Bridget Egan 2004 Geographical Attachments: Place and Space Re-Defining Roles in Elizabeth Gaskells North and South

In Elizabeth Gaskell's geographically stratified North and South, the disembodiment produced by the increasingly alienating aspects of nineteenth century labor is spatialized. There are three explicit geographic spaces in the novelHelstone, London, and Milton-Northernand these three spaces are constructed textually so that each has a distinct character, setting, and appeal (or lack thereof). The reader, then, like the main characters, travels through unfamiliar geographic and ideological spaces. Since much of the text seems preoccupied with the fissure between ideological standpoints, I find it useful to read Gaskell's space obsession as an attempt to reconcile conflicting viewpoints on labor and society. My objective in this paper is to explore the new ideological space that Gaskell creates in order to address the ills of industry and capitalism. Ultimately, the novel only succeeds in creating a model of reality relying on the hierarchical control of space and in doing so mirrors the problematic bourgeoisie urban planning method that marginalizes the poor and avoids any reclamation of space. The fissure in the diagetic space in North and South destabilizes the narrative creating a new space where the opposing ideologies that attach themselves to the rural/urban dichotomy attempt to converge. Gaskells narrative relies heavily on notions of the pastoral as pure and paternalistic to oppose the majority of the texts preoccupation with the bleak industrial liberal city. The distinctness of place and space in the novel seem to be an attempt to simultaneously ground the narrative in something familiar while unsettling preconceived notions about certain places in order to

reconfigure and redefine space and place particularly in the confines of the Victorian industrial city. The divide between liberalism and paternalism are each grounded in a particular place, Milton-Northern and Helstone respectively. This place based ideological structure forces characters to travel to strange geographic regions, or spaces, in an attempt to inject the characters respective politics into previously homogenously created textual spaces. Thus, the geographic divide between North and South could be reconciled with a third metaphorical space where opposing issues such as liberalism and paternalism can be conjoined; and this metaphorical space is built in the industrial city of Milton-Northern turning a bleak city into a site of possibility and reconciliation of the problematics of capitalism and stringent place-based ideologies. The construction of the bodies and landscapes in Helstone is preoccupied with providing a positive environmental framework for the characters and reader both to use as a grounding point for the rest of the chaotic and malleable world of Victorian capitalism. In this construction, though, the difficulty or impossibility of creating such a utopic setting is admitted in the narrative. Helstone, the formative origin of the paternalistic Margaret Hale, is quite literally indescribable for one who has never been there outside of the allegories of poetry and utopias. Margaret herself cannot fully explain the perfection of her home, Oh, I cant describe my home. It is home, and I cant put its charm into words except to invoke aesthetics, Helstone is like a village in a poemin one of Tennysons poems. But I wont try and describe it anymore. You would only laugh at me if I told you what I think of itwhat it really is (Gaskell, 12 emphasis mine). It is not simply a lack of verbal ability that disallows Margaret from describing her village, but a deep emotional attachment to this place that cannot be

reduced to physical description nor be admitted without opening her up to the scorn or ridicule of an urban audience that is textually constructed as unable to connect so fully to their physical location. The Hales forced relocation is set in stark contrast to Edith and Aunt Shaws travel for leisure but apparent lack of true attachment to any location if it is not providing immediate social-climbing value. Place-based identity is a major undercurrent and narrative force in this text and though often theories of place in literature are associated with environmental texts (Buell), Gaskells attachment to the rural needs to be explicated through the theoretical apparatus of place theory in order to understand the relation between rural and urban in the novel. Lawrence Buells discussions of place centers on the ecological, but the parameters apply to many genres of literature concerned with anchoring the narrative to a locale imbued with a sense of the social and consequently, the emotive. No landscape is without human intervention; the very act of imagining a place is to create it. Raymond Williamss analysis that the idea of nature contains, though often unnoticed, an extraordinary amount of human history (67) is concomitant to this reading as natural is oftentimes the category or marker of a specific place without conscious realization of all the human value and labor that has created the natural. Place is mediated and constructed by pluralities such as religions, cultural milieus, technology, and institutional structures (Buell, 60) but by utilizing the word natural humans can ignore the constructivism of a place and claim authenticity and ownership just as Margaret calls the villagers of Helstone her people. These structures create a geophysical location that becomes sentimental and emotive to those who experience it. In the literary tradition, narratives often evoke place and certainly help in defining (Faulkners

Southeastern United States and Dickenss London for example) the attitudes and conceptions of locales. The power of literature in defining and evoking a sense of place cannot be underestimated as the power of images seems key to making individuals and groups feel place connected (Buell, 72). So, in the simplest sense, place making involves restructuring (mentally and sometimes physically) an environment for optimal settlement purposes as well as identity formation---those that are grounded in a place have a better ability to organize and respond to the social. The power that literature has in place making heightens the value that a particular location has as it imbeds a place in the minds of those readers that have not physically experienced it but can now identify with a place that they have never visited. Thus, identity creation and connectedness to a place also stems from Story tellers and authors [that] make a place by giving a location significance and identity, by humanizing topography with history (Light, 4). By using place as a literary tool, authors are able to draw readers into landscapes that may not be corporeally familiar but allow them to identify with that place due to the emotional content. The particular literary place then can create readers identities without the readers ever creating the particular place themselves. Place is not founded on subjectivity but that on which the notion of subjectivity is founded (Malpas, 35). This realm of place is objective as it contains notions or locations outside of the self, but is not purely objective because it is used and interpreted and created through notions of subjectivity and personal agency. Thus, Margarets longing for the freedom of the woods, the smell of the flowers, and tramping around barefoot are familiar to readers even though Helstone is entirely fictitious because they are objective experiences linked to certain identity formations and notions of

subjectivity and experience. Consequently, Margaret becomes a familiar character whose traitsso clearly attached to her birthplacebecome a marker for the reader: Margaret is a paternalistic rural girl with good, though misunderstood, intentions. Hence, Margarets strong place formation and attachment to Helstone carries her throughout the novel as the symbol of the paternalistic Christian tradition created in an idyllic natural setting that readers like to identify with more than the smokestacks of Milton-Northern. Gaskells use of place as a marker is heightened by her utilization of space namely the philosophical and geographical space that exists between the landscapes of Helstone and Milton-Northern. Like place, space needs to be understood through the relationships that occur during specific moments of technological, institutional, and social history (Harvey, 1). The differing modes of production and labor roles are inevitably reflected in space when at a particular point in its history a society is characterized by certain status relationships between the groups or classes which comprise it, and that these groups or classes are geographically separated from each other in a pattern which reflects something of their relative status to each other (Harvey, 1). This discussion of space and status invariably leads to a discussion of the Victorian city, but first I would like to address the spatial relationship that Gaskell sets up in her treatment of Helstone as a foundation of paternalism. David Harveys term relational space is useful here as it describes space having meaning in so far as it exists in objects as they relate to other objects (Harvey, 12). The concrete definition of space is therefore less relevant as is the way in which it is utilized by human beings to define and separate themselves in and through their surroundings. Space cannot be understood as a unilateral geographic notion of distance, or a measurement of time. Rather, it is useful to understand space as both the

social constructs of relationships (which encompass geographic location and distance but are not limited to them) and the unlimited ontological possibility that exists in human conceptions of themselves and the world. Therefore, Gaskells relational space between the rural poor and Margaret in Helstone and the urban poor and Margaret in MiltonNorthern are constituted differently by virtue of their place but also due to the spatial relationships that are set up textually between Margaret and the other characters. Margarets paternalism in the South is naturalized through the wooded setting and continual reference to what we construct as natural birds, bees, flowers, etc.--and the textual construction of her characterit is a role she feels comfort in and derives power from and is met with no resistance from the villagers of Helstone. The landscape and the people are constituted into one group that Margaret presides over She took a pride in her forest. Its people were her people (Gaskell, 17). The association with her people is not one of equity but a benevolent paternalism that is based in Margarets presumed authority but also her mediated relationship with the villagers. Though she does interact with the people of Helstone she is physically apart from them the majority of the time, it is possible for her to spend weeks without encountering them intimately. The seeming ease of life in Helstone for Margaret is contrasted with her mother who was so much discontented with their situation (Gaskell, 17) due to economic lack and to her father whose voluntary, though tortured, decision to quit the rural ends his connection with rural people. Her assertion to her mothers condemnation of the rural people they live near is that I like all people whose occupations have to do with land (Gaskell, 19) which includes soldiers and sailors, and the three learned professions as they call them but ironically not butchers and bakers and candlestick makers (19). This obfuscation of

those whose occupation is actually associated with the land highlights Margarets constructed superiority over those who are not learned as well highlighting the vast space between actual knowledge of the land and her middle-class conceptions of it. When Henry Lennox tries to ascertain what Margaret does in such a rural setting, Margaret exposes both her relative poverty compared to the urban social circle, but also her distaste for work involving the land. There, now fill up your day at Helstone. Shall you ride, drive or walk? Walk, decidedly. We have no horse, not even for papa. He walks to the very extremity of his parish. The walks are so beautiful, it would be a shame to drivealmost a shame to ride. Shall you garden much? That, I believe, is a proper employment for young ladies in the country. I dont know. I am afraid I shant like much hard work. Archery partiespic-nicsrace-ballshunt-balls? Oh no! said she, laughing. Papas living is very small: and even if we were near such things, I doubt I should go to them (Gaskell, 13). Henry Lennoxs conceptions of life in the country are from a decidedly upper-class standpoint and involve nothing but leisure activities, and although Margaret laughs off doing such things she also never works until the family moves to Milton-Northern. Thus, although the narrative is created so that Margaret as a character is conceived and formed in a rural setting, she is far removed from the actual experiences of the rural working class as well as the rural upper class. Indeed the relationship that Margaret

actually has with the people of Helstone is as a sort of removed benefactress who appreciates the aesthetic value of the country first-hand. The construction of the rural South as natural denies all the human intervention and toil that is necessarily a part of the landscape at the same time as it asserts Margarets personal nature as stemming from this landscape. This attachment of people to nature reinscribes Williamss claim that in the idea of nature is the idea of man; and this is not only generally, or in ultimate ways, but the idea of man in society, [is] indeed the ideas of kinds of societies (Williams, 71). By interdigitating the land with the people certain tendencies or traits are naturalized, particularly when created in an atmosphere so Edenic as Helstone. It is hard to castigate fertile land that provides a plate for the pears out of a beetroot leaf set amongst crimson and amber foliage and so it is hard to find fault with those that dwell therehere again the power of place is asserted. Such is the textual place of Margaret Hale, whose earnest demeanor and honest paternalism are naturalized by the virtue of their surroundings without any question as to their origin or their motive. Williamss claim that nature is actually about society is reflected in Gaskells fashioning a heroine to travel to the bleak capital-driven North from the flower drenched unspoiled fertile South. Certainly the space that the narrative is creating between Milton-Northern and Helstone is reflective of the urge to create a new personal space in the encroaching system of capital while still denying laborers role in the South. Margaret, stemming from the idyllic, would seem to be a token or symbol of the paternalism of the country infused with the Christian morality that accompanied such a position. When Margaret is introduced to the decided liberalism of the Milton-Northern industrial way of life, her reaction is two-fold. Her physical and epistemological distance

from the factories, the workers, and any vestiges of industry is quite vast. However, her engagement with Mr. Thornton in political and economic arguments about the industry, and her relationship with the Higgins, places her directly in the melee of capitalism. Margarets space is continually encroached upon in Milton-Northern as it never was in Helstone. Her sense of comfort and freedom in the open heaths of the South are replaced by the back streets [with] many mills, out of which poured streams of men and women two or three times a day. Until Margaret had learnt the times of their ingress and egress, she was very unfortunate in constantly falling in with them (Gaskell, 71). It is Margarets immersion into the claustrophobic confines of the city street that finally propels her into the personal space of the working class. Her discomfort with this shared physical space is heightened by the bold girls who comment on her dress, even touch her shawl or gown but these touches are not rejected, rather they are received as kindness from those that are below her rank thus deserving tolerance. It is the

physical encounter with the stranger Higgins in the street that affords her an invitation into the lives of the workers. The obvious class hierarchy at work in the novel vividly comes to life in the city. The rural ideal is not upheld once the text shifts its focus to the spatially compressed Milton-Northern. It is perhaps easiest to note social, institutional, and technological changes in cities where populations are set next to each for ready comparison. In the Victorian industrial city, it was also easy to see the disembodiment of the workers as the urban area arose form particular modes of resource extraction and thus was centered on particular industries (Harvey, 1973). The industrial revolution gave rise to a new kind of urbanism, one that allowed the resource to be extracted, manipulated, and processed at

the site all within the factory setting. This new freedom was an economic boon to those in control of capital but the wage laborers who enabled this process were continually encroached upon by both the precarious economic position they found themselves in and the machines that also enabled the process of factory based resource extraction. The workers labor was a commodity to be bought and sold on the market, and accordingly when the market was unfavorable their labor was undesirable. Like the resource, their position was malleable by the global economic situation. In the confines of producer cities the workers position was exacerbated due to the continual division of labor that arose from the technological and social changes that enabled surplus to be extracted right in the factory (Harvey, 1973). In other words, raw goods were no longer coming from the country into the city in order to be transformed and then traded for economic surplus; now the extraction, production, and surplus were all concentrated in one urban area with wage laborers to complete every part of the process alongside machines. The result of this process of capital was the complex change in citizens both positively and negatively as David Harvey describes. The typical city created by early industrialism was thus a producer city, impressive in its clearly visible power, exciting as a symbol of the growing surplus product available to society, prolific as a generator of innovations, and horrifying as a human environment in which freedom meant freedom for those in command of societys scarce resources to acquire wealth at the expense of others who were forced, through the penetration of the market process into labor, to live in states of deprivation

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and penury which shocked all who ever came into contact with them. (Harvey, ) The injection of Margaret into this system can be read as a symbolic transposition of raw materials into people. The city was in effect a self-contained unit, Margarets import into the city structure as neither a laborer or a master is a type of proselytizing on Gaskells part. The tenets of paternalism and Christianity can be spread to a new area, an inevitable output of capitalismthe producer city as the new raw material imported from the country. The industrial city, as stated above, allows one to view simultaneously the place and the space created and planned by capitalism. Ones association with place inevitably changes during this period, as economics oftentimes compelled people to change their location due to poverty, enclosure, and scarcity. Certainly, the Hales role is symptomatic of the times in which Gaskell lived. In rural areas in particular the role of world markets was increasingly felt. Though the producer city may have required less importation of rural resources, agriculture markets were rapidly expanding as global trade increased. The social convulsions which followed the transfer of agriculture to a capitalist or at least to a large-scale commercialized pattern, loosened the traditional ties of men to the land of their forefathers, especially when they found they owned none of it, or too little to maintain their family. At the same time the insatiable demand of new industries and urban occupations for labor, the growing gap

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between the backward and dark country and the advancing city and industrial settlement, attracted them away (Hobsbawm, 174). The growth of international markets allowed agriculture to expand to heretofore-unseen heights, but the widespread use of technology to open up geographically remote regions actually caused flight from the land into cities. One effect of this displacement was the redefinition of workers both in their professions and in their sense of place. The sense of stasis that Gaskell sets up in the beginning of the narrative in Helstone is certainly suspect as utopic in regards to the realities of capitalism in the mid nineteenth century. The convenience of that set-up, though, was to create a city that was so bleak as to seem irreconcilable with the rural sense of paternalistic place that Margaret came from. The journey of the Hales from Helstone through London to Milton-Northern was both a journey of necessity and ideological change. London, as cultural center more than industrial center, stands quite literally in the center of the two worlds: rural utopia and urban dystopia. Gaskells positioning of Margaret as a successful traveler and dweller of all three places situates her as a solution to the problems of capitalism and identity formations. But Margaret is not an unproblematic solution to the conflicts arising from labor. The most obvious reason is that Margaret is from the middle-class and though she is not a master, she is neither a laborer. Positing her as understanding or being able to dwell within both worlds is quite problematic. The only way that Margaret interacts with the workers of Milton-Northern is as a figure of authority, much like the masters. Though she disagrees with Thornton about the proper way to govern men, she believes in governing them all the sameit is simply a different system of control, one based in

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paternalism rather than liberalism. Even in her paternalism, though, Margaret upheld many of the values espoused by liberals to govern the urban poor. One aspect of liberalism was structure and order through self-governance and the attention to hygiene. In cities this structure was administered through city planning that purposefully set the poor aside or away from the masters and upper middle class. In his article, Making Liberalism Durable: Vision and Civility in the Late Victorian City, Chris Otter pays particular attention to the anti-bourgeois visual environment of the poor where the bourgeois could see, or smell, their antithesis but only if they chose to venture to such an area. Here, in the structure of slums, and the bourgeoisies attention to these slums, does place as a site of subjectivity formation and space as an ontological tool become highlighted. The purposeful setting apart of certain areas of the city for the urban poor underscores the fact that for the middle class Respectability involved a certain distancing, and sight, as the primary sense of distance, played a critical role in its performance (Otter, 2). The doctrines of liberalism involved a distancing; an attention and emphasis on the individual, but simultaneously it also involved a universal sense of respectability, which manifested in attention to personal decorum. Thus, living in personal filth and squalor, crammed together in slum housing defied the very bourgeoisie notion of liberal civility. Both the working class poor and the upper class masters formed their sense of place from these slums: the former through desensitization and the latter through distance. The proximity to poverty and filth was one way that industrial city dwellers adjusted their notions of subjectivity and identity. This arrangement of the city best suited the market and labor processes that were occurring at that particular moment and carried the division of labor into the private

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sector (Harvey, 7). Thus, urbanism and its manipulation of spatial relationships is best characterized by David Harvey, Urbanism may be regarded as a particular patterning of the social processes as it unfolds in space, and cities are the tangible expression of that process in the form of a physical built environment which exists in geographic space (3). The importance of the city in Gaskells work lies in its mirroring of present social circumstances, as Harvey explains above, but also in her reconfiguring this space in an attempt to reconcile differing points of view. Milton-Northern, like most modern industrial cities, is what Harvey calls a stratified society. In a stratified society not all people have equal access to life sustaining services and resources and this leads to the redefinition of what is a resourcehence people becoming resources on the market. A stratified society is one that has sufficient technology and social organization in order for people to be able to sell themselves as labor, but remains unequal in distribution of goods and services because the surplus is held by the owners of capital (Harvey, 5). Scarcity becomes conceptualized only when the society decides what that means in light of the technology, productivity, and institutions. Once scarcity is defined, the economy regulates it as such and increases the value on resources that are necessary in order to create a favorable market; the market thrives on scarcity because it drives trade and increases wealth. However, the increase in wealth remains with those who control the scarce resources and these agents regulate access to the resources curtailing unlimited access in order to keep scarcity in play (Harvey, 8). This problem can only be alleviated by an institutional structure that allocates the division of wealth evenly among the population, and it is here that I see Gaskells solution in Margaret and her redefined city fail. Gaskell seems unwilling to go so far as to create the institutional space necessary to

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truly alleviate suffering derived form the economy in her novel and instead offers a paternalistic liberalism as the solution to societys ills. Gaskells redefined city consists of spaces where masters, paternalists, and workers can relate and commingle in order to achieve a greater social good, but MiltonNorthern remains a divided industrial city with no real solution to the problems of capitalism. Like the space that Otter described, Milton-Northerns poor embody what the middle-class attempts to avoid. Margarets interference into the Higgins affairs is accepted and tolerated because of her silent yet commanding manner that she wields in her interactions with the servants and with Higgins when he attempts to have a drink and she stops him, Margaret felt that he had acknowledged her power (Gaskell, 221). Her solution to Higgins intent to drown his sorrows is to physically remove him from his surroundings to her own home, thus nothing in the working class section is redeemable as she asks herself, In fact, where was he to look for comfort? (Gaskell, 221). The fact that his living daughter, close friends, and fellow workers surround Higgins seems insufficient, they are implicitly written off as bad influences compared to Margaret and her father. Margaret recognizes the space that the Higgins inhabit as tainted and rife with possibilities of wrongdoing such as drinking. Here the space encroachment is reversed and now Margaret is the intruder and the working class poor are the victims. The distrust that Margaret has of Higgins is symptomatic of the way the middle class viewed those that powered the industry and so cities were designed with the system described above but more passionately described here by Friedrich Engels, True, poverty often dwells in hidden alleys close to the palaces of the rich; but, in general, a separate territory has been assigned to it, where, removed from the sight of the happier

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classes, it may struggle along as it can (Engels, 39). The horrendous condition of the housing for the working poor is compounded by the lack of space: and here space is referential for both physical proximity to others and also the lack of mental space as the worker is constantly confronted by his status as commodity. Like other industrial fiction, North and South offered itself as a mode for reconciling the polarized segments of the nations, claiming to discover grounds for understanding and sympathy between the class for which it writes and the class of which it wrote (Knezevic, 2). In Gaskells novel, though, the concrete issues are never truly resolved and the reader is left with the problematics of penury, sickness, death, and the division of labor. However, the texts use of travel and fluid place-based identity, particularly in Milton-Northern, is a site where the reader can infer much and create the third metaphorical space mentioned previously. If both Helstone and Milton-Northern fail as sites of a meaningful change in the structure of labor and the market economy it does not have to be inferred that any city or town in the capitalist market economy is a dead zone where humans are merely Engels singular atoms. Rather, North and Souths emphasis on place-based identity allows the process of identity making to be malleable and mobile. Margarets transition to Milton-Northern changes her opinions and her attitude and when she has the opportunity to establish herself elsewhere after her inheritance, she chooses to remain in the city that is originally depicted as so bleak. Since place is continually changing and evolving based on the structures at work and the populace living in a particular location, ones attachment to a place and the systems it encompasses changes when the populace changes.

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Margarets identity change in the novel is construed as positive, and so are the changes enacted in all those she interacts with: Thornton is kinder, Higgins has security, and Bessie dies fulfilled. Though many of these plot points are certainly shallow solutions, I find it useful to look at the travel of place identification as a site of possibility for personal re-identification and consequently place re-identification. In order to bridge the divide between the stratified classes, Gaskell transports Margaret to an environment where she is forced to interact with the workers and the masters due to her class position and certainly due to her paternalism. Milton-Northern, a bleak producer city attracting those displaced by the world system of capital, forces the interaction in the text between the disembodied classes. It seems as if Gaskell is using the city as a shadow to actual industrial cities in order to work out the problems of alienation and apathy. In Buells analysis, a place is given new meaning and value from every new person living there as they transport their own sense of original place with them to their new location. When this occurs, place-based identity can still be an anchor for affirming identity and subjectivity but does not become unilateral or homogenized. The more interaction travelers and immigrants have with new locations, the more their sense of place will be enhanced not dissolved. In North and South, the Hales journey brings them into contact with a new typology of poor and introduces them to the disembodied labor that had supplied them with merchandise and resources without their understanding of it. The community that is forged between the Thorntons, Hales, and Higgins transcends the rigid class boundaries of gentility, laborer, and manufacturer not to create a utopic solution to a complex social system; rather to compress the ideological space that exists between them in order to build identity through community. Through the

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narrative, Margarets paternalism is mixed with her respect for liberal values: namely the respect of the individuals traditions, a keen sense of self-will, and a respect of others personal identity that is grounded in their individual experience and culture. In her adoption of these traits mixed with her paternalistic qualities, Gaskell presents the reader with a character whose identity, construed as natural from the beginning of the narrative, can be reformed in order to bridge the class divides.

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Works Cited Buell, Lawrence. Writing for an Endangered World: Literature, Culture, and Environment in the U.S. and Beyond. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 2001. Engels, Friedrich. The Condition of the Working Class in England. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1993. Gaskell, Elizabeth. North and South. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1998. Harvey, David. Society, The City and the Space Economy of Urbanism. Washington D.C.: Association of American Geographers, 1972. Hobsbawm, Eric. The Age of Capital: 1848-1875. New York: Vintage, 1996. Knezevic, Borislav. An Ethnography of the Provincial: the Social Geography of Gentility in Elizabeth Gaskells Cranford. Victorian Studies 41:3 (Spring 1998): 405-426. Light, Andrew and Jonathan Smith. Introduction. Philosophies of Place. Philosophy and Geography III. Oxford: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998. Malpas, Jeff. Finding Place: Spatiality, Locality, and Subjectivity. Philosophies of Place. Eds. Andrew Light and Jonathan Smith. Oxford: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998. 21-44. Otter, Chris. Making Liberalism Durable: Vision, and Civility in the Late Victorian City. Social History 27 (2002): 1-15. Pryke, Jo. The Treatment of Political Economy in North and South. The Gaskell Society Journal. 4 (1990): 1-5. 12 Dec. 2003< http://www.lang.nagoyau.ac.jp/~matsuoka/EG-Pryke-NS.html >. Sheldrake, Philip. Human Identity and the Particularity of Place. Spiritus: A Journal of

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Christian Spirituality. 1.1 (2001): 43-64. 13 Nov. 2003. <http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/spiritus/v001/1.1sheldrake.html > Wainwright, Valerie. Discovering Autonomy and Authenticity in North and South: Elizabeth Gaskell, John Stuart Mill, and the Liberal Ethic. CLIO: A journal of Literature, History, and the Philosophy of History. 23.2 (Winter 1994): 1-13. 04 Dec. 2003. Williams, Raymond. The Country and the City. New York: Oxford UP, 1973. {Not Cited} ---. Problems in Materialism and Culture. London: Verso, 1980. (section 3, pp.67-122).

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