartz pebbles randomly
distributed in the mudstones, reflects the advance of the glacial ice-sheet and synsedimentary deformations.
Several glacial features such as slumps or liquefied shelf sandy series occur. The sporadic development
of a single prograding sand-prone in the northern edge of Ghadames basin is interpreted as subaqueous fan
caused by turbidity current or mass-flow deposition fronting the glacial ice sheet.
The last recognizable glacial event is materialized by the quartzitic sandstone of the M’Kratta Member.
The latter is interpreted as glacial palaeovalley fill and is as a result of glacier retreat. "The term tunnel
valley sensu lato" is applied for the M’Krata member. The northern boundary of this paleo-valley coincides
with the erosion of the whole upper Ordovician by the Hercynian unconformity. Toward the western flank
of the Ghadames basin the M'Kratta shows strong lateral facies variations and partly completely disappears
leaving only a thin transgressive remnant in some wells. The thickness variations might have been caused
by different glacial erosion on the low gradient shelf, local development palaeohighs and/or changing of
sedimentary processes.
Interesting to note is the complex filling of the palaeovalley itself causing varying GR-log signatures
from usually basal blocky and fining-upward to coarsening upward. The log pattern is interpreted to reflect
both pro-glacial braid delta plain/outwash plain including channel and delta front deposition formed by
down-cutting during low-water stage and filling during successive transgressive and high stand episodes.
The Gross depositional environment map of M'Kratta Member depicts the hypothetical trend of the
palaeovalley and depo-centers from SSW-NNE and SSE-NNW. This is also supported by image logs from
many wells.
SPE-192634-MS 15

In the uppermost part of the M'Kratta Member a clear transgressive surface has been overprinted in
the whole basin. This surface is materialized by fine- to medium-grained, calcite-cemented sandstone with
basal enrichments of tiny rip-up clasts and bivalve fragments reflecting an earlier onset of the Silurian
transgression.

Ordovician reservoirs characterisation

Based on the depositional environments we can conclude that Ordovician clastic reservoirs were deposited
as transgressive or high stand system tracts. Most of these sandy facies shows could potentially represent
reservoir bodies. This chapter documents the principal micro-characteristics of the Ordovician rocks and
highlights the impact of the post depositional process and the natural fracturing on reservoir quality (Troudi
et al. 2018).

Textures and Fabrics

Considering the rock microscopic characteristics, the studied Ordovician samples derived from both Bir
Ben Tartar and Jeffara reservoirs showing well sorted, very fine-grained sandstones and siltstones, which
are typically either highly ductile-rich and intensely compacted, or relatively clean(er), yet intensely quartz-
cemented. The Ordovician reservoirs exhibit a variable mineralogical assemblage.
The Jeffara sand is more quartz-rich, with relatively small amount of feldspar and plagioclase, almost no
carbonates and low clays and micas content.
The Bir Ben Tartar sand layers have more micas and high K-feldspars and plagioclase content. This
explains the high GR recorded in all wells.
The Kashbah Leguine reservoir may be divided into an upper part, with a high content in hematite and
chlorite, and a lower part, with minor hematite and less chlorite.
Based on petrography analysis, at least four depositional fabrics have been identified in the Ordovician
sandstones reservoirs:
- Massive homogeneous fabrics sandstone with structure-less and typically correspond to clean and
coarsening sandstone facies.
- Laminated ductile-rich siltstone fabric predominantly within micaceous sandstones.
- Disrupted or churning fabric is locally evident within the cleaner sandstone samples, as well as the
single mud-prone, oolitic sandstone sample. Disruption seems to be the product of the re-arrangement
of mica plates and mica-rich laminae.
- Bioturbated fabric noted essentially within the more ductile-rich sandstone and siltstone samples,
particularly those of the micaceous sand layers of Bir Ben Tartar reservoir.

Diagenetic Overprinting
As indicated above, the mineralogy of the Ordovician reservoirs has typically been intensely overprinted
by authigenic cements, principally quartz overgrowths and more rarely by minor chlorite/illite dolomite,
siderite and kaolinite. The authigenic assemblage is completed by rare K-feldspar overgrowths and pyrite.
After deposition, the Ordovician reservoirs were impacted by several diagenetic modifications (Plate 1)
which lead to the transformation of both mineralogical composition and the interstitial space.
The eogenetic alteration, encountered in all Ordovician depositional facies, includes essentially the
kaolinitisation of instable detrital grains (Plate 1, Photo A) together with the precipitation of microcrystalline
carbonates and blocky pyrite. The amounts and the distribution of this diagenetic alteration are closely
related to the changes in pore water chemistry in response to changes of the relative sea level.
Authigenic clay cementation by Illite/Chlorite is typically very scarce and only locally forms a
subordinate to prominent cement within a few micaceous sand intervals.
16 SPE-192634-MS

Antigenic illite forms finely crystalline interwoven fibres, which preferentially line pores and replace
detrital clay mats/particles (Plate 1, Photo B).
Chlorite cement locally prominent in micaceous sands of Bir Ben Tartar Formation (Plate 1, D), forms
locally isopachous grain-rimming fringes, comprising loosely to moderately packed, euhedral platelets, that
are exceptionally finely crystalline and stacked perpendicular to grain surfaces, within a highly microporous,
honey-combed pattern.
Within the middle part of Kasbah Leguine reservoir (KL-2), the quartz overgrowths was partially
inhibited by the chlorite coating (Plate 1, Photo F), therefore primary porosity was preserved.
The main mesogenetic alterations which affected the petrophysical properties of the Ordovician
sandstone layers include rare dickitization of kaolinite and illitization of kaolinite, the partial leaching of
feldspar (Plate 1, Photo G), and the local dissolution of quartz at grain contacts (pressure-dissolution). The
extensive precipitation of quartz in most of Ordovician shoreface sandstone layers could be related to the
lack of extensive eogenetic cements. It is likely that the quartz and detrital clay precipitation occurred in
response to burial at temperatures up to 100°C.
Authigenic quartz are abundant, thick, pervasive syntaxial overgrowths within most of the sand layers,
and therefore represents the main cause for degradation of the reservoir quality within both Bir Ben Tartar
and Jeffara sand intervals (Plate 1, Photo K & L),. It is noted that quartz overgrowths are not completely
inhibited despite the presence of detrital clay. The presence of highly quartz-cemented intervals without
any evidence of pressure-dissolution would suggest also that quartz precipitation started at very early
stage of burial-related compaction. However, one cannot rule out the possibility that quartz precipitation is
multigenerational. Indeed, paragenetic evidence from thin-section and SEM suggest that quartz precipitated
over a relatively long period of time, both during and after the formation of kaolinite, dolomite and to a
lesser extent illite.
Carbonates (ferroan dolomite/Siderite) cement occurs during late diageneisis and replaces generally the
dissolved K-feldspar grains. The calcite and ferroan dolomite are very common in Jeffara, Bir Ben Tartar
reservoirs. Siderite and hematisation process involving the chloritic ooids and/or the pore filling chlorite
of the Kasbah Leguine reservoir.

Reservoir quality
The Ordovician reservoirs typically demonstrate poor pore systems and porosity variations are not very
significant. However, within the fine-grained sandstones the pervasive quartz cementation occludes the
primary pore networks (Plate 1, Photo K&L) and only isolated inter-particle primary pore have been
preserved (mean porosity is less than 5% and negligible permeability 0.05mD).
In ductile facies or rich clay sandstone the porosity is extremely low. However, the presence of abundant
ductile material or clay has facilitated extreme compaction, resulting in the ‘squeezing-out’ of most of the
matrix microporosity. Lithostatic compaction started at an early stage of diagenesis and had as a result grain
coating, mono-layer and multi-layers, and pore filling, particularly dense.
However, few thin intervals or sweet spots yield moderate to good porosity. Porosity and in particular
permeability, are significantly better in coarse sandstones of M'Krata Member and Jeffera main sand (J3
Layer) However, near unconformities the sandstone experienced several leaching phases and exhibit notably
more permeable (up to 4.3mD). Most of the MDT's single probe performed in such coarse sandstone were
successful and shwed good mobility. Within the micaceous sands of Bir Ben Tartar Formation, both porosity
and permeability are locally improved due to the high chlorite-cementation and less compaction or quartz-
cementation (Plate 1, Photo C&G) that is so prevalent elsewhere, resulting in the better preservation of
porosity (up to 12%) and permeability (up to 3.2mD).
In Kasba Leguine reservoir, the best reservoir quality is achieved in the shoal interval (KL-2)
characterised by high chlorite fraction, while in the other reservoirs is a mixture of illite, kaolinite and
chlorite (Plate 1, Photo E&F).
SPE-192634-MS 17

In Kasba Leguine reservoir, the best reservoir quality is achieved in the shoal interval (KL-2)
characterised by high chlorite fraction, while in the other reservoirs is a mixture of illite, kaolinite and
chlorite (Plate 1, Photo E&F).
Ordovician reservoirs quality appears to be mainly controlled by the amount of ductile/mud and the
intensity of quartz cementation. Grain size and chlorite cementation represent very localised or rare controls
on reservoir quality (rare coarser grained or highly chlorite-cemented intervals preserve better/moderate
reservoir potential).
18 SPE-192634-MS

Natural fractures analysis

In this chapter, we intend to highlight the impact of natural fractures on the Ordovician reservoir quality and
their possible contribution in the hydrocarbon flow. This was accomplished by using an integrated approach
including core description and interpretation of resistive and ultrasonic image logs data (OBMI and UBI)
and attributes extracted from 3D seismic.
In Ghadames sag basin fault picking/mapping is very difficult to achieve due to the very subtle throws.
The Ordovician folds are generally overprinted on a fault fabric inherited from the basement. The variance
cube extracted near top Ordovician highlights major NE-SW lineaments. Few NW-SE and N-S fault trends
are identified but with lower amplitude. The interference of the different structural trend leads to a local
development of areas with relatively high stress regime. The wells drilled in these areas doesn't show any
intensively fractured / tectonized zones within the Ordovician section probably due to the limited vertical
resolution of conventional logging tools to detect individual fractures on logs. However, we assumed that
the maximum gas peaks identified in extremely tight Ordovician reservoir layers is most likely attributes
to the presence of conductive fractures (Figure 13).

Figure 13—Example of fracture distribution in the Ordovician reservoirs. Fractures are

mainly NE to E-W and the dip from 10° to 30°. Note the gas increase in fractured sand layers.
SPE-192634-MS 19

The natural fracture on the Ordovician based on image logs does not show clear dominant sets in sand
packages and the main fractured zones are located at the top of the Ordovician (M'Krata sand Member) and
near the Taconian unconformity in the transition zone between Bir Ben Tartar and Jeffara main sands (Troudi
et al. 2003a). Very few other limited clusters of natural fractures have been observed in deep Ordovician
section along Kasbah Leguine reservoir, but they are characterized only by the presence of isolated features.
The maximum fractures density occurs in the Diamectite shaly interval. These fractures associated to
slumps and debris flows facies might be interpreted as syn-sedimentary features.
The majority of natural fractures are sub-horizontal to gently dipping and only few fractures have high
angle (up to 80°). The picked fractures show no preferred dip direction and two maxima, from NW to NE
were observed.
The estimated average fractures density in sand intervals, derived from cores and images logs was
seemingly homogeneous (3fractures/meter). Fracture apertures vary from few millimetres to two (02)
centimetres. It's noted that the classification of open/partially open fractures only indicates that fractures are
slightly open at the wellbore wall and the gap is filled with mud. However, due to the lack of the production
tool measurement (PLT) data it's not possible to know whether these fractures are hydraulically conductive
and could contribute to production.
Based on logs and depths versus gas distribution, the maximum depth, in which a commercial (gas)
production from the fractured tight Ordovician sand is possible, would be in the range of 3500 - 4000 m. In
case of high overpressure a maximum depth of ~ 4500 m can be assumed.

Early Silurian source rock characterization

Generalities
During the Early Silurian a major marine transgression induced mainly by the melting of icecap was
responsible of the deposition of the Tannezuft Formation immediately above the Ordovician glacial
sandstones. The lowermost interval of this Formation is marked by high radioactive (Average °API = 150)
organic rich shales. The lateral facies and thickness distribution of the "Hot shales" were controlled by
Ordovician palaeotopography which was shaped mainly by glacial processes of the late Ordovician ice age
and by Pan-African and Infra-Cambrian compressional and extensional tectonism.
In Ghadames basin, the hydrocarbon generated by the "Hot Shales" have charged most of the Paleozoic
reservoirs and particularly the underlying Ordovician tight sand reservoir (LeHeron, 2009). The "Hot shales"
are encountered at the depth of 2800 to 4900m and their thickness ranges from 15 to 53m.
These "Hot shales" were deposited in deep-sea anoxic conditions and they includes high amount of pyrite
and scarce siltstones.
The "Hot shales" are characterized by excellent organic content up to 17% in Algeria and up to 12% in
Tunisian side. The organic matter is composed essentially of Graptolithes and Tasmanacae algae (Luning
et al. 2000).
The petroleum potential of the "Hot Shales" is averaging 12Kg HC/t of rock; and the original hydrogen
index ranges from 450 to 512 mg HC/g of TOC suggesting type II marine oil and gas prone kerogen matter.
The associated bitumens display a low Pr/Ph ratios (average 1, 09), a slight predominance of C27 steranes
over C28 and C29 homologous, high proportions of diasteranes, a C29 norhopane/C30 hopane ratio < 1 and
a light δ13C value around -29, 5 (Rzouga et al. 2012).

Source rock maturation

Based on vitrinite reflectance the maturity and associated generation and expulsion of the Early Silurian
"Hot Shales" through the overall Ghadames basin vary in time and space and the deepest part of the main
kitchen is located in Algerian side. However, the present day thermal maturity of the "Hot Shales" trend
shows an increase (Figure 14) of maturity from the SW (R0 = 2 %) to the NE near the edge of the basin (R0
20 SPE-192634-MS

= 0.6%). In the Southern part of Tunisia Ghadames basin the "Hot Shales" is in the wet gas – condensate
window (R0 = 1.3 to 1.8%). The Northern flank of the basin, were most of the boreholes drilled up to now,
is in oil window (R0 = 0.6%).

Figure 14—Present day maturation of Early Silurian "Hot Shales".

The most likely reasons for this thermal evolution are the thickness variation of the overburden. However,
based on literature the amount of sediment exhumed during uplifts associated with the Hercynian orogeny,
Austrian and Alpine tectonics is about 1500 to 4000m (Dixon et al. 2010). It's also noticed that the depo-
centre of the Ghadames basin was shifted towards the West and Southwest during the Mesozoic and the high
heat flows maybe linked also to the deep-seated Pan-African faults and the magmatic activities occurred
during Hercynian tectonics.
Burial history diagrams performed over the basin revealed that hydrocarbon generation took place in two
major phases. The Silurian "Hot shales" entered the oil window in Early Carboniferous (Figure 15). In the
Tunisian side the age, when the Silurian "Hot Shales" entered the oil window, is getting younger from South
to the Northern edge of the basin. The base of the oil window is estimated to be as deep as 4500m. To date,
oil has been tested at depths of 4000m.
The continued generation/progression to the gas window was halted due to the widespread uplift and
erosion caused by the Hercynian erosion. Hydrocarbon generation resumed during the Late Triassic –
Jurassic – Early Cretaceous rifting phase. The Alpine and Austrian shortening events have a minor impact
especially in the Western part of Ghadames Basin.
Maximum Pre-Hercynian burial was reached in the Carboniferous, while post-Hercynian maximum
burial was attained in the Late Cretaceous. The Early Silurian "Hot Shales" entered the main gas generation
window in Late Cretaceous with a maxima was in Early Eocene.
The main producing areas of gas in Tunisia Ghadames basin are usually delimited by organic matter
maturity greater than 1.2 % Ro. In this high maturity area there is a reversal in ethane isotope abundance
owing to a second cracking of hydrocarbons, such a reversal is normally associated with best gas production
from the "Hot Shales" (Troudi et al. 2012).
In most wells drilled in Ghadames basin, the Ordovician reservoirs tested gas and condensate with 50
to 60 API. This high gravity API suggests that Ordovician traps are filled by the hydrocarbon expelled
principally after the maximum subsidence attributed to the Mesozoic rifting phase.
SPE-192634-MS 21

Figure 15—Hydrocarbon Generation – Expulsion from the Early Silurian "Hot Shales".

Hydrocarbon migration pathways

The average amount of gas and condensate generated during Palaeozoic and Mesozoic subsidence per square
kilometre and in area were the Ro=1.2% are respectively 20 billion cubic feet and 15 million barrels.
The Ordovician structures close to the kitchen were filled by larger component of local Early Silurian
mature "Hot Shales". The charging could by a simple differential of pressure (down-through migration)
and/or Hot Shales / reservoir juxt-position (Troudi et al. 2003b).
Moreover, the higher API gravity values analysed in the Ordovician reservoirs in the northern flank of
Ghadames basin could be explained by longer migration distances from the more internal part of the kitchen,
situated to the SW (Figure 16). Ordovician traps charging in areas where the source rock is immature or
in the early stage of maturation could be insured either by NE lineament brining hydrocarbon from the gas
kitchen located faraway towards the SW or by Ordovician sands that could act as carriers beds.

Figure 16—Hydrocarbon migration pathways in Ghadames basin (Troudi et al, 2003b)

22 SPE-192634-MS

Ordovician trapping mechanisms

Various styles of traps have been observed in Ghadames Basin and most of them are interpreted to have
a multi-age structural genesis (Echikh, 1998). Base in current knowledge most of Ordovician discoveries
in Ghadames basin occur in structural traps. The combined structural-stratigraphic traps are proven only in
Libya and Algeria respectively in Murzuk and Illizi basins.
In Tunisian side, the most proven trapping style is purely structural. The combined structural-stratigraphic
or purely stratigraphy trapping mechanism is still speculative but not impossible.

Structural traps
Ordovician structures in Ghadames basin were interpreted as low-amplitude fold and correspond to four-
way dip closures and locally fault bounded anticlines (faulting maybe reverse or normal). They are
commonly small in size (1 to 10 Sqkm) and characterized by low to moderate (Figure 17) vertical relief
(8m to 50m). The genesis of the Ordovician structures is closely related to the Late Ordovician Taconian
compressive event prior to the Hercynian phase. Inversion and/or rejuvenation of these buried structures
during Hercynian and alpine are not evident.

Figure 17—Growth strata are observed in most of grabens inherited from the basement activities.
These grabens could be filled by stacked glacial deposits of the Late Ordovician. Fault picking in
Ghadames basin is challenging due to the small fault throws and to the limited seismic resolution.

Based on 3D seismic, several geoscientists postulate that Ordovician structures as embryonic

compressional basement uplifts with associated normal or high-angle deep-seated reverse faults. Mapping
for both Precambrian-basement and Ordovician levels and faults correlation showed only a few basement
faults (mainly SW/NE, SE/NW and NS) affecting the Cambrian but die-out within the Ordovician and Early
Silurian shales. The time difference map (top Precambrian basement minus top Ordovician) shows that the
paleo- irregularity of the basement is overprinted in Lower Paleozoic deposits and highlights a SW-NE
trending fault escarpment. A consistent number of Ordovician/Silurian fields line up along this escarpment
and are triggered by basement highs. It is worth to mention that the morphology near top Precambrian
basement interval seems to be controlled by erosion and likely by extensional faults creating architecture
SPE-192634-MS 23

dominated by small sized horsts and grabens (see Figure 17). A clear increase of Infracambrian /Cambrian
thickness and growth strata has been observed within the graben features.

Stratigraphic traps
Given the fact that so far all the wells drilled into the Ordovician showed hydrocarbons regardless of their
structural position, the assumptions for the reserve calculations had to be challenged. The discovery of pay
within the syncline and the presence of continuous net pay exceeding the vertical closure (Figure 18a & b)
together with the absence of evident down- dip water suggest that different trapping mechanisms might exist.

Figure 18a—3D seismic line showing the present day location of two Ordovician wells. Note that
Well A was drilled in the syncline and the well B was drilled in the northern flank of the structure.
Figure 18b: Presence of continuous Hydrocarbon pay zone in well A & well B.

Different approaches are brought forward honoring the observations and demonstrating the enormous
potential of the Ordovician in Ghadames basin. The Ordovician stratigraphic upside in Tunisia could be
explained by the development of stacked channels developed in the context of glacial paleovalleys or by gas
accumulation at the margins of structures controlled by a simple function of pressure and fracture network
geometry.
During the Late Ordovician, Ghadames basin was affected by glaciation/deglaciation events affect the
Ghadames basin and the inherited Cambrian depressions (grabens) could be filled by a stacked glacial
deposits materialized by several deltaic sand prone of the Jeffra and M’Krata Formations (Figure 19).
The distribution of the Jeffara sands is interpreted to be controlled by different basal glacial erosions and
high chance of stratigraphic trapping can be expected in the NE flank of the Ghadames basin. Few isolated
sandy subaqueous fan lobe or debris-flow has been locally observed in Diamectites mud-prone facies.
Regarding the glaciofluvial deposits of M'Kratta Member, the thickness map highlights two depo-centres
located respectively in the SE and NE corners of the Tunisia Ghadames basin.
The boundaries of the Late Ordovician paleovalleys are expressed by facies change as documented
by amplitude variation (shale-out of the M'Krata sand to the West) and the complete erosion of the Late
Ordovician by the Hercynian unconformity to the North. The incision depth of these paleovalleys may reach
15 m and the expected lateral extension varies from 3 to 15Km.
24 SPE-192634-MS

Figure 19—Late Ordovician Paleovalley model with stacked glacial events, Southern Tunisia -Tunisia Ghadames basin.

The Ordovician sandstone layers with sporadic matrix porosity resulting out of the dissolution of
feldspars can be treated like any conventional siliciclastic. In contrast, the highly cemented fine-grained
sandstones layers had rather extremely low matrix porosity but they are prone to fracturing. Sweet spots and
hydrocarbon accumulations in such tight matrix reservoir are dependent to pressure and fracture network
geometry (Figure 20). The overpressure will locally change the depth/ fracture permeability. Due to the
absence of spill-point and down-dip water contact the gas generated by the overlying Early Silurian "Hot
Shales" will charge fractured permeable zone at the crest of the structure. The presence of hydrocarbon in
the flank of the structure could be explained by the good connectivity of permeable zone and/or the presence
of overpressure.

Figure 20—Conceptual model to explain the presence of hydrocarbon in Ordovician low permeability
sand (Stratigraphic Upside) in the flank or within the syncline which in fact is just function of
pressure and fracture geometry/density. In such model no spill point and no free water are expected.
SPE-192634-MS 25

Conclusions
The Ordovician in Tunisia Ghadames basin is considered a regionally extensive gas-condensate resource
play and displays the key characteristics of pervasive tight gas accumulations: good correlation and
connectivity of sand bodies, lack of down-dip water contact, low permeability directly overlay by the
Silurian world class source rock and presence of hydrocarbon pay zones even in wells drilled off structure
in a syncline.
The Ordovician is composed of a variety of facies associations, ranging from fluvio-tidal channels to
burrowed lower shoreface sediments organized into three major widespread progradational sequences. The
sequence boundaries correspond mainly to a regional erosional surface, or maximum progradation of littoral
sand-bodies.
The first depositional sequences include the transgressive shales of the Sanghar formation and the fluvial-
influenced deltaic or estuarine sandstone of Kasba Leguine Formations.
The second depositional sequence includes the transgressive shales of the Azzel Formation and the
shoreface sandstones of Bir Ben Tartar Formation.
The late Ordovician sequence was deposited rapidly during glaciation infilling of irregular
paleotopography in a complex of rapidly shifting environments characterised by multiple shifts in sea level
and significant variations in sediment supply. This sequence corresponds to the entire Jeffara Formation
that was bounded by a deep subglacial erosion surface (Tacaonian unconformity-SB). This surface records
an initial rise in the relative sea level owing to glacier advance and loading of coarser-grained, fluvioglacial
sandstones especially in the southern part of Ghadames basin. The transgressive systems tract (TST)
comprises The Jeffara main shoreface sandstones and offshore mudstones/diamictites with ice-rafted debris.
The upper part of the sequence or the high stand system tract (HST) comprises proglacial deltaic deposits,
which was formed when the rate of sediment supply exceeds the rate of relative sea level rise.
The primary controls on Ordovician reservoir quality are considered to be essentially facies related, and
include variations in textural and mineralogical parameters. Burial diagenesis including a pervasive quartz
cementation and compaction destroyed the reservoir parameters and the porosity loss become very important
above the depth of 3500m. Productive open fracture above 4000m is prohibitively low.
Sweet spots such fractures corridors and coarse sand with good initial porosity and permeability
preferentially exits near major unconformities and erosive surfaces.
Besides the structural trapping mechanism, the presence of hydrocarbon pay zone outside in the syncline
and the development of incised paleovalleys during Late Ordovician let us postulate that Ordovician
stratigraphic upside at least in the north-eastern part of the Ghadames basin is very high.
The evaluation of the Ordovician play attributes allowed us to have a strong insight on the prospectivity
and the main risk of this play over the Ghadames basin. If successful, this pilot project proposed by OMV
Tunisia would narrow down the exploration risk of the Ordovician play, confirm the new Ordovician
geological model for the stratigraphic upside and help us to better estimate the recovery factors and provide
a better handle on reserves.

Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank OMV- Middle East & Africa Hub management for their support and for
permission to publish this study.

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