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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
GEOGRAPHY
Lecture – 20
Insolation
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Climatology Introduction
Aurora:
❖ An aurora, also commonly known as the Northern Lights (aurora borealis) or southern lights (aurora australis),
is a natural light display in Earth's sky, predominantly seen in high-latitude regions (around the Arctic and
Antarctic).
❖ Auroras display dynamic patterns of brilliant lights that appear as curtains, rays, spirals, or dynamic flickers
covering the entire sky.
Cause of Auroras:
❖ Auroras are the result of disturbances in the magnetosphere caused by the solar wind. The magnetosphere
is a region of charged particles that surrounds Earth.
❖ The solar wind is a stream of charged particles that constantly flows from the Sun.
❖ When the solar wind interacts with the magnetosphere, it can cause disturbances that alter the trajectories of
charged particles in the magnetospheric plasma.
❖ These particles, mainly electrons and protons, precipitate into the upper atmosphere (thermosphere/exosphere).
❖ Upon collision, they excite the atoms and molecules in the upper atmosphere, which then emit light as they
return to their ground state.
❖ The color of the emitted light depends on the type of atom or molecule that is excited.
Colors of Auroras:
❖ Red Auroras: Red auroras are caused by the excitation of oxygen atoms. They are typically seen at lower
altitudes than other auroral colors.
❖ Green Auroras: Green auroras are the most common color of auroras. They are caused by the excitation of
oxygen atoms at higher altitudes than red auroras.
❖ Blue Auroras: Blue auroras are caused by the excitation of nitrogen molecules. They are typically seen at even
higher altitudes than green auroras.
❖ Purple Auroras: Purple auroras are a combination of red and blue auroras. They are typically seen at the
highest altitudes of all auroral colors.
Viewing Auroras:
❖ Auroras are best seen in the dark skies of high-latitude regions.
❖ The best time to see auroras is during the equinoxes (March and September), when the nights are long and there
is more activity in the magnetosphere.
❖ Auroras can also be seen during solar storms, which are periods of increased activity on the Sun.
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Sun as the Source of Energy:
❖ The sun is the ultimate source of energy.
❖ The differential heat received from the sun by
different regions on earth is the ultimate reason behind
all climatic phenomena.
❖ Understanding the patterns of distribution of temperature
in different seasons is important for understanding
various climatic features like wind systems, pressure
systems, precipitation, etc.
Insolation:
❖ Insolation is the amount of solar radiation that is received by a planet. The energy received by the earth's
surface in the form of short waves is termed as Incoming Solar Radiation or Insolation.
❖ The insolation is not constant over the surface of the Earth. It is concentrated near the equator because of
the curvature of the Earth.
❖ Some of the insolation is
reflected off the atmosphere
back out into space, where it is
lost. The remaining insolation
may pass through the
atmosphere, where it can be
transformed either before or
after reaching Earth's surface.
❖ This reception of solar energy
and the resulting energy cascade
that ultimately warms Earth's surface and the atmosphere.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum:
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Factors that Causes Insolation Variation:
❖ The rotation of the earth on its axis
❖ The angle of inclination of the rays of the sun
❖ The length of the day
❖ The configuration of the land in terms of its aspect
❖ Albedo
Factors Affecting the Distribution of Insolation:
1. Primary Factors:
➢ Angle of Incidence
➢ Duration of sunlight
2. Secondary Factors:
➢ Transparency of atmosphere (Aerosols, Clouds/fog)
➢ Topography
The Angle of Incidence:
❖ The angle of incidence varies across different latitudes due to Earth's spherical shape.
❖ Earth's axis tilt causes the Sun's apparent position in the sky to change throughout the year, leading to seasonal
variations in the angle of incidence.
❖ During the equinoxes, the Sun's rays fall directly on the equator, resulting in a 90-degree angle of incidence.
❖ At higher latitudes, the Sun's rays strike the Earth's surface at a more oblique angle, reducing the intensity of
sunlight.
❖ The apparent movement of the Sun due to Earth's revolution affects the angle of incidence at different locations,
contributing to seasonal variations.
❖ On June 21st, the
Sun is directly
overhead at the
Tropic of Cancer,
resulting in a 90-
degree angle of
incidence.
❖ Earth's rotation
and revolution
work together to
create the observed patterns of sunlight distribution across different latitudes and throughout the year.
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Duration of Sunshine:
The amount of heat received depends on the duration of day or night; clear sky or overcast, summer or winter, etc.
❖ The sun rays are vertically overhead at the tropics, thus, these areas receive more sunshine.
❖ Angle of inclination is perpendicular (high) to the tropics and low at the poles.
Transparency of Atmosphere:
The atmosphere contains gases and solid particles which have an impact on the transparency. Aerosols (smoke,
soot), dust, water vapour, clouds, etc. affect transparency.
❖ Greenhouse gases trap long-wave radiation in the atmosphere and cause an increase in the temperature.
❖ If the wavelength (X) of the radiation is more than the radius of the obstructing particle (such as a gas),
then a scattering of radiation takes place. Example: Orange colour sun, etc
❖ If the wavelength is less than the obstructing particle (such as a dust particle), then total reflection takes
place.
❖ Absorption of solar radiation takes place if the obstructing particles happen to be water vapour, ozone
molecules, carbon dioxide molecules, or clouds.
❖ Most of the light received by the Earth is in the form of scattered light.
Topography:
Albedo of land is much greater than the albedo of oceans and water bodies. Example: Snow-covered areas reflect
up to 70%-90% of insolation.
❖ The average penetration of sunlight is more in water, up to 20 meters than in land – where it is up to one
meter only. Therefore, the land cools or becomes hot more rapidly compared to the oceans.
❖ In oceans, a continuous convection cycle helps in heat exchange between layers keeping diurnal and annual
temperature ranges low.
❖ The specific heat of water is 2.5 times higher than
landmass, therefore water takes longer to get heated up
and to cool down.
❖ Land also absorbs the heat, however, it cannot reflect it
like waterbodies.
❖ Ocean currents transfer heat and distribute it to other
areas whereas land is stationary and there is no transfer
of heat.
❖ Thus, in the coastal areas, the temperature is neither high
nor low whereas, in continental areas, the temperature
varies to a large extent.
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Rotation of Earth:
❖ It is the movement of the earth on its axis.
❖ Earth rotates along its axis from west to east.
❖ It takes approximately 24 hrs to complete on rotation.
❖ Days and nights occur due to the rotation of the earth.
❖ The circle that divides the day from night on the globe is called the circle of illumination.
❖ The circle that divides the day from night on the globe is called the circle of illumination.
❖ Earth rotates on a tilted axis. Earth's rotational axis makes an angle of 23.5°/with the normal i.e. it makes an
angle of 66.5° with the orbital plane. The orbital plane is the plane of Earth's orbit around the Sun.
Revolution of Earth:
❖ It is the movement of the earth around the sun in a fixed path or orbit.
❖ It takes 365¼ days (one year) to revolve around the sun.
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