Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 228 (2022) 105140

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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences

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The Celebes Molasse: A revised Neogene stratigraphy for

Sulawesi, Indonesia
Abang Mansyursyah Surya Nugraha a, b, *, Robert Hall b, Marcelle BouDagher-Fadel c
a
Earth Observatory of Singapore (EOS), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore
b
SE Asia Research Group (SEARG), Department of Earth Sciences, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, Surrey TW20 0EX, United Kingdom
c
University College London, London WC1H 0BT, United Kingdom

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Over the past century, a wide variety of poorly dated sediments that unconformably overlie pre-Neogene rocks in
Celebes Molasse Sulawesi have been assigned to the Celebes Molasse and interpreted as post-orogenic rocks deposited after a
Sulawesi major collision. New data from fieldwork and laboratory studies, including mineralogical, palaeontological and
Neogene
zircon geochronological analyses, provide the basis for a new Neogene stratigraphy and show that sediments
Stratigraphy
Unconformity
assigned to the Celebes Molasse have significant variations in age, environment of deposition, composition and
sedimentation history. Identified unconformities in the (1) Early Miocene (c. 23 Ma), (2) Middle Miocene (c. 15
Ma), (3) Mio-Pliocene (c. 6–5.3 Ma), and (4 and 5) Pleistocene (c. 1.8 and 0.1 Ma) separate Lower Miocene,
Middle to Upper Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene and Holocene mega-sequences. These mega-sequences resulted
from Early Miocene collision followed by extension, driven by subduction rollback, causing both uplift and
subsidence, in contrast to previous interpretations of multiple collisions.

1. Introduction
Sulawesi is situated close to the triple junction between the Eurasian,
Australian and Philippine Sea plates. Its complex geology was often
interpreted as a simple convergent arc-ophiolite-continent tectonic
configuration resulting from a single arc-continent collision (e.g. Ham­
ilton, 1979; Silver et al., 1983). Subsequent field studies suggest that
Sulawesi’s geology is a consequence of multiple tectonic events,
including collision, rifting and accretion, opening and closing of oceanic
basins, subduction and extension (e.g. Milsom, 2000; Hall and Wilson,
2000; Spakman and Hall, 2010; Hall, 2011; Hennig et al., 2016; van
Leeuwen et al., 2007, 2010; Zhang et al., 2020).
The timing of the initial collision of Australia and SE Asia has long
been the subject of controversy (Audley-Charles, 1974; Hamilton, 1979;
Davidson, 1991; Parkinson, 1998a; Hall, 1996, 2002; Hall and Wilson,
2000; Cottam et al., 2011). In Sulawesi, this collision caused emplace­
ment of the ophiolite in the East Arm (Kündig, 1956; Silver et al., 1983)
and addition of continental crust to the Sundaland margin (Fig. 1). It was
interpreted first as the result of multiple events adding microcontinental
fragments sliced from New Guinea (Hamilton, 1979; Silver et al., 1983;
Smith and Silver, 1991) but has since been interpreted to result from a
collision of the Sula Spur microcontinent (Klompé, 1954) and the North
Arm volcanic arc (Hall, 1996, 2002) followed by extensional fragmen­
tation of the Sula Spur microcontinent as a result of Banda subduction
rollback (Honthaas et al., 1998; Spakman and Hall, 2010; Hall, 2012;
Hennig et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2020).
New data in this paper were mainly derived from new field studies
and laboratory work in Sulawesi integrated with information based on
recent studies from parts of Sulawesi that were not visited. A revised
Upper Cenozoic stratigraphy for Sulawesi is presented and includes
dating of the earliest post-orogenic Celebes Molasse deposits that
contain ultrabasic and ophiolitic material.
2. Geological setting
Present-day Sulawesi and its surrounding area are composed of
number of tectonic blocks bounded by a complex system of strike-slip,
normal and thrust faults (Fig. 2; Sukamto, 1975; Hamilton, 1979; Sil­
ver et al., 1983; Hall, 2002; Beaudouin et al., 2003; Bellier et al., 2006;
Watkinson, 2011).
Pre-Neogene rocks, including Cretaceous metamorphic rocks,
Paleogene basic to intermediate volcanic and intrusive rocks, and Upper
Cretaceous to Paleogene sedimentary and low-grade metasedimentary
rocks are widely exposed in North Sulawesi, the Neck and West Sulawesi

* Corresponding author at: Earth Observatory of Singapore (EOS), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore.
E-mail address: abang.nugraha@ntu.edu.sg (A.M.S. Nugraha).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2022.105140
Received 29 June 2021; Received in revised form 18 January 2022; Accepted 6 February 2022
Available online 14 February 2022
1367-9120/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
A.M.S. Nugraha et al.
Fig. 1. The principal tectonic blocks of eastern Indonesia on a present day map
(modified after Hall and Sevastjanova, 2012). Location of Sulawesi Island is in
black box. Sulawesi is at the junction of three major plates and records con­
tinent–continent collision between Sundaland and the Australian continental
margin. SW Borneo and East Java-West Sulawesi were part of Sundaland by the
Late Cretaceous. In the Early Miocene, new continental crust (Sula Spur) was
added by collision. Subsequent Banda subduction rollback initiated extension
during the Neogene across the region including Sulawesi.
(Fig. 2). Consequently, many areas have a limited Neogene sedimentary
or volcanic record (Fig. 3, de Roever, 1947, 1950, 1956; Wakita et al.,
1996; Parkinson, 1998b; Parkinson et al., 1998; Kadarusman et al.,
2004; van Leeuwen and Muhardjo, 2005). South Sulawesi is considered
to be underlain by a Mesozoic basement complex that includes meta­
morphic, ultramafic and sedimentary rocks which are exposed in the
Bantimala and Barru areas (Fig. 3, Sukamto, 1975, 1982; Hamilton,
1979; van Leeuwen, 1981; Maulana, 2009; Maulana et al., 2010). The
basement complex is overlain unconformably by Upper Cretaceous
sedimentary rocks (Sukamto, 1975, 1982; Hasan, 1990, 1991), and
Paleogene volcanics (van Leeuwen, 1981; Sukamto, 1982; Yuwono
et al., 1988), siliciclastics and carbonates (van Leeuwen, 1981; Sukamto,
1982; Sukamto and Supriatna, 1982; Wilson, 1995, 2000; Wilson and
Bosence, 1996).
In Central Sulawesi, pre-Cenozoic rocks include Mesozoic meta­
morphic, ophiolitic mélange, siliciclastics and carbonates (Fig. 3,
Brouwer, 1934; Brouwer et al., 1947; Parkinson, 1991, 1998a; Hamil­
ton, 1979; Sukamto, 1975). Metamorphic rocks in Central and SE
Sulawesi are often included in a Central Sulawesi Metamorphic Belt
(CSMB; Audley-Charles, 1974; Katili, 1978; Sukamto, 1975; Hamilton,
1979; Sukamto and Simandjuntak, 1983; Parkinson, 1991). This
grouping is uncertain; metamorphic rocks in eastern Central and SE
Sulawesi are younger (post-Eocene) than Mesozoic metamorphic rocks
in western Central Sulawesi (de Roever, 1947, 1950, 1956; Helmers
et al., 1989; Wijbrans et al., 1994; Mawaleda et al., 2018).
The pre-Neogene rocks in the East Arm are dominated by Cretaceous
ultrabasic and basic rocks with subordinate gabbros, sheeted dolerites
2
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 228 (2022) 105140
and pillow basalts in the eastern part (Fig. 3, Kündig, 1956; Silver et al.,
1983; Simandjuntak, 1986). These rocks are tectonically intercalated
with metamorphic rocks and Mesozoic-Paleogene sedimentary rocks
(Koolhoven, 1930; Brouwer, 1934, Brouwer et al., 1947; Kündig, 1956;
Simandjuntak, 1986; Sukamto and Simandjuntak, 1983; Simandjuntak
et al., 1991; Silver et al., 1983).
The SE Arm is underlain by Mesozoic sedimentary, Paleogene ul­
trabasic, basic, metamorphic rocks and Paleogene carbonates. The
metamorphic rocks are often considered to be a continuation of the
CSMB (Fig. 3, Audley-Charles, 1974; Katili, 1978; Sukamto, 1975;
Hamilton, 1979; Sukamto and Simandjuntak, 1983; Parkinson, 1991)
and the ultrabasic and basic rocks interpreted as part of the East Sula­
wesi Ophiolite Belt from the East Arm (Rusmana et al., 1993a;
Simandjuntak et al., 1991; Surono and Sukarna, 1995; Surono, 1997,
1998).
Fragments of Australian crust are found in the Banggai-Sula Islands
and are interpreted below Buton-Tukang Besi (Hamilton, 1979; Sukamto
and Simandjuntak, 1983). They include metamorphic and igneous
continental rocks with shallow and deep marine sediments that were
deposited during and after rifting of the fragments from the Australian
margin in the Mesozoic (Audley-Charles, 1972, 1988; Hamilton, 1979;
Pigram and Panggabean, 1984; Garrard et al., 1988; Davidson, 1991).
2.1. The Celebes Molasse
The term Celebes Molasse was first introduced by the Swiss natu­
ralists, Sarasin and Sarasin (1901) to describe unconsolidated Neogene
sediments in Sulawesi which comprise conglomerates, sandstones,
marls, claystones and shales. They are typically stratified, mostly clastic,
grey-green in colour and include plant and shell fossils (Sarasin and
Sarasin, 1901). Other observers of the Celebes Molasse deposits have
described them to include weakly to moderately consolidated con­
glomerates, quartz sandstones, greywackes, mudstones with subordi­
nate intercalations of breccias, marls and coral limestones (e.g. Surono
and Sukarna, 1995; van Leeuwen and Muhardjo, 2005). The molasse
deposits were widely acknowledged to be of similar age and lithology
across Sulawesi (Fig. 3; e.g. Wanner, 1910; van Bemmelen, 1949; Mil­
som et al., 1999). This view has been challenged by other authors such
as Hamilton (1979), Surono (1995), Calvert (2000), Hall and Wilson
(2000) and Pholbud et al. (2012) who suspected that these poorly dated
deposits are diachronous. Some authors (e.g. Hopper, 1941; Kündig,
1956; Surono, 1995; Surono and Sukarna, 1995) have attempted to
interpret a maximum depositional age of the Celebes Molasse deposits
based on stratigraphic relationships. Hopper (1941) suggested that the
base of the Celebes Molasse is underlain by Upper Miocene basalt in the
East Arm. Kündig (1956) suggested a Late Miocene to Pliocene age for
the Celebes Molasse in the East Arm. Surono (1995) considered the
Celebes Molasse in the SE Arm as Early to Late Miocene in age. Other
authors (Ratman, 1976; Davies, 1990; Purnomo et al., 1999; Calvert,
2000; van Leeuwen and Muhardjo, 2005; Cottam et al. 2011) suggested
various younger ages for these sediments which mainly range from
Pliocene to Pleistocene.
For many authors, all the Neogene sediments that unconformably
overlie pre-Neogene rocks were considered to belong to the Celebes
Molasse (e.g. Sarasin and Sarasin, 1901; Wanner, 1910; Kündig, 1956;
Milsom et al., 1999). These sediments were mapped as the Celebes
Molasse on 1:1,000,000 regional scale geological maps (Sukamto, 1975;
Sukamto et al., 1994). Revised geological maps of the GRDC (Geological
Research and Development Centre, now the Geological Survey of
Indonesia) introduced several new formation names for the Neogene
and Quaternary sediments that were all previously mapped as the Cel­
ebes Molasse (Sukamto, 1973, 1982; Ratman, 1976; Sukamto and
Supriatna, 1982; Simandjuntak et al., 1991, 1993a, 1993b, 1997; Rat­
man and Atmawinata, 1993; Sukido et al., 1993; Rusmana et al., 1993a,
b; Surono et al., 1993; Sikumbang and Sanyoto, 1995; Apandi and
Bachri, 1997; Djuri et al., 1998). Despite the subdivision into different
A.M.S. Nugraha et al.
formations, there is no precise age, no comprehensive sedimentary
history and no explanation of their stratigraphic relationships.
Furthermore, there are some maps that still describe these new forma­
tions as part of the Celebes Molasse (e.g. Apandi and Bachri, 1997;
Ratman, 1976; Surono, 1995; van Leeuwen et al., 1994, 2007;
Simandjuntak et al., 1997; Surono, 1995; van Leeuwen and Muhardjo,
2005). Here we propose a revised Neogene stratigraphy for Sulawesi,
based on field observations and new age constraints (Fig. 4).
3. Materials and methods
3.1. Fieldwork and data
Fieldwork was conducted on Buton Island, throughout SE, Central
and East Sulawesi, in the Togian Islands, in parts of the South Arm and
Neck, and in a few parts of the North Arm, to record sedimentological
data and to obtain samples of rocks assigned to the Celebes Molasse from
different parts of Sulawesi. A full list of fieldwork observations and the
formation observed at each locality is provided in Supplementary File 1.
Much of central western Sulawesi, the North Arm and the South Arm of
Sulawesi were not visited during this study but we were able to use
samples and information from concurrent field studies in the North Arm
and Neck, and draw upon information obtained by colleagues during
earlier SE Asia Research Group (SEARG) projects in western and South
Sulawesi.
Palaeontological analysis has been the main input used to
Fig. 2. Simplified geological map showing distribution of Neogene rocks in Sulawesi.
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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 228 (2022) 105140
reconstruct the stratigraphy. This analysis used foraminifera, nanno­
fossils, pollen and molluscs. 63 benthic and planktonic foraminifera
were identified by Dr Marcelle K. BouDagher-Fadel at University College
London (UCL). 19 nannofossil samples were analysed by Dr Jeremy
Young at UCL with the first author (AMSN). 9 mollusc-bearing samples
were analysed and interpreted by Dr Jonathan Todd at the Natural
History Museum London. 12 coaly mudstones and coals were processed
for pollen analysis and interpreted at Lemigas, Jakarta with the help of
Dr Eko Budi Lelono. Provenance studies of sediments (e.g. based on light
and heavy minerals and U-Pb dating of detrital zircons) give information
about sediment sources and may provide maximum depositional ages. A
total of 15 sandstones were sampled for U-Pb dating of detrital zircons.
3.2. Techniques
Benthic and planktonic foraminifera-bearing samples were collected
from fossil-bearing siliciclastics and limestones. Nannofossil samples
were collected from unweathered marine marls and shales from the
sedimentary successions which lack foraminifera. Samples were inter­
preted under the microscope to provide details on microfacies, deposi­
tional environments and age. Coaly mudstones and coals were sent to
Lemigas in Jakarta for pollen analysis. The biostratigraphic results are
presented in Supplementary File 2.
Detrital zircons were concentrated as heavy minerals and separated
using lithium polytungstate (LST) solution (2.89 g/cm3) with the funnel
technique (e.g. Mange and Maurer, 1992). The LST heavy fraction was
A.M.S. Nugraha et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 228 (2022) 105140

Fig. 3. Compiled stratigraphy across Sulawesi. This stratigraphic compilation shows the different depositional ages that have been assigned to the formations
(yellow) commonly assigned to the Celebes Molasse of Sarasin and Sarasin (1901). Based on Grainge and Davies (1985), Garrard et al. (1988), Davidson (1990),
Simandjuntak et al. (1991), Smith and Silver (1991), Bachri et al. (1993), Rusmana et al. (1993); Surono et al. (1993); Simandjuntak et al. (1997), Apandi and Bachri
(1997), Parkinson (1998), Surono (1994, 1998), Wilson and Moss (1999), Wilson (2000), Hasanusi et al. (2004), van Leeuwen and Muhardjo (2005), Calvert and Hall
(2007), Cottam et al. (2011), Pholbud et al. (2012), Camplin and Hall (2014); Hennig (2015), Rudyawan (2015), Advokaat (2015). (For interpretation of the ref­
erences to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 4. Revised Neogene stratigraphy across Sulawesi with magmatic, metamorphic and key tectonic events. Stratigraphy is based on this study integrated with data
from van Leeuwen (1981), Sukamto and Supriatna (1982), Grainge and Davies (1985), Simandjuntak (1986), Davies (1990), Fortuin et al. (1990), Davidson (1991),
Smith and Silver (1991), Rusmana et al. (1993), Simandjuntak et al. (1997), Calvert (2000), Sudarmono (2000), Wilson (2000), van Leeuwen and Muhardjo (2005),
Rudyawan and Hall (2012), Hennig (2015), Pholbud et al. (2012), Cottam et al. (2011), Hasanusi et al. (2004), Calvert and Hall (2007), Bromfield and Renema
(2011), Camplin and Hall (2014), Advokaat (2015), van den Bergh et al. (2016), Rudyawan (2016), Nugraha (2016), Advokaat et al. (2017) and Nugraha and Hall
(2018). The HK suite is based on K-Ar dating (Priadi et al., 1994; Polvé et al., 1997; Elburg et al., 2003) and had begun by c.14–13 Ma. I-type and silica-rich I-type
CAK magmatism in western Sulawesi took place between c.8.5 and 4 Ma, whereas S-type magmatism occurred between c. 5 and 2.5 Ma (Hennig et al., 2016). Climax
of magmatism is suggested at c.7.2–6.1 Ma by Zhang et al., 2020. PMC: Palu Metamorphic Complex was exhumed in the north (c.5.3 Ma) and mid/late Pliocene in the
south (c. 3.1–2.7 Ma) use zircon U-Pb dating by Hennig et al., 2017. MMC: Malino metamorphic Complex is constrained by K–Ar and 40Ar/39Ar ages of 23–11 Ma by
van Leeuwen et al. (2007). Blueschist 40Ar/39Ar ages from Rumbia Metamorphic Complex (RMC) and Mekongga Metamorphic Complex (MkMC) are 23–17 Ma and
30–20 Ma respectively (Wijbrans et al., 1994; Mawaleda et al., 2018). The timings of North Banda Basin opening (12.5–7.15 Ma) and South Banda Basin opening
(6.5–3.5 Ma) are from Hinschberger et al. (2000) and Hinschberger et al. (2001).

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A.M.S. Nugraha et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 228 (2022) 105140

split into halves, which were used for heavy mineral and zircon analysis.
Half of the LST heavy fraction was run through a Franz Magnetic
separator to concentrate zircons. This was followed by diiodomethane
(DIM, at a density of density 3.3 g/cm3) heavy liquid separation, zircon
picking (using Olympus SZx12 binocular microscope), mounting and
polishing in Araldite resin blocks and cathodoluminescence (CL)
imaging.
Laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-
ICP-MS) geochronology for detrital zircons was performed at Birkbeck
College University of London. Zircon U-Pb dating was performed on a
New Wave NWR 213 nm laser ablation system coupled to an Agilent
7700 quadrupole-based ICP–MS. The Plešovice zircon (337.13 ± 0.37
Ma: Sláma et al., 2008) and a NIST 612 glass bead (Pearce et al., 1997)
were used as standards. GLITTER software was used for data reduction,
including calculation of uncorrected U-Th-Pb isotope ratios and age
estimates. These data were then corrected using the common lead
correction spreadsheet by Andersen (2002), which is proposed as a 204Pb
common lead-independent procedure. A typical detrital zircon popula­
tion from a sedimentary rock contains multiple age modes that reflect
contributions from a variety of source regions (Fedo et al., 2003; Geh­
rels, 2014; Coutts et al., 2019). In this study, some of the youngest zircon
grains in samples were used to constrain the maximum depositional age
(MDA) of the samples since the rock must be younger than its compo­
nent parts (Nelson, 2001; Fedo et al., 2003; Anderson, 2005). A full list
of zircon ages is provided in Table 1 and Supplementary File 3.
4. Miocene
4.1. North Sulawesi
There are three Miocene formations in North Sulawesi, which from
older to younger are the Paguyaman Formation, Batudaa Limestone and
Dolokapa Formation (Fig. 5). Rudyawan (2014) described the Lower
Miocene Paguyaman Formation as mainly volcanoclastic siltstone and
sandstone at the base and thickly bedded sandstone with occasional
conglomerate and mudstone beds at the top. Its minimum thickness is
2000 m. These rocks unconformably overlie the Upper Paleogene
Papayato Volcanics. Advokaat (2015) reported reworked Lower
Miocene carbonates that might belong to the Paguyaman Formation.
Foraminifera assemblages and carbonate rocks suggest a shallow marine
environment of deposition (Fig. 6; Advokaat, 2015; Rudyawan, 2016).
The carbonates of the Batudaa Formation unconformably overlie the
Paguyaman Formation. They consist of packstone, wackestone and
mudstone with fragments of broken shells, corals, algae, gastropods and
molluscs (Rudyawan, 2016). The minimum thickness of the succession is
2 m. Fossil assemblages suggest a shallow open marine reefal setting.
The Upper Miocene Dolokapa Formation (7.2–5.3 Ma; Fig. 6;
Rudyawan, 2016) unconformably overlies the Batudaa Limestone and
comprises greywacke, sandstone, siltstone and mudstone interlayered
with andesitic-basaltic pyroclastics, tuffaceous greywacke, agglomerate,
pebbly conglomerate and thin limestone beds (Trail et al., 1974; Katili,
1978; Lubis et al., 1994; Bachri et al., 1993; Rudyawan, 2016). Matrix-
supported conglomerates and finer grained sedimentary rocks with
normal grading, planar sedimentary structures and ripples suggest mass
flow and turbidite deposits of a marine slope to an unstable shelf edge
(Rudyawan, 2016).
To the south, in the Neck at the western end of the North Arm, reefal
carbonates were deposited in the Middle Miocene to the north of the
Tokorondo Mountains (15–13.6 Ma, sample SRH-33, Fig. 6). These
carbonates possibly correlate with Middle Miocene carbonates in Gor­
ontalo Bay and the Togian Islands (Cottam et al., 2011). They are
overlain unconformably by Upper Miocene volcaniclastic rocks of the
newly proposed Tambarana Formation (Fig. 7a). This formation consists
of massive structureless quartz-rich sandstones and minor intercalations
of mudstones and conglomerates. The minimum observed stratigraphic
thickness is 12 m. The maximum depositional age of the Tamabarana
Formation is 6.2 ± 0.2 Ma based on youngest U-Pb detrital zircon ages
(sample ES13-257, Fig. 6). Massive and structureless sandstone indicate
a rapid sedimentation of a high-sediment concentration followed by
relaxation of heavy sediment-laden flow to accumulate massive beds at a
rate too fast for hydraulic sorting processes to work effectively. In
addition, floating cobbles and pebbles within the sandstone bed may
represent debris-flow products. The depositional setting is interpreted as
a subaqueous setting where a large clastic input was rapidly deposited.
This setting was possibly at a river mouth or a proximal part of the
submarine fan channel.

4.2. Togian Islands

Table 1
List of youngest zircon ages from different formations with their biostratigraphic In the Togian Islands, in the centre of Gorontalo Bay, there are
ages.
Neogene carbonates of the Peladan Formation (Figs. 5, 8; Cottam et al.,
Sample Formation Youngest zircon Biostratigraphic age 2011). The sequence has a minimum observed thickness of 12 m and
age (Ma)
unconformably overlies the Paleogene volcanogenic Walea Formation
ES13- Tambarana 6.2 ± 0.3 NA (Cottam et al., 2011). Hard and indurated limestones include micritic
257 wackestones and packstones with planktonic and benthic foraminifera
ES13- Bongka in Togian 4.8 ± 0.2 Early Pliocene
and fine-grained volcanogenic material. Lower-Middle Miocene lime­
294 Island
ES13- Bongka in northern 36.1 ± 0.6 Early Pliocene stones of a similar age and character are reported from the North and
277 East Arm East Arms of Sulawesi (e.g. Sukamto, 1973; Norvick and Pile, 1976;
ES13- Bongka in southern 5.1 ± 0.1 Late Pliocene - Late Rusmana et al., 1984; Garrard et al., 1988; van Leeuwen and Muhardjo.
287 East Arm Pleistocene
2005).
ES13- Bulupulu 3.5 ± 0.1 Late Pliocene - Late
300 Pleistocene
ES13-55 Langkowala 6.8 ± 0.2 latest Miocene - Early 4.3. East Arm and Tomori Bay
ES13- Langkowala 24.8 ± 0.3 Pleistocene
202 In the northern East Arm, Lower Miocene foraminifera assemblages
ES13- Pandua 6 ± 0.1 Late Miocene
184
(21–17.2 Ma, sample ES14-63; Figs. 5, 9) were obtained from limestones
ES14-6 Pandua 107 ± 2.0 of the Salodik Formation in this study (Fig. 7b). The formation consists
ES13- Tondo 32 ± 2.0 Middle - Late Miocene of a wackestone with foraminifera and algae with a minimum thickness
237 of 1 m. Lower-Middle Miocene limestones of a similar age and character
ES13- Tondo 5.5 ± 1.0
have been reported from the East Arm and Togian Islands (Simandjun­
239
ES14-67 Lage 3.5 ± 0.3 Middle Pleistocene tak, 1986; Rusmana et al., 1993a; Surono et al., 1993; Cottam et al.,
ES13- Palu 2.5 ± 0.1 Middle - Late Pleistocene 2011). Rusmana et al. (1993) assigned these rocks to the Salodik
254 Formation.
ES13- Palu 3 ± 0.1 In the southern East Arm at Tomori Bay, there are carbonates of the
255
Lower Miocene Tomori and Upper Miocene Minahaki Formations

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A.M.S. Nugraha et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 228 (2022) 105140

Fig. 5. Compilation of revised stratigraphy for North Sulawesi, Neck, Gorontalo Bay, Togian Islands, East Arm and Tomori Bay. Stratigraphy of North Sulawesi is
adapted from Advokaat (2015), Rudyawan (2016) and Advokaat et al. (2017) Stratigraphy of the Neck is mainly derived from this study with additional information
from van Leeuwen and Muhardjo (2005) and Hennig (2015). Stratigraphy of Gorontalo Bay is adapted from Pholbud et al. (2012). Stratigraphy of the Togian Islands
is modified from Cottam et al. (2011). Stratigraphy of the East Arm is mainly derived from this study with additional information from Simandjuntak (1986), Davies
(1990) and Rusmana et al. (1993). Stratigraphy of Tomori Bay is modified from Hasanusi et al. (2004).

Fig. 6. Stratigraphic range for the Paguyaman Formation, Batudaa Limestones, Dolokapa Formation, Lokodidi Formation and Buol Beds in the North Sulawesi. The
age range for each sample was based on foraminifera analysis. The time scale is from Gradstein et al. (2012). Nannofossil biozones from GTS2012 timescale,
TimeScaleCreator and the synthesis of Backman et al. (2012). Foraminifera biozones from Boudagher-Fadel (2015).

separated by the Middle Miocene siliciclastic Matindok Formation
(Figs. 5, 10). At the base of the Tomori Formation, there is 15 m of basal
clastics that consist of quartz-rich sandstones and coal interbeds. They
lie unconformably upon Oligocene carbonates and are overlain by
Lower Miocene carbonates assigned to the Lower Platform Limestone by
Davies (1990) or the Tomori Formation by Hasanusi et al. (2004). The
Tomori Formation is dominated by mud-rich carbonates and wacke­
stones. Large foraminifera, corals, bryozoans, echinoid and molluscan
fragments suggest a reefal setting (Davies, 1990). The thickness of this
formation ranges from 143 to 290 m. The Middle Miocene Matindok
Formation consists predominantly of claystones and shales with minor
sandstones, limestones and coals. Its thickness ranges from 48 to 369 m
(Davies, 1990; Hasanusi et al., 2004). The Upper Miocene Minahaki
Formation consists of bioclastic platform limestones and dolomites. Its
thickness ranges from 183 to 762 m. The upper part includes reef build-
up carbonates named the Mantawa Member which interfinger with
marls and claystones (Davies, 1990; Hasanusi et al., 2004). In the East
Arm, these packstone-marls and calcareous sandstone-shales were
assigned to the Poh Formation (Rusmana et al., 1993a) and interpreted
to interfinger with the Salodik Formation. The sediments interfingering

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A.M.S. Nugraha et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 228 (2022) 105140

Fig. 7. Field photographs of Miocene sedimentary rocks. (a) Massive bedded sandstones with minor intercalations of mudstones and conglomerates of the Tam­
barana Formation near Tambarana Village in the NW Central Sulawesi (Lat. − 1.059◦ , Long. 120.523◦ ). The depositional setting is interpreted as a deep marine with a
large, rapidly deposited, clastic input. (b) Thickly bedded limestone of the Salodik Formation near Sandada Village in the NW East Arm (Lat. − 1.195◦ , Long.
121.232◦ ). (c) Sandstone dominated-interbedded sandstone and mudstone beds in Salu Pangadidi River that were deposited in a submarine fan, southern Central
Sulawesi (Lat. − 2.568◦ , Long. 120.528◦ ). (d) Interbedded sandstones with minor siltstones and conglomerates of the Bungku Formation that represent foreset/delta
front to delta top deposits in road cuts on the Tanjung Losoni, SE Sulawesi (Lat. − 2.660◦ , Long. 122.020◦ ). (e) Thinly bedded sandstone and mudstone of the Tondo
Formation (Lat. − 4.664◦ , Long. 123.075◦ ).

with the Minahaki and Salodik Formations are considered here to be
distal parts of the Mantawa Member and the “Poh Formation” has been
dropped. Upper Miocene (11.6–5.3 Ma, sample ES13-283, Fig. 10)
limestones also appear as lithoclasts within the Upper Pliocene Bongka
Formation in the southern East Arm.
4.4. West Sulawesi
In West Sulawesi, the Lisu Formation consists of interbedded
mudstone, greywacke and pebbly greywacke (Fig. 11; Calvert, 2000;
Calvert and Hall, 2003, 2007). It is approximately 2000 m thick and was
deposited in a shallow marine shelf environment during late Early
Miocene to Early Pliocene based on nannofossils and foraminifera
(Fig. 12). The Lower Lisu Formation was deposited in the late Early
Miocene to early Late Miocene (Calvert, 2000). There is no evidence for
an angular unconformity at either location and neither has an uncon­
formity been identified between the Lisu Formation and the Eocene-
Oligocene rocks (Bergman et al., 1996; Calvert and Hall, 2007). The
base of Lisu Formation has been drilled (Tike-1 well) and contains
foraminifera and nannofossils with a late Early Miocene age (Calvert,

7
A.M.S. Nugraha et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 228 (2022) 105140

Fig. 8. Stratigraphic range for the Peladan, Lonsio and Bongka Formations in the Togian Islands. The age range for each sample is based on palaeontological and
geochronological analyses from this study. Foraminifera assemblages of the Peladan and Lonsio Formations are from Cottam et al. (2011). The time scale is from
Gradstein et al. (2012). Foraminifera biozones from Boudagher-Fadel (2015).

Fig. 9. Stratigraphic range for the Salodik and Bongka Formations in the northern East Arm. The age range for each sample was based on palaeontological and
geochronological analyses of this study. The time scale is from Gradstein et al. (2012). Foraminifera biozones from Boudagher-Fadel (2015).

Fig. 10. Stratigraphic range for the Salodik, Tomori, Matindok, Minahaki, Lonsio, Kintom, Bongka and Luwuk Formations in the southern East Arm. The age range
for each sample was based on palaeontological and geochronological analyses of this study. The time scale is from Gradstein et al. (2012). Foraminifera biozones from
BouDagher-Fadel (2015)(Boudagher-Fadel, 2015). The Tomori, Matindok and Minahaki Formations in the offshore southern East Arm are equivalents of the Salodik
Formation in the onshore East Arm.

8
A.M.S. Nugraha et al.
Fig. 11. Compilation of revised stratigraphy for West Sulawesi and Central Sulawesi (including western, central Poso Depression, eastern and southern regions).
Stratigraphy of West Sulawesi is adapted from Calvert (2000) and Calvert and Hall (2007). Stratigraphy of Central Sulawesi is mainly derived from this study with
additional information from Simandjuntak et al. (1997) and Sudarmono (2000).
2000). Volcaniclastics and significant amounts of coarse sediment of the
Lisu Formation were deposited in the Middle and Late Miocene
respectively. By the Late Miocene (10.6–5.8 Ma; Calvert, 2000; Calvert
and Hall, 2007), the Lisu Formation was being deposited in a shallow
marine setting. During the Late Miocene there was a substantial input of
coarse sediment, indicating increased relief to the south and east. The
uppermost Lisu Formation was deposited on a shallow marine shelf in
the latest Miocene to Early Pliocene (5.8–3.6 Ma; Calvert, 2000; Calvert
and Hall, 2007) and is unconformably overlain by the Pasangkayu
Formation.
4.5. Central Sulawesi
A Lower Miocene record in Central Sulawesi was obtained only from
a foraminifera-bearing limestone clast (N4, 23–21 Ma, sample ES14-
110) within the Upper Miocene Bonebone Formation (Figs. 11, 13).
The Bonebone Formation consists of dark grey massive conglomerate
and interbedded sandstone and mudstone (Fig. 7c). There is a minimum
stratigraphic thickness of about 670 m. It is unconformably overlain by
the Pliocene Bulupulu Formation. The recorded thickness of comparable
Middle to Upper Miocene sediments from the nearby BBA-1X well in the
northern part of Bone Bay is 1280 m (Sudarmono, 2000). The basal
succession contains predominant Sphenolithus abies (Plate 2) that sug­
gests a semi-enclosed basin with high salinity. Partial and complete
Bouma sequences become more prominent in the upper section sug­
gesting a deep water basin plain or distal fan. Sediments were mostly
derived from ultrabasic and basic rocks with subsidiary metamorphic
rocks. The western part of Central Sulawesi has the same stratigraphy as
the Neck of Sulawesi.
4.6. South Sulawesi
In South Sulawesi, the Miocene stratigraphy is subdivided into
western and eastern parts by the Walanae Fault (Fig. 14). In eastern
South Sulawesi, limestone of the Bone Formation is laterally limited and
is bounded by unconformities (18–15 Ma; Fig. 15; Grainge and Davies,
9
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 228 (2022) 105140
1983, 1985). The Bone Formation consists of interbedded limestones
and mudstones which are 220 m thick. The limestones are white to light
grey bioclastic wackestones and fine grained planktonic foraminiferal
packstones, interbedded with very calcareous light grey mudstone
(Grainge and Davies, 1983, 1985). The Bone Formation is considered to
be an equivalent of the upper part of the Tonasa Formation in western
South Sulawesi (23–17.2 Ma; Fig. 15; Wilson, 1995, 2000; Wilson and
Bosence; 1996; Wilson et al., 2000). In northern South Sulawesi,
Miocene carbonates were included in the Makale Formation (Coffield
et al., 1993). Contemporaneous volcanic-rich open marine sediments
include the Buakayu and Baco Formations in the northern and south­
eastern South Arm respectively. The Buakayu Formation consists of deep
marine interbedded shales, volcanogenic turbidite sands and fine
grained carbonates. They were interpreted to have been deposited in the
Early to Middle Miocene and conformably overlie the Oligo-Miocene
Tonasa Formation (Coffield et al., 1993). Sandstones, mudstones and
mud-rich breccias with subordinate lava of the Baco Formation were
deposited in the late Early to Middle Miocene (8–14.9 Ma; van Leeuwen
et al., 2010). The Baco Formation unconformably overlies Oligocene
deposits and is unconformably covered by the Walanae Formation. The
estimated thickness is more than 500 m.
The Lower Miocene sediments are unconformably overlain by the
volcaniclastic Camba Formation that was deposited across South Sula­
wesi during widespread magmatism in the late Middle to Late Miocene
(15–8.6 Ma; Sukamto, 1982; Sukamto and Supriatna, 1982; Grainge and
Davies, 1983, 1985; Yuwono et al., 1988; Wilson, 2000; van Leeuwen
et al., 2010). The lower member of the Camba Formation was dated as
Middle to Late Miocene (Sukamto, 1982; Sukamto and Supriatna, 1982)
and consists of tuffaceous sandstones, tuffs, sandstones, claystones,
volcanic conglomerates and breccias, marls, limestones and coals
(Sukamto and Supriatna, 1982; Yuwono et al., 1988; Wilson, 2000). The
upper member of the Camba Formation is composed of volcanic brec­
cias, conglomerates, lavas and tuffs with intercalations of marine sedi­
ments including tuffaceous sandstones, calcareous sandstones and
claystones containing disseminated plant remains (Sukamto 1982;
Sukamto and Supriatna 1982). The thickness of the Camba Formation is
A.M.S. Nugraha et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 228 (2022) 105140

Fig. 12. Stratigraphic range for the Lisu, Pasangkayu and Mapi Formations in West Sulawesi. The Mapi Formation is a possible distal equivalent of the Pasangkayu
Formation. The age range for each sample was based on paleontological and geochronological analyses of this study. The time scale is from Gradstein et al. (2012).
Nannofossil biozones from GTS2012 timescale, TimeScaleCreator. Foraminifera biozones from BouDagher-Fadel (2015).

10
A.M.S. Nugraha et al.
Fig. 13. Stratigraphic range for the Tonasa/Salodik, Bulupulu and Bonebone Formations in south Central Sulawesi. The age range for each sample was based on
palaeontological and geochronological analyses of this study. The time scale is from Gradstein et al. (2012). Nannofossil biozones from GTS2012 timescale,
TimeScaleCreator and the synthesis of Backman et al. (2012). Foraminifera biozones from BouDagher-Fadel (2015).
up to 1800 m. In eastern South Sulawesi, this formation is unconform­
ably overlain by the Tacipi Formation which is up to 700 m thick and
consists of interbedded bioclastic limestone and mudstone. Limestone
fragments occur in the lower section whereas bioclastic limestones,
packstones and occasional boundstones appear in the upper part
(Grainge and Davies, 1985). The Tacipi Formation was deposited locally
in the late Middle Miocene (Wilson, 1995; Ascaria, 1997). Its precise age
is uncertain due to the lack of dateable microflora and fauna (Grainge
and Davies, 1983, 1985; Ascaria, 1997).
4.7. SE Sulawesi
In SE Sulawesi, the Miocene successions include the Bungku and
Pandua Formations (new terms introduced in this study; Fig. 14). The
Bungku Formation unconformably overlies the Salodik Formation
(Simandjuntak et al., 1993) and is unconformably overlain by the Pan­
dua Formation. Carbonates and siliciclastics were deposited in the
northern part of the SE Arm during the Early Miocene to early Middle
Miocene (18–15 Ma, Fig. 16; van der Vlerk and Dozy, 1934 and this
study). Lower Miocene carbonates and serpentinite-rich siliciclastics
were assigned in this study to the lower and upper parts of the Bungku
Formation (Fig. 16). Lower Miocene limestones were collected during
the 1929 Celebes Expedition in the northern SE Arm (Fig. 16; van der
Vlerk and Dozy, 1934) and were sampled in this study. They consist of
granular limestones, conglomeratic limestones, compact limestones and
grey marls. They also contain grains of quartz, quartzite, tourmaline,
echinoid shells, compact limestone, serpentine, chert, crystalline lime­
stone, plagioclase, olivine and arkose sandstone with minor glauconite
and biotite. The upper clastic unit includes ultrabasic-rich conglomer­
ates, sandstones and mudstones with limestone intercalations. Coars­
ening and thickening upwards sequences record progradation of a delta
into a marine environment (Fig. 7d). The stratigraphic thickness
observed is 15 m, but the top and base of the Bungku Formation were not
seen and the true thickness must be much greater.
There is no record of Middle Miocene deposition and hence no
biostratigraphic data from SE Sulawesi. This hiatus means that Middle
Miocene sediments were later eroded or never deposited. The Upper
Miocene Pandua Formation consists of serpentinite-rich conglomerates,
sandstones and mudstones. The presence of Mancorus verbeeki (Plate 3;
Martin, 1895; Shuto, 1978) is a biomarker for the Late Miocene. The
Pandua Formation is unconformably overlain by the Langkowala and
Eemoiko Formations and lies unconformably on the underlying Bungku
Formation (Figs. 14, 16). The Pandua Formation has a minimum
thickness of 2000 m. Indicators of a marginal marine environment
include the presence of reactivation surfaces in shelly trough
cross-bedded sandstones, mud drapes on planar cross-bedded sand­
stones, predominant mangrove palynomorphs and fresh, brackish and
saline water species of mollusc fossils.
11
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 228 (2022) 105140
4.8. Buton Island
Lower Miocene sediments in Buton Island were penetrated by the
Bulu-1S well in east Buton (Fig. 14). The Bulu-1S well (Robertson
Indonesia, 1989) penetrates (1) 83 m of Upper Oligocene-Lower
Miocene (26.8–21 Ma) shale, siltstone, sandstone, limestone and
conglomerate with limestone clasts and (2) 1306 m of uppermost Lower
Miocene-lowermost Middle Miocene (17–15 Ma; Fig. 17) interbedded
limestone-rich conglomerate and shale. Foraminifera assemblages from
both Upper Oligocene-Lower Miocene and uppermost Lower Miocene-
lowermost Middle Miocene units suggest a typical deep marine, outer
neritic to bathyal setting (Robertson Indonesia, 1989). The absence of
Lower Miocene sediments may indicate an unconformity or alterna­
tively, a tectonic cause due to pinching out during thrusting. The
alternation of foraminifera assemblages with N8 and N4-N3 affinities
was interpreted as repetition due to thrusting ( Robertson Indonesia,
1989).
The Middle Miocene Tondo Formation is very locally exposed in
Buton Island, but commonly penetrated by exploration wells (e.g. Bulu-
1S and Benteng-1 wells; Wiryosujono and Hainim, 1975; Fortuin et al.,
1990; Robertson Indonesia, 1989; Smith and Silver, 1991; Japex Buton
Ltd., 2012; 17–13.7 Ma; Fig. 17). In the Bulu-1S well, deposition during
the Middle Miocene of dark grey calcareous shale with a thickness of
283 m is interpreted to have occurred in an outer neritic to upper
bathyal setting. In the Benteng-1 well, the Middle Miocene includes
predominantly interbedded limestone and claystone with sandstone and
siltstone layers in the upper part. Its total thickness is about 914 m but
the sequence is cut by thrust faults suggesting repetition. Middle
Miocene sediments on Buton Island were identified by Wiryosujono and
Hainim (1975) based on foraminifera assemblages (N11-N13,
13.7–11.6 Ma). The exposed sections in South Buton are dominated by
conglomerates that consist predominantly of peridotite or serpentinite
and Mesozoic limestone clasts. Shale of the Tondo Formation is usually
laminated, frequently alternating with siltstone layers.
The overlying Upper Miocene part of the Tondo Formation shows a
coarsening- and deepening-up succession of interbedded claystone,
siltstone, marl and sandstone to pebbly sandstones and conglomerates
(9.6–5.3 Ma; Fig. 7e, 17; Robertson Indonesia, 1989; Wiryosujono and
Hainim, 1975; Smith, 1983; Fortuin et al., 1990; this study). Based on
this study, the Tondo Formation represents shallow to deep water ma­
rine environments. The coarsening and thickening-up succession sug­
gests a transition from a distal- to mid-submarine fan. Soft-sediment
deformation associated with parallel laminated to ripple
cross-laminated sandstones and interbedded mudstones again indicates
distal delta-front deposits. The thickness from the Bulu-1 s well is 704 m.
The Tondo Formation is unconformably overlain by the Sampolakosa
Formation.
A.M.S. Nugraha et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 228 (2022) 105140

Plate 1. Microphotographs of the key foraminifera species: 1. Quasirotalia guamensis Hanzawa, Eemoiko Formation, ES12-13B; 2. Quasirotalia guamensis Hanzawa, b)
Amphistegina sp., Eemoiko Formation, ES12-13B; 3. Alveolinella quoyi (d’Orbigny), Eemoiko Formation, ES13-107; 4. Globigerinoides quadrilobatus (d’Orbigny), Poso
Formation, ES13-273B; 5. a) Paragloborotalia continuosa (Blow), Poso Formation, ES13-273B; 6. a) Pulleniatina primalis (Banner and Blow), b) Dentoglobigerina altispira
(Cushman and Jarvis), c) Amphistegina sp., Poso Formation, ES13-273B.

5. Pliocene The Pliocene Lokodidi Formation consists of weakly consolidated

5.1. North Sulawesi
The Pliocene formations in North Sulawesi include the Lokodidi
Formation, Randangan Formation and Buol Beds (Fig. 5). The Randan­
gan Formation consists of thick bedded volcaniclastic sandstone and
mudstone with occasional conglomerate layers. It unconformably
overlies Miocene rocks and has an estimated thickness of 1500 m.
Conglomerate fragments include quartz, volcanic lithics, igneous and
sedimentary rocks. The presence of clasts of Miocene limestone suggest
that the Radangan Formation is younger than the Batudaa Limestone
(Rudyawan, 2016).
conglomerates, quartz-rich sandstones, greywackes, claystones, shales,
marls and limestones. It unconformably overlies pre-Neogene rocks.
Conglomerate clasts include igneous plutonic and volcanic rocks
(granite, rhyolite, dacite, andesite and basalt) rocks, limestones and
corals. The observed stratigraphic thickness is about 20 m. Lower Plio­
cene (5.3–3.8 Ma, Fig. 6; Trail et al., 1974; Ratman, 1976; Bachri et al.,
1993; Advokaat, 2015) coralline limestones were collected by Advokaat
(2015) from the western North Arm. In central North Sulawesi,
Rudyawan (2016) suggested a hiatus during the Pliocene and suggested
that the Lokodidi Formation was deposited in the late Quaternary. The
Buol Beds were previously assumed to be of Middle Miocene age (Rat­
man, 1976) but recent study (Advokaat, 2015) suggested that they were

12
A.M.S. Nugraha et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 228 (2022) 105140

Plate 2. Calcareous nannofossils from the Bonebone and Puna Formations, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Image each 20 µm. All photos are in XPL except photos 2 in
PPL and 5, 11, 13, 20 in gypsum. 1–3. Calcidiscus leptoporus, Puna Formation, ES14-74; 4–6. Discoaster pentaradiatus, Puna Formation, ES14-74; 7–8. Helicsophaera
carteri, Puna Formation, ES14-74; 9. Reticulofenestra sp., Puna Formation, ES14-74; 10–14. Reitculofenetra cf haqii, Puna Formation, ES14-74; 15–16. Reticulofenestra cf
minuta, Bonebone Formation, ES14-74; 17–20. Sphenolithus abies, Bonebone Formation, ES14-106.

deposited during the Late Pliocene-Early Pleistocene (3.4–0.12 Ma;
sample STAR12-349B; Advokaat, 2015; Fig. 6).
In the northern part of the Sulawesi Neck, Lower Pliocene (5.3–3.6
Ma, sample Tf-01, Fig. 6) thinly bedded marls occur in an area that was
previously mapped as the Tinombo Formation which are now included
into the Lokodidi Formation. The minimum observed stratigraphic
thickness is about 6 m. The formation is interpreted to be underlain and
overlain unconformably by the Tambarana and Palu Formations
respectively.
5.2. Togian Islands
In the Togian Islands, Pliocene sediments are included in the Bongka
and Lonsio Formations (Fig. 5). The Bongka Formation in the Togian
Islands includes ophiolitic-rich interbedded sandstones and conglom­
erates and is correlated with the lower part of the Bongka Formation in
the East Arm. The sequence has a minimum observed stratigraphic
thickness of around 10 m, but neither the top nor the base was seen.
Integration of foraminifera and U-Pb zircon dating in this study suggest a
Pliocene age (4.8–2.58 Ma) for the Bongka Formation in the Togian
Islands (Figs. 5, 8, 18a; Cottam et al., 2011). The foraminifera assem­
blages and trace fossils of Skolithos and Thalassanoides suggest a sandy

13
A.M.S. Nugraha et al.
Fig. 14. Compilation of revised stratigraphy for South Sulawesi, Bone Gulf, SE Sulawesi and Buton Island. Stratigraphy of western South Sulawesi is modified from
van Leeuwen (1981), Sukamto and Supriatna (1982), Wilson (2000), Bromfield and Renema (2011). Stratigraphy of eastern South Sulawesi is compiled from Grainge
and Davies (1985), Wilson (2000), and van den Bergh et al. (2016). Stratigraphy of Bone Gulf is modified from Camplin and Hall (2014). Stratigraphy of the Buton
Island is compiled from Fortuin et al. (1990), Davidson (1991), Smith and Silver (1991). Stratigraphy of Tolo Bay is modified from Rudyawan and Hall (2012).
shoreline to shoreface environment. Because the Togian Islands have no
local sources of ophiolitic material, it is suggested that they were con­
nected to the East Arm in the Early Pliocene and not separated by deep
water as at present.
Coeval volcaniclastics of the Lonsio Formation were mainly depos­
ited in the eastern Togian Islands and Poh Head during the Early Plio­
cene (5.3–3.8 Ma; Figs. 5, 8). The volcaniclastics are grain-supported
with carbonate sparry matrix, well-bedded, commonly at the deci­
metre scale, with a maximum bed thickness of around 3 m (Cottam et al.,
2011). Simandjuntak (1986) interpreted similar volcanogenic sediments
from the East Arm as turbidites and assigned them to the Lonsuit Tur­
bidites of the Batui Group. Cottam et al. (2011) interpreted the Lonsuit
Turbidites as tuffaceous sediments that reflect rapid aqueous reworking
of primary volcaniclastic material during deposition in a shallow marine
environment soon after eruption. The microfossil assemblages suggest a
depth of less than 200 m.
5.3. East Arm and Tomori Bay
The Bongka Formation is widely exposed in the East Arm and in­
cludes terrestrial, marginal marine and shallow marine sediments. In
this study, the Bongka Formation is subdivided informally into three
members; Member A is a lower carbonate unit, Member B is a middle
unit of well consolidated ultrabasic-rich siliciclastics, and Member C is
an upper part of poorly consolidated ophiolite-rich siliciclastics. The
three members were deposited in the Early Pliocene, Late Pliocene and
Pleistocene respectively (Figs. 5, 9). The age of Member A is based on a
Pliocene carbonate clast found in the Pleistocene part of the Bongka
Formation and its upper stratigraphic boundary with the Member B
(sample ES13-281, Fig. 9). It is also supported by the coeval pinnacle
reefs of Seismic Unit 0 of Pezzati et al. (2014) in the Poso Basin. This
seismic unit was interpreted as pinnacle and mounded reefs with
onlapping clastic sediments with seismic thickness up to 1 ms (Pholbud
et al., 2012; Pezzati et al., 2014). These limestones rest unconformably
on pre-Pliocene rocks.
Contemporaneous Lower Pliocene sediments in the onshore southern
East Arm are included in the Kintom Formation (Figs. 5, 10) and are
unconformably overlain by the marginal marine deposits of the Upper
Pliocene Member B (Rusmana et al., 1984, 1993a; Simandjuntak, 1986;
14
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 228 (2022) 105140
Davies,1990; this study). The exploration wells in Tomori Bay, offshore
southern East Arm recorded Lower Pliocene (5.2–3.8 Ma) deep water
claystones with sandstone and limestone based on their planktonic
foraminifera (Fig. 10; Davies, 1990). A prominent unconformity is seen
on seismic sections in the offshore southern East Arm at the top of the
Early Pliocene (Davies, 1990). On land there are thickly bedded whitish
grey marls (calcareous mudstone) interbedded with very thinly bedded
and very fine-grained sandstones. The marl is full of foraminifera and
rare broken shell fragments. These observations were made on an
exposure with a minimum stratigraphic thickness of around 10 m,
whereas thickness from an offshore well is about 366 m (Davies, 1990).
The predominantly fine-grained sediments and foraminifera suggest a
low energy-outer neritic environment. It supports the previous inter­
pretation of a submarine fan-deep water setting (Rusmana et al., 1984,
1993a; Simandjuntak, 1986; Davies,1990; Hasanusi et al., 2004).
Member B of the Bongka Formation in the northern East Arm consists
of clast-supported conglomerates, matrix-supported conglomerates,
horizontally planar stratified sandstones, contorted sandstones, planar
cross-laminated sandstones, trough cross-laminated sandstones, struc­
tureless sandstones and interbedded fine-grained sediments. There rocks
are grouped into three facies associations: FA1, FA2 and FA 3. FA1
consists of interbedded sandstone, siltstone and mudstone of outer shelf
delta front (Fig. 18b), FA2 includes massive to medium bedded sand­
stone of submarine channel and FA3 comprises thinning-up interbedded
sandstone, siltstone and red mudstone of channel fill or coastal plain
deposits (Fig. 18c). In the field, they have a minimum observed strati­
graphic thickness of around 16 m. These deposits possibly correlate with
the seismic Unit 4 of Pezzati et al. (2014) in eastern Poso Basin. The large
clastic input of Member B (including Unit 4 of Pezzati et al., 2014)
terminated a growth of the Lower Pliocene Member A carbonates
(including Unit 0 of Pezzati et al., 2014). The foraminifera assemblages
from this study suggest age ranges from 3.6 to 1.8 Ma (samples ES14-61
and ES14-62, Fig. 9). Reinterpretation of the foraminifera assemblage
that was collected by Hopper (1941) also supports a Late Pliocene age
(3.8–3.4 Ma). The foraminifera suggest an outer neritic depositional
environment.
The equivalent Upper Pliocene Member B in the southern East Arm
consists of thick bedded conglomerate and sandstone, mixed
siliciclastic-limestone, and ultrabasic-rich conglomerate and sandstone
A.M.S. Nugraha et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 228 (2022) 105140

Fig. 15. Stratigraphic range for the Tonasa, Bone, Makale, Baco, Tacipi, Selayar and Walanae Formations in South Sulawesi. The age range for each sample was
derived from previous published and unpublished works (all references are stated on chart). The time scale is from Gradstein et al. (2012). Nannofossil biozones from
GTS2012 timescale, TimeScaleCreator and the synthesis of Backman et al. (2012). Planktonic foraminifera biozones from BouDagher-Fadel (2015).

15
A.M.S. Nugraha et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 228 (2022) 105140

Fig. 16. Stratigraphic range for the Bungku, Pandua, Langkowala and Eemoiko Formations in the SE Arm. The age range for each sample was based on palae­
ontological and geochronological analyses of this study. The time scale is from Gradstein et al. (2012). Nannofossil biozones from GTS2012 timescale, Time­
ScaleCreator and the synthesis of Backman et al. (2012). Planktonic foraminifera biozones from BouDagher-Fadel (2015).

16
A.M.S. Nugraha et al.
Plate 3. Macrofossils from the Pandua Formation: 1. Mancorus verbeeki (Mar­
tin, 1895; Shuto, 1978), ES14-28; 2. Batissa sp., ES14-16; 3. Telescopium sp.,
ES14-28 and the Langkowala Formation: 4. Placenta sp., ES13-7.
(Fig. 18d). The thick bedded conglomerate and sandstone contain
channel, bar, gully and lag deposits and show coarsening-up cycles.
They suggest rapid deposition and high sediment input from the alluvial
fan feeder. Conglomerate clasts are predominantly limestone and marl
lithoclasts with subsidiary basalt, dolerite, gabbro, serpentinite and
granitoid. The mixed siliciclastic-limestone is dominated by reworked
bioclastic material in the lower part and siliciclastic material in the
upper part. It was deposited in a shallow marine environment and re­
cords the beginning of a re-emergent siliciclastic source of ultrabasic
rich conglomerate and sandstone. In the offshore southern East Arm,
sediments on top of the Late Pliocene unconformity consist of lime­
stones, conglomerates, sandstones, siltstones and claystones (Davies,
1990). The coarse grained clastics contain numerous ultrabasic clasts.
17
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 228 (2022) 105140
5.4. West Sulawesi
The upper part of the Lisu Formation was deposited in the latest
Miocene to Early Pliocene (5.8–3.6 Ma, Fig. 12; Calvert, 2000; Calvert
and Hall, 2007). It consists predominantly of mudstones with minor
wacke sandstone intercalations. The Pasangkayu Formation uncon­
formably overlies the Lisu Formation and is itself unconformably over­
lain by Quaternary alluvium and limestones (Fig. 11). The estimated
thickness from Tike-1 well is less than 860 m. The Pasangkayu Forma­
tion consists of conglomerates and sandstones with a westward-
increasing proportion of mudstones (Calvert and Hall, 2007). The
Pasangkayu Formation was deposited during the Early Pliocene to
Pleistocene (3.4–0.126 Ma, Norvick and Pile, 1976; Hadiwijoyo et al.,
1993; Chamberlain and Seago, 1995; Calvert, 2000) with an estimated
thickness between 2000 m and 3500 m. The conglomerates are deposits
of alluvial fans that bordered and interfingered with alluvial plain and
marine deposits (Calvert and Hall, 2007).
5.5. Central Sulawesi
The Napu, Puna, Poso, Larona and Bulupulu Formations were
deposited during the Pliocene in Central Sulawesi (Fig. 11). The Napu
Formation in western Central Sulawesi unconformably overlies the
Tambarana Formation. It consists of weakly consolidated interbedded
mudstone and sandstone with characteristic quartz-rich compositions in
heavily weathered outcrops in the Napu plain. The sandstones are
generally dark grey to brown, sub-angular, well to moderately sorted
and very fine- to very coarse-grained. Sandstone grains are quartz, mica,
mafic and red oxidized material. Plant material and carbon streaks often
appear in the mudstone beds. Fine-grained sediments commonly show
parallel to wavy laminations. Tuffaceous sandstones and mudstones are
locally present. Well preserved leaf fossil and plant debris commonly
occur within the thinly laminated tuffaceous mudstones. The Napu
Formation was deposited in a terrestrial environment based on the ev­
idence available. The fine-grained sediments that commonly show
horizontal parallel laminations and plant material represent overbank
deposits. The cross-bedded sandstones possibly represent channel-fill
deposits. Tuffaceous sandstone and mudstone beds indicate coeval
magmatism during their deposition. The mudstone samples collected
were barren of pollen and hence their age is uncertain. Simandjuntak
et al. (1997) suggested a Plio-Pleistocene age for the Napu Formation.
In the western part of the Poso depression in Central Sulawesi, the
Puna Formation consists of fining-up interbedded conglomerate, sand­
stone and mudstone with subsidiary limestone intercalations (Fig. 18e).
The Puna Formation has a minimum thickness of about 1000 m based on
reconstructed cross sections. Simandjuntak et al. (1997) suggested a
Pliocene age for the Puna Formation based on its foraminifera content.
However, foraminifera were rarely found within the mudstone beds in
this study and those found have wide age range (Miocene and younger).
There is only one sample that contains an age diagnostic foraminifera
assemblage which indicates an Early Pliocene age (sample ES14-78,
Fig. 19). Nannofossil assemblages indicate Late Pliocene and Late
Miocene to Early Pliocene (sample ES14-84) ages. Integrated biostrati­
graphic ages suggest an Early to Late Pliocene age for the Puna For­
mation. The sequence of thinning and fining upward from conglomerate
complex through sandstone- and mudstone-dominated facies associa­
tions, including microfossil analyses, suggest the Puna Formation was
deposited in submarine fan and slope apron settings in a relatively deep
marine environment (>200 m).
To the east, the Poso Formation consists of bedded to massive
limestones that include grainstones, packstones, wackestones, float­
stones and rudstones. A total thickness estimated from topographic
observations is about 250 m whereas Simandjuntak et al. (1997) sug­
gested a thickness of up to 800 m. The Poso Formation unconformably
overlies the Pompangeo Schist Complex (PSC) throughout the eastern
Poso Depression. The oldest limestones yielded foraminifera ages of
A.M.S. Nugraha et al.
Fig. 17. Stratigraphic range for the Tondo, Sampolakosa and Wapulaka Formations in the Buton Island. The age range for each sample from this study was based on
paleontological and geochronological analyses. The time scale is from Gradstein et al. (2012). Nannofossil biozones from GTS2012 timescale, TimeScaleCreator and
the synthesis of Backman et al. (2012). Planktonic foraminifera biozones from BouDagher-Fadel (2015).
5.3–3.6 Ma (Fig. 19; Plate 1). The carbonates are overlain unconform­
ably by the marine siliciclastics of the Pleistocene Lage Formation. The
unconformity formed on a detachment fault of the exhumed PSC. The
Poso depression represents an asymmetric Pliocene basin in which
shallow marine carbonates of the Poso Formation were deposited on the
hanging wall margin and the Puna Formation was deposited in the
deeper parts of the basin.
The Larona Formation comprises breccias, conglomerates, sand­
stones and claystones with tuff intercalations interpreted as alluvial fan
deposits. The proximal parts of the alluvial fan include breccias and
breccio-conglomerates with predominantly ultrabasic and serpentinised
ultrabasic clasts. The distal equivalents of the coarse alluvial fan de­
posits were observed at a location about 1 km to the southwest and
include matrix- to clast-supported conglomerates, pebbly sandstones
and sandstones. Age information about this formation is very limited.
Simandjuntak (1986) included it in Upper Miocene–Pliocene sediments
interpreted as marine deposits. Sediments were largely derived from
adjacent uplifted ultrabasic rocks. No samples suitable for biostrati­
graphic dating from this formation were found so the depositional age is
still uncertain.
The newly proposed Bulupulu Formation consists of quartz-rich
sandstones and conglomerates. The Bulupulu Formation is equivalent
to Pliocene sediments penetrated by BBA-1X well in northern Bone Bay
(Sudarmono, 2000). The maximum depositional age is ca. 3.6 Ma based
on detrital zircon dating (sample ES13-300, Fig. 13) and this is consis­
tent with the age information from the BBA-1X well (Sudarmono, 2000).
The minimum observed stratigraphic thickness from the field is about
100 m. Comparable conglomerates at the base of the Pliocene sedi­
mentary succession in well BBA-1X are 152 m thick. The Bulupulu
Formation in southern Central Sulawesi was deposited in a submarine
fan channel and passes laterally into a fining-up Pliocene sedimentary
succession recorded in the offshore BBA-1X well (Sudarmono, 2000).
The light grey colour, predominance of conglomerates and sandstones,
absence of mudstones and the presence of intermediate volcanic rock
and meta-chert clasts contrasts significantly with the underlying Upper
Miocene Bonebone Formation described earlier and suggests a signifi­
cant change in source rocks.
18
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 228 (2022) 105140
5.6. South Sulawesi
In eastern South Sulawesi, the Walanae Formation consists of sand­
stones interbedded with siltstones, tuffs, marls, claystones, conglomer­
ates, lavas and limestones. It unconformably overlies the Camba
Formation and records transgression and regression in the lower and
upper parts respectively (Fig. 14; van Leeuwen, 1981; Sukamto and
Supriatna, 1982; Grainge and Davies, 1985; van den Bergh et al., 2016).
The thickest sequence of the Walanae Formation in the East Sengkang
Basin is about 1800 m, whereas in the West Sengkang Basin, it is at least
3500 m thick. In places, the basal unit of the Walanae Formation was
deposited in the latest Miocene (5.3–1.8 Ma, Fig. 15; Grainge and
Davies, 1985). The base of this formation was deposited in a deep ma­
rine environment and has an interfingering relationship with the upper
Tacipi Formation (Grainge and Davies, 1985; Ascaria, 1997). There is an
increase in plant fragments and coarse grained sediment in the upper
part. Conglomerates are characterised by a high percentage of igneous
and metamorphic rock fragments. Abundant large unweathered euhe­
dral biotite flakes and mafic minerals indicate a coeval volcanic event. In
western South Sulawesi, tuff, breccia, conglomerate and lava rest un­
conformably on the older pre-Neogene rocks and were believed to have
been deposited in the Pliocene (van Leeuwen, 1981; Sukamto, 1982;
Sukamto and Supriatna, 1982). Van Leeuwen (1981) proposed a name of
Lemo Volcanics, while Sukamto (1982) and Sukamto and Supriatna
(1982) named these rocks the Parepare Volcanics.
5.7. SE Sulawesi
The siliciclastics of the Langkowala Formation and carbonates of the
Eemoiko Formation were deposited contemporaneously during the
Pliocene in SE Sulawesi (Figs. 14, 16, 18f). The Langkowala Formation
was initially deposited in a shelf to slope setting in the very latest
Miocene (6–5.3 Ma, sample ES13-184 and ES13-191; Fig. 16) and lies
unconformably upon the Pandua Formation. Foraminifera analysis
(Fig. 16; Plate 1) indicates a wide age range from Late Miocene (8.6 Ma)
to Early Pleistocene (1 Ma). The youngest detrital zircon age determi­
nation of 6.8 ± 0.2 Ma from sample ES13-55 gives a maximum depo­
sitional age. Integrated ages from different dating methods suggest a
A.M.S. Nugraha et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 228 (2022) 105140

Fig. 18. Field photographs of the Pliocene sedimentary rocks. (a) Interbedded sandstone and conglomerate of the Bongka Formation in the Togian Islands that were
deposited in a marginal marine alluvial braid-plain or coastal-alluvial plain (Lat. − 0.311◦ , Long. 121.983◦ ). (b) Outer-shelf delta front (FA1), submarine channel
(FA2), and (c) channel-fill (FA3) deposits of the Upper Pliocene Bongka Formation in the northwestern part of the East Arm near Sandada Village (Lat. − 1.249◦ ,
Long.121.206◦ ). (d) Coastal fan-delta deposits of the Upper Pliocene Bongka Formation in the southern East Arm that is unconformably overlain by horizontal
fluviatile Quaternary deposits in an abandoned quarry near Biak Town (Lat. − 0.923◦ , Long. 122.883◦ ). (e) Mudstone dominated – Interbedded mudstone and
sandstone of the Puna Formation in the western part of the Tokorondo Mountains (Lat. − 1.586◦ , Long. 120.587◦ ). (f) The ultrabasic rocks are conformably overlain
by bedded limestone of the Eemoiko Formation and tidal-influenced sediments of the Langkowala Formation in the quarries between Torobulo and Tinanggea
villages (Lat. − 4.401◦ , Long. 122.380◦ ).

19
A.M.S. Nugraha et al.
Fig. 19. Stratigraphic range for the Puna, Poso, Lage and Luwuk Formations in Central Sulawesi. The age range for each sample was based on palaeontological and
geochronological analyses. The time scale is from Gradstein et al. (2012). Nannofossil biozones from GTS2012 timescale, TimeScaleCreator and the synthesis of
Backman et al. (2012). Foraminifera biozones from BouDagher-Fadel (2015).
maximum age span of 6 to 1 Ma for the Langkowala Formation (sample
ES13-55, Fig. 16). The formation comprises quartz-rich conglomerates,
sandstones and mudstones deposited in a wide range of depositional
environments from terrestrial to marine settings. Predominant gravelly
to sandy bars in channels represent a braided fluvial system. Marginal
marine sediments are widely exposed towards the present-day coastline.
This zone is often rich in salt-tolerant floras and faunas and charac­
terised by the presence of mangrove to back-mangrove pollens, brackish
to shallow marine ichnofacies and brackish molluscs. Surono and
Sukarna (1995) estimated a total thickness of about 150 m based on its
topographic expression. The Abuki-1 well penetrates inner to middle
neritic transgressive sediments deposited during the Early Pliocene to
Middle Pleistocene in the eastern SE Arm based on foraminifera and
nannofossil analyses (Fig. 17; Robertson Indonesia, 1992).
Carbonates of the Eemoiko Formation unconformably overlie the
Pandua Formation and rest on ultrabasic and metamorphic rocks
(Fig. 18f). They include thinly to massive bedded carbonates interpreted
to have been deposited on a reefal shelf. This interpretation is supported
by macro- and microfacies analyses in this study that suggest lagoonal
back reef, inner platform, reefal area (including reef flanks), reef core
and forereef environments. The Eemoiko Formation has a minimum
observed stratigraphic thickness of around 20 m, whereas offshore
seismic lines suggest a thickness of up to 500 m (Camplin and Hall,
2014). The Eemoiko Formation records a transgressive event that
possibly started in the Early Pliocene and continued at least to the
Middle Pliocene. It is characterised by the presence of landwards-
indented features formed by Middle Pliocene limestones in the study
area. This transgressive event is also recorded offshore in Bone Bay
20
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 228 (2022) 105140
where backstepping carbonates appear on the seismic data (Camplin and
Hall, 2014).
5.8. Buton Island
The Sampolakosa Formation overlies the Tondo Formation and
consists of massive bedded marls, calcarenites, pinnacle reefs and minor
volcaniclastics at the base (Fig. 14; Wiryosujono and Hainim, 1975;
Fortuin et al., 1990; Davidson, 1991; Smith and Silver, 1991). Davidson
(1991) reported basal pinnacle reefs which are overlain by deep marine
marls followed by calcarenites. Foraminifera in fossiliferous sediments
have latest Miocene to Early Pliocene ages and indicate outer neritic to
middle-lower bathyal environments (Fig. 17; Wiryosujono and Hainim,
1975; Fortuin et al., 1990; Davidson, 1991). A recent study (Pedoja
et al., 2018), indicates that reef sequences of south Buton cannot be
older than 4.4 Ma and probably emerged between 4.4 and 3.2 Ma (~3.8
± 0.6 Ma). The Sampolakosa Formation has unconformable and
conformable basal contacts with the underlying Tondo Formation
(Bothé, 1927; Hetzel, 1936; Wiryosujono and Hainim, 1975; Smith,
1983; Davidson, 1991; Smith and Silver, 1991). These contacts indicate
an unconformity and correlative conformity surface. The total formation
thickness is variable, ranging from 30 m to over 1000 m (Davies, 1990).
6. Pleistocene
6.1. North Sulawesi
The upper portion of the Buol Beds in the western North Arm was
A.M.S. Nugraha et al.
deposited in the Pleistocene and is unconformably overlain by Quater­
nary limestone (Figs. 5, 6; 3.4–0.12 Ma; sample STAR12-349B; Advo­
kaat, 2015). The Buol Beds consist of claystone with some coal seams,
marly to calcareous sandstone, limestone and conglomerate in­
tercalations, with reworked trachytic, andesitic volcanic material,
rhyolite, tuff, dacite, andesite and fragments of foraminifera (Koperberg,
1929; Johnston, 1975; Ratman, 1976). The presence of coal seams and
thin bedded limestone suggest a terrestrial to shallow marine deposi­
tional environment. The thickness reconstructed from geological cross-
sections is about 330 m.
In central North Sulawesi, the Randangan Formation consists of
thickly bedded volcaniclastic sandstones and mudstones with occasional
conglomerates (Rudyawan, 2016). Sandstones contain quartz, volcanic
lithics and abundant organic material. Conglomerate clasts include
igneous and sedimentary rock fragments. The interpreted Pleistocene
age is based on a dated Miocene limestone clast and underlying Pliocene
felsic volcanics (Rudyawan, 2016). The thickness is estimated at about
1500 m.
To the south, in the Sulawesi Neck, the newly proposed Palu For­
mation (previously named the Celebes Molasse) consists of poorly
consolidated quartz-rich conglomerates and sandstones (Fig. 20a) which
rest unconformably upon the Palu metamorphic complex. These rocks
indicate a proximal to distal alluvial fan environment associated with
braided rivers. Stratigraphic reconstruction of the Palu Formation sug­
gests a thickness of around 900 m. The youngest detrital zircon age of
2.5 Ma (sample ES13-254; Fig. 21) from this formation indicates a
depositional age younger than 2.5 Ma and supports the Pleistocene age
proposed from nannofossils and K-Ar dating by van Leeuwen and
Muhardjo (2005). The Palu Formation is considered as a syn-tectonic
unit that records rapid exhumation and uplift of metamorphic and
granitoid rocks in the Neck and west Central Sulawesi during the
Pleistocene.
6.2. Togian Islands, East Arm and Tomori Bay
Reefal limestones of Luwuk Formation are widely exposed around
Gorontalo Bay including the Togian Islands and East Arm (Fig. 5). In the
Togian Islands, reefal limestones outcrop mainly in the western islands
(e.g. Batu Daka) and occur as high cliffs and raised terraces of poorly
bedded, rubbly limestones containing broken coral fragments (Cottam
et al., 2011). In the East Arm, uplifted Quaternary coral reef terraces are
exposed along the coast of Luwuk and reach elevations of over 400 m
above sea level. Four reef terraces at 410, 62, 19 and 6.6 m above high
tide have U/Th ages ranging from 350 ka to 67 ka (Sumosusastro et al.,
1989). In Tomori Bay, offshore southern East Arm, Pleistocene to Recent
sediments were conformably deposited upon Upper Pliocene sediments
(Davies, 1990). The Tolo-1 well records a thickness of Pleistocene to
Recent massive limestones, sandstones, conglomerates and siltstones of
1128 m. These massive limestones are possibly a drowned limestone
equivalent to the Luwuk Formation.
The uppermost part of the Bongka Formation in the northern East
Arm comprises poorly consolidated ophiolite-rich conglomerate, sand­
stone and mudstone. These sediments represent the proximal to distal
part of an alluvial fan (Fig. 20b-d). The most proximal part of the fan is
represented by subaerial debris flow deposits which contain boulders
more than 1 m in size (Fig. 20b). Upslope-dipping cross-stratifications
represent sheetflood antidunes in an alluvial fan setting (Fig. 20c).
Interstratified conglomerates and sandstones show wedge, lenticular
and lens geometries that represent erosional lag, gully and channel fills
that are common in alluvial fans. The minimum thickness of the Pleis­
tocene Bongka Formation is about 1000 m. The interpreted age is based
on dated Pliocene limestone clasts and underlying Upper Pliocene sed­
iments. A limestone clast within this poorly consolidated conglomerate
yielded a latest Miocene to earliest Pleistocene age range (7.2–1.8 Ma,
sample ES13-281, Fig. 9). This clast may have been reworked from
Pliocene limestones in the lower part of the Bongka Formation. The
21
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 228 (2022) 105140
Pleistocene Bongka Formation was probably deposited offshore and
correlates with seismic Unit 5 of Pezzati et al. (2014) in the eastern Poso
Basin. Unit 5 rests unconformably on Unit 4 that correlates with the
Upper Pliocene Bongka Formation and records significant clastic input
from an uplifted source to the southeast.
6.3. West Sulawesi
The upper part of the Pasangkayu Formation was deposited in the
Pleistocene (Fig. 11). It consists predominantly of mudstones with
increasing conglomerate, tuff, siltstone, limestone and thin lignite up­
wards based on the Karama-1S well (Norvick and Pile, 1976; Hebberger,
1997(Hebberger, 1997)). Conglomerates contain lithic, basaltic and
volcanic fragments. They are unconformably overlain by Quaternary
alluvium and limestones (Calvert and Hall, 2007). Calvert (2000) re­
ported ongoing deformation and uplift in the region indicated by the
occurrence of uplifted Quaternary limestones, folding and tilting of the
Pasangkayu Formation (Wismann, 1984) and GPS records (Walpersdorf
et al., 1998). The alluvium consists of fluviatile sediments, alluvial fan
deposits and limestones which are predominantly coralline (Sukido
et al., 1993; Ratman and Atmawinata, 1993).
6.4. Central Sulawesi
The Lage Formation unconformably overlies the Poso Formation in
the Poso depression, Central Sulawesi (Fig. 11). This formation was
previously included as a siliciclastic member of the Poso Formation
(Simandjuntak et al., 1997). Combined biostratigraphic analyses suggest
an Early Pleistocene age (1.8–1 Ma, Fig. 19) which is younger than the
Poso Formation. The Lage Formation consists of (1) fining-up thinly to
medium bedded sandstones and mudstones and (2) slumped conglom­
erate, sandstone and mudstone beds. Sandstones contain predominantly
quartz, with plagioclase and glaucophane grains (Fig. 20e). Glauco­
phane in this formation records the exhumation of glaucophane-bearing
schists reported from the Pompangeo Mountains by Brouwer (1934) and
de Roever (1947, 1950). The minimum thickness of the Lage Formation
is estimated to be about 56 m. Foraminifera analysis suggest that sedi­
ments were deposited in an outer neritic shelf during the Middle Pleis­
tocene. Slumped coarse-grained sediments within these deposits
indicate slope instability and mass transport processes that were
possibly caused by earthquakes or storms.
The Lower Pleistocene Tomata Formation is widespread in south­
eastern Central Sulawesi (Fig. 11). It consists of quartz-rich conglom­
erates, sandstones, coaly mudstones and coals (Fig. 20f). The quartz-rich
conglomerates and sandstones were deposited as channel-fills. Coal and
coaly mudstones were deposited as overbank and floodplain deposits.
Our observations support previous depositional environment in­
terpretations (Simandjuntak, 1986; Simandjuntak et al., 1991, 1997;
Surono et al., 1993; Rusmana et al., 1993) of a fluvial environment. The
absence of palynomorphs within coal samples makes the age and spe­
cific depositional environment impossible to determine. The interpreted
maximum depositional age of about 1.8 Ma is based on quartzite and
metamorphic clasts that were probably derived from the Pompangeo
Metamorphic Complex. The total thickness observed in outcrop is about
5 m but neither the top nor the base of the unit was seen.
The Luwuk Formation in Central Sulawesi consists of reefal lime­
stones with marl intercalations that were deposited in a shallow marine
setting during the Middle Pleistocene (Fig. 19). These Quaternary raised
reefal limestones were deposited in high energy conditions and related
to an active fault (Garrard et al., 1988). Alluvium, alluvial fan, lake and
coastal deposits overlie unconformably many of the Pleistocene sedi­
ments in Central Sulawesi. Predominant metamorphic lithoclasts appear
in the young Quaternary deposits with an increasing proportion of
granitoids and diorites in the west and Neck areas. The young Quater­
nary carbonates also include pinnacle reefs similar to those that formed
in Gorontalo Bay. Vertical growth of the pinnacle reefs probably
A.M.S. Nugraha et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 228 (2022) 105140

Fig. 20. Field photographs of the Pleistocene sedimentary rocks. (a) The Palu Formation shows increasing proportion of sandstone that is eroded by channelised
conglomerate beds along the road crossing the Neck between Palu and Parigi Towns (Lat. − 0.727◦ , Long. 119.923◦ ). (b) Alluvial fan deposits (FA1) of Pleistocene
Bongka Formation in the northern East Arm that include an outsize boulder of ultrabasic rock (marked by dotted white lines) (Lat. − 1.379◦ , Long. 121.160◦ ). (c)
Sheetflood deposits (FA3) of the Pleistocene Bongka Formation in the northern East Arm that cut by channel (FA2), sheetflood deposits (FA3) and antidune bedform
of FA4 (Lat. − 0.976◦ , Long. 121.850◦ ). (d) Alluvial plain deposits (FA5) of the Pleistocene Bongka Formation in the northern east Arm that cut by a channel bed of
FA2 (Lat. − 1.024◦ , Long. 121.399◦ ). (e) Slumped shelfal slope deposits (lower part) of the Lage Formation. Note the highly folded and chaotic deposits and well
bedded sediments in the lower and upper parts respectively (Lat. − 1.443◦ , Long. 120.784◦ ). (f) Coal and coaly mudstone beds of the Tomata Formation in the road
cut near the Lanumor Village (Lat.-2.018◦ , Long.121.071◦ ).

22
A.M.S. Nugraha et al.
Fig. 21. Stratigraphic range for the newly proposed Palu Formation. van Leeuwen and Muhardjo (2005) previously assigned this formation to the Celebes Molasse of
Sarasin and Sarasin (1901). The time scale is from Gradstein et al. (2012). Foraminifera biozones from BouDagher-Fadel (2015).
occurred during rapid subsidence in the Pleistocene.
6.5. South Sulawesi
The Walanae Formation in central South Sulawesi was interpreted to
extend to the Pleistocene where the Beru Member (van den Bergh et al.,
2016; Fig. 14) includes deltaic sands, clays and gravels with fossil
vertebrate remains. The lower part of the Beru Member was deposited in
shallow marine/estuarine-fluvial depositional environments, whereas
the upper part consists of fully terrestrial fluvio-lacustrine deposits,
which merge into the modern floodplain along the depocentre axis of the
Walanae Depression. The ages of the two parts of the Beru Member were
constrained by LA-ICP-MS uranium-series dating on fossils (minimum
age of 200 ka) and a multiple-elevated-temperature post-infrared
infrared stimulated luminescence (MET-pIRIR) dating of potassium-rich
feldspar grains (>195, 156 ± 19, 141 ± 12, 126 ± 11, 103 ± 9 ka,
Fig. 15; van den Bergh et al., 2016). The Walanae Formation is uncon­
formably overlain by Holocene alluvial, terrace and coastal deposits
which consist of gravel, sand, clay, mud coral and limestone.
6.6. SE Sulawesi
The uppermost part of the Langkowala Formation includes Lower
Pleistocene bedded mudstones and siltstones (1.8–1 Ma, sample ES13-
194, Fig. 16) that were deposited in an outer neritic environment.
This suggests a Pliocene transgression that possibly continued until the
Early Pleistocene (c. 1 Ma) in some places consistent with palae­
ontological data from the Abuki-1 well that penetrates a transgressive
Pliocene to Pleistocene succession (Robertson Indonesia, 1992). The
Pleistocene succession comprises interbedded quartz-rich sandstones
and claystones with metamorphic rock fragments. The Langkowala
Formation is overlain unconformably by the Buara and Allangga For­
mations. The Quaternary limestones of the Buara Formation in the SE
Arm correlate with the Upper Pleistocene Wapulaka Formation in Buton
Island (Fig. 14; Sikumbang and Sanyoto, 1995; Fortuin et al., 1990,
Davidson, 1991; Simandjuntak et al., 1993). This formation correlates
with terrestrial sandstones and mudstones of the Allangga Formation
(Simandjuntak et al., 1993).
6.7. Buton Island
The Pliocene Sampolakosa Formation is unconformably overlain by
Quaternary reefs of the Wapulaka Formation (Fig. 14; Fortuin et al.,
1990; Smith and Silver, 1991; Davidson, 1991; Sikumbang and Sanyoto,
1995; Milsom et al., 1999). In eastern Buton Island, Quaternary uplift is
expressed by spectacular flights of at least 13 terraces forming the
eastern side of Sampolawa Bay to almost 700 m above sea level (Wir­
yosujono and Hainim, 1975; Fortuin et al., 1990; Davidson, 1991). On
the eastern side, 230Th/234U dating was carried out on a coral sample
from one of the terraces that was elevated 92 m above mean sea level
indicating an age of 182 ± 27 ka (Fortuin et al., 1990). A study by
Pedoja et al. (2018) on coral reef and marine terraces of south Buton
23
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 228 (2022) 105140
yielded U/Th ages of 245.6 ± 13.1 ka to 7.2 ± 0.2 ka and 14C ages of
3100 ± 30 to 745 ± 30 yr. It was estimated that the Middle and Upper
Pleistocene uplift rates were 0.1–0.3 mm yr-1 (Pedoja et al., 2018).
Davidson (1991) suggested a Late Pliocene to Pleistocene age range (c.
4.4 – 1 Ma) and a shallow water, inner neritic, reef or near reef depo­
sitional environment for the Wapulaka Formation (Wiryosujono and
Hainim, 1975; Davidson, 1991).
7. Discussion
7.1. Tectonics, sedimentation and unconformities
Our field observations and new age constraints necessitate revision
of the Neogene stratigraphy of Sulawesi. Here we link the revised stra­
tigraphy from this study to the major unconformities. Major Neogene
unconformities observed across Sulawesi (Fig. 4) are (1) Early Miocene
(c. 23 Ma), (2) Middle Miocene (c. 15 Ma) and (3) Mio-Pliocene (c.
6–5.3 Ma). These major unconformities separate the Lower Miocene,
Middle to Upper Miocene, and Pliocene mega-sequences. A mid Pliocene
unconformity is observed in some parts of northern Sulawesi (e.g. East
Arm, west Central Sulawesi and West Sulawesi) and separates Lower and
Upper Pliocene sequences. There are (4) Early and (5) Late Pleistocene
(c. 1.8 and 0.1 Ma) unconformities (Fig. 4) recorded in places.
The Early Miocene regional unconformity formed after collision
(Fig. 4 and Table 2). Subduction prior to collision is indicated by
blueschists along the Central Sulawesi metamorphic belt with Late
Oligocene to Early Miocene ages (c. 30–17 Ma; Wijbrans et al., 1994;
Parkinson, 1996; Mawaleda et al., 2018). Late Oligocene–Early Miocene
deformation and metamorphic events are also recognised from the
western North Arm Malino Metamorphic Complex in NW Sulawesi
(40Ar/39Ar ages of c. 23 Ma, and metamorphic zircon overgrowths of
19.2 Ma and 17.5 Ma; van Leeuwen et al., 2007) and along the Palu-Koro
Fault in west central Sulawesi, where Sm–Nd analyses of garnet from
garnet peridotites record peak metamorphism at 27.6 ± 1.13 Ma and a
cooling age of 20.0 ± 0.26 Ma (Kadarusman et al., 2002, 2011).
The Early Miocene unconformity is observed on land across Sulawesi
and is characterised by a break in sedimentation and erosion. It is
confirmed from the offshore wells in the Buton and Banggai Basins. Well
Bulu 1-S in Buton penetrates an Early Miocene unconformity with a
basal conglomerate containing limestone clasts (Davidson, 1991).
Quartz-rich basal siliciclastics are penetrated by the Tiaka-2 and Tiaka-3
wells above the unconformity in the Banggai Basin, southern offshore
East Arm (Davies, 1990). The oldest record of Neogene sediments
onshore is the Lower Miocene Bungku Formation which contains the
earliest reworked ophiolitic grains (e.g. serpentine, olivine and chert)
post-dating ophiolite emplacement in SE Sulawesi following collision.
The Lower Miocene megasequence includes shallow to deep marine
sediments that were deposited in the newly formed Neogene basins
across Sulawesi.
The Middle Miocene unconformity is interpreted as a product of
lithospheric stretching related to Banda subduction rollback that caused
both uplift and subsidence. Exhumation resulted in an unconformity and
A.M.S. Nugraha et al.
Table 2
Summary of criteria used to identify unconformities in tectono-stratigraphic diagram in Fig. 4.
correlative conformity seen on seismic lines across Gorontalo and Bone
Basins at the basin margins and depocentres respectively. Evidence of
lithospheric extension is recorded in Malino Metamorphic Complex, NW
Sulawesi by K-Ar and 40Ar/39Ar ages of 23–11 Ma on white mica and
hornblende (van Leeuwen et al., 2007). Exhumation of blueschist-
bearing Pompangeo, Mekongga and Rumbia Metamorphic Complexes
occurred at this time (e.g. Helmers et al., 1989; Mawaleda et al., 2018).
We interpret the Middle Miocene Donggala Pluton (c. 14.95 Ma) in
Gorontalo, central North Arm (Rudyawan et al., 2014) to be the product
of magmatism associated with extension. Magmatism related to crustal
thinning in west Central Sulawesi produced a K-rich shoshonitic (HK)
suite between the Middle Miocene and Early Pliocene (c. 14–13 Ma;
Priadi et al., 1994; Polvé et al., 1997; Elburg et al., 2003; Hennig et al.,
2014, 2016).
The Mio-Pliocene unconformity is recognised across Sulawesi. It
appears to be associated with significant magmatic activity at c. 7–6 Ma
(peak at c. 6.4 Ma) based on zircon U-Pb ages throughout West Sulawesi
magmatic belt (Hennig et al., 2016; White et al., 2017; Zhang et al.,
2020). There were several pulses of magmatism; I-type and silica-rich I-
type CAK magmatism took place between c. 8.5 and 4 Ma and was fol­
lowed by S-type magmatism between c. 5 and 2.5 Ma (Hennig et al.,
2016). The Palu Metamorphic Complex was exhumed in the Early
Pliocene in the north (c. 5.3 Ma) and mid/Late Pliocene in the south (c.
3.1–2.7 Ma) and was contemporaneous with S-type magmatism (Hennig
et al., 2017). In SE Sulawesi, the “Kolaka Dacite” has zircons with ages
between c. 7 and 4 Ma (White et al., 2014). Magmatism resulted in uplift
and simultaneous deposition of the volcanics and volcaniclastics above
the Mio-Pliocene unconformity. Magmatism and exhumation of meta­
morphic rocks was coincident with the opening of the South Banda Basin
from c. 6.5 to 3.5 Ma (Hinschberger et al., 2005) during Banda rollback
and North Sulawesi subduction rollback at c. 5 Ma (Silver et al., 1983;
Surmont et al., 1994; Djajadihardja et al., 2004; Hall, 2018).
Uplift and subsidence between the Pleistocene and present day
formed intra-Pleistocene unconformities 4 and 5 (Fig. 4). Onland sedi­
mentation records rapid exhumation and uplift of metamorphic and
granitoid rocks such as the Palu Formation in the Neck and the Lage
Formation in Central Sulawesi. Offshore there is evidence for significant
subsidence in the inter-arm basins such as Gorontalo, Bone and Tomori
Basins where presumed Plio-Pleistocene pinnacle reefs are found
drowned in water depths of up to 2000 m (Davies, 1990; Pholbud et al.,
2012; Camplin and Hall, 2014). Uplifted Quaternary coralline reef ter­
races are exposed along the coast of West Sulawesi, East Arm, SE Sula­
wesi, Buton and Tukang Besi. The broadly contemporaneous nature of
basin subsidence and uplift and erosion of the surrounding land areas
suggests that these two processes are inherently linked. The extremely
rapid rates and large amounts of uplift and subsidence in the region that
continues today have been interpreted as the consequence of rollback of
the North Sulawesi and the Banda subduction zones (e.g. Spakman and
Hall, 2010; Pownall et al., 2013, 2014, 2016; Hall, 2018).
24
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 228 (2022) 105140
7.2. Implications for the surrounding offshore basins
7.2.1. Gorontalo basin
No well penetrates Gorontalo Bay which makes the stratigraphy of
this basin debatable. There are at least four major unconformities
observed on 2D seismic lines in this basin (Jablonski et al., 2007;
Pholbud et al., 2012; Pezzati et al., 2014; Pezzati, 2017). Jablonski et al.
(2007) suggested Middle Eocene, Lower Oligocene, Middle Miocene and
Pliocene ages. Alternatively, Pholbud et al. (2012) proposed Early
Miocene, Middle Miocene, Pliocene and Pleistocene ages for the un­
conformities. Our observations on land support the latter interpretation;
the Early Miocene regional unconformity across Sulawesi is interpreted
as the lowermost unconformity in this basin. A Middle Miocene un­
conformity occurs between the Early Miocene and Mio-Pliocene un­
conformities. Clinoforms of progradation, aggradation and
retrogradation/backstepping stacking patterns on top of this unconfor­
mity seen on 2D seismic lines are interpreted to have developed during
the Pliocene to Pleistocene and correlate with the Lokodidi Formation to
the north, the Poso and Puna Formations to the southwest, and the
Bongka Formation to the southeast. The Pleistocene unconformity
marks the significant basin deepening that separates the pinnacle reefs
that are now at depths up to 2000 m deep and partly buried beneath
Pleistocene to Holocene sediments, correlated with exhumation of
metamorphic complexes on land (Spencer, 2011; Hennig et al., 2014,
Hall, 2018).
7.2.2. Bone basin
The only well in Bone Basin, BBA-1X, is located at its north end. This
well confirms the major Mio-Pliocene unconformity that truncates
Middle to Upper Miocene sediments (Sudarmono, 2000). This uncon­
formity marks an abrupt change of depositional environment and a
significant increase in clastic input as seen in many parts of Sulawesi
during the latest Miocene to earliest Pliocene. In the eastern Padamar­
ang sub-basin, the truncated prograding clinoforms of the Middle to
Upper Miocene Unit B of Camplin and Hall (2014) are correlated here
with the deltaic deposits of the Upper Miocene Pandua Formation. This
is supported by the presence of the transgressive and backstepping
carbonates that were deposited around the SE Arm. An older uncon­
formity below this is interpreted as the Middle Miocene unconformity
separating Lower Miocene and Middle-Upper Miocene sediments. The
Lower Miocene sedimentary unit (Unit A of Camplin and Hall, 2014) is
truncated near the basement high in the Kabaena sub-basin. The
lowermost unconformity in the Bone Basin is the Early Miocene un­
conformity and is interpreted as formed by collision.
7.2.3. Tolo Bay
There are 5 major unconformities observed on 2D seismic lines in
Tolo Bay suggested by Rudyawan and Hall (2012). to be Early Jurassic,
Early Cretaceous, Early Miocene, Middle Miocene, and Early Pliocene
A.M.S. Nugraha et al.
that separate the basement (Unit A), Pre-Cenozoic (Unit B1-3), Cenozoic
(Units C1-4) and Oceanic Crust (Unit D). This study suggests an alter­
native interpretation of these unconformities as Early Miocene, Middle
Miocene, Mio-Pliocene, Late Pliocene and Pleistocene. Unit A of
Rudyawan and Hall (2012) is here interpreted as Pre-Cenozoic, Unit B2-3
as Lower Miocene, Unit B3 as Upper Miocene, Unit C1-3 as Pliocene and
Unit C4 as Pleistocene units. These units are correlated with Cenozoic
formations in Tomori Bay (Davies, 1990; Hasanusi et al., 2004).
8. Conclusions
Analysis of the Neogene sediments across Sulawesi has identified
major regional unconformities in the (1) Early Miocene (c. 23 Ma), (2)
Middle Miocene (c. 15 Ma), (3) Mio-Pliocene (c. 6–5.3 Ma) and (4 and 5)
Pleistocene (c. 1.8 and 0.1 Ma). The Early Miocene unconformity is
interpreted to be the result of collision. The younger unconformities
mark important phases of extension and magmatism. During the
Neogene depositional environments varied from terrestrial to deep
marine. Sedimentation resulted from extension, driven by subduction
rollback, causing both uplift and subsidence, in contrast to previous
interpretations of multiple collisions. This revised stratigraphy will aid
interpretation of the frontier basins surrounding Sulawesi, many of
which have not yet been drilled.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Abang Mansyursyah Surya Nugraha: Conceptualization, Method­
ology, Formal analysis, Investigation, Visualization, Writing – original
draft, Writing – review & editing. Robert Hall: Conceptualization, Su­
pervision, Funding acquisition, Writing – review & editing. Marcelle
BouDagher-Fadel: Investigation, Writing – review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This research was a project of the SE Asia Research Group (SEARG)
supported by a consortium of oil companies who funded the PhD of the
first author. This research was supported by the Earth Observatory of
Singapore and comprises EOS contribution number 381. We thank
Ramacin, Ramtot, Lloyd White and local guides for assistance in the
field. Jeremy Young and Jonathan Todd are kindly acknowledged for
the palaeontological analyses. Pak Eko Budi Lelono and Christina Ani
are thanked for assistance with palynology. M. Rittner is thanked for
assistance with LA-ICP-MS U-Pb dating of zircons. We thank Alfend
Rudyawan, Eldert Advokaat, Juliane Hennig and Benyamin Sapiie for
helpful additional information and discussions. Institut Teknologi Ban­
dung is thanked for making the fieldwork possible. Reviewer Ercan
Özcan and an anonymous reviewer are thanked for their valuable input
that improved figures and the text. Adam Switzer, Mei-Fu Zhou and Khin
Zaw are thanked for handling manuscript and editorial input.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2022.105140.
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Abang Mansyursyah Surya Nugraha (Ega) obtained BSc geology
from Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia. He obtained MSc
and PhD from the Royal Holloway University of London, UK
where he joined the SE Asia Research Group. His PhD produced
detailed Neogene geological history of Sulawesi based on in­
tegrated study of sedimentology, stratigraphy, paleontology,
mineralogy, well and seismic data. He is now working as a
research fellow at the Earth Observatory of Singapore, Nanyang
Technological University. His research interests include sedi­
mentology and stratigraphy, sedimentary provenance, basin
evolution, paleogeography and tectonics.
Robert Hall is Emeritus Professor of Geology and former Di­
rector of the SE Asia Research Group at Royal Holloway Uni­
versity of London. His PhD was concerned with ophiolites and
sutures in Turkey and was followed by research in the Eastern
Mediterranean and Middle East. From 1984 he led field-based
research in SE Asia with postgraduates and post-doctoral col­
leagues, supported by industrial consortia, which formed the
basis for plate tectonic reconstructions of the region. His
research interests include subduction and island arcs; sediments
and provenance; seismic tomography and mantle processes;
and biogeographical implications of tectonic models.
Prof Marcelle BouDagher-Fadel got her first degree in Lebanon,
and after moving to the UK graduated from UCL with a PhD.
She was awarded a Royal Society Daphne Jackson Fellowship
and today is a Professorial Research Fellow in the UCL Office of
Vice-Provost for Research. She is an expert in planktonic and
larger benthic foraminifera. Her expertise is in the application
of larger benthic foraminifera in biostratigraphy and paleo­
environmental analysis. She has published extensively on both
Mesozoic and Cenozoic forms. She has authored four major
monographic works on both larger and planktonic forami­
nifera, and has published over 190 research articles.