Insolation Factors Effecting

Solar insolation, or sunlight, is not the same everywhere on Earth. Several factors determine how much
sunlight different places get. One important measure is the solar constant, which tells us how much
solar energy reaches the top of the atmosphere. The main factors that affect insolation include changes
in the land’s shape, like mountains and valleys. Differences in elevation, the angle of the ground, and
nearby hills or buildings can create strong local differences in sunlight. The solar constant is about 1370
Watts per square meter at the thermopause, the boundary between two layers of the atmosphere. This
value can change slightly due to sunspots, which are dark spots on the sun that can impact its energy
output.

Rotation of the Earth on its axis

 Because of the Earth's rotation, half of the planet receives sun insolation while the other half
remains dark.

 This has an impact on the amount of solar insolation in half of the world.

Due to the rotation of the earth half of the hemisphere receives solar insolation and half of the
hemisphere remains in the dark

The Earth’s Revolution

 The earth revolves on its own axis at a 66.5-degree angle to the plane of its orbit around the
sun.

 The amount of insolation received at various latitudes is influenced more by the earth's rotation
on this inclined axis. Because of the curvature of the Earth's surface, insolation is concentrated
towards the equator.

 The Earth's spin axis is tilted by 23.4 degrees relative to a line perpendicular to the Earth's
orbital plane so that as the Earth orbits around the Sun, insolation is concentrated in
the northern hemisphere (summer in the northern hemisphere) and then the southern
hemisphere (winter in the southern hemisphere) (winter in the northern hemisphere).

 Also, the orbit of revolution around the sun is elliptical.

Angle of Incidence/ The angle of incidence of the sun’s rays

The angle at which the Sun’s rays hit the Earth’s surface changes based on where you are. In higher
latitudes (closer to the poles), the angle is smaller, which means less sunlight reaches the ground. This is
one reason why the equator is warmer than the poles.

The angle of incidence of the sun’s rays

 The sun's rays reach the surface of the Earth at different angles in different areas because the
earth is a geoid that resembles a sphere.

 This differential reception is dependent on the location's latitude.

 The lower the latitude, the smaller the angle they make with the earth's surface.

 The vertical rays always cover a smaller area than the slant rays.

 The energy is spread as more space is covered, and the net energy received per unit area
declines.

Duration of the Day/ Varying lengths of day and night

 This factor varies from place to place and season to season. This also decides the amount of
insolation received on the earth’s surface.

 The longer the duration of the day, the higher the amount of insolation achieved and vice versa.

 Duration of the day also varies according to the revolution of the earth around the sun and
earth tilted axis in the northern hemisphere and southern hemisphere.

 Seasons and varied lengths of day and night are caused by the earth's inclined axis at an angle of
66 1/2 degrees.
  In the northern hemisphere in winter (December), the hours of darkness gradually increase as
we move northward.

 In mid-winter on December 22nd, the sun never 'rises' at the Arctic Circle (6612 degrees North),
and the entire day is black.

 Beyond the Arctic Circle, the number of days with total darkness grows, and by the time we
reach the North Pole (90 degrees North), half of the year will be spent in darkness.

 In the summer (June), the situation is exactly the opposite.

 As we move closer to the poles, the amount of daylight rises.

 At the Arctic Circle, the sun never ‘sets’ at mid-summer (21st June) and there is a complete 24
hour period of continuous daylight.

 In summer the region north of the Arctic Circle is popularly referred to as ‘Land of the Midnight
Sun’.

 At the North Pole, there will be six months of continuous daylight.

 At the Arctic Circle, the sun never sets during mid-summer (June 21st) and there is a full 24
hours of daylight.

 During the summer, the area north of the Polar Circle is known as the 'Land of the Midnight
Sun.'

 There will be six months of continuous daylight at the North Pole.

The length of the day also affects how much sunlight reaches the Earth. The longer the day, the more
sunlight there is. At the equator, days are always about 12 hours long, but as you move toward the
poles, the difference between day and night gets bigger.

In the far north and south, there are two special events:

 Polar night: When it’s dark for more than 24 hours.

 Polar day (or midnight sun): When the Sun stays above the horizon for more than 24 hours.

Distance from the Sun

The Earth orbits the Sun in an oval shape. This shape changes slightly in a cycle that lasts about 100,000
years. When the Earth’s orbit is more circular, it gets 23% more sunlight than when it is more elongated.

Transparency of the Atmosphere

 The amount of transparency in the atmosphere is determined by cloud cover and thickness,
dust particles, water vapor, and other factors.

 Insolation is reflected, absorbed, or transmitted by them.

 The ability of solar energy to reach the earth's surface is hampered by thick clouds.
  Water vapor, on the other hand, absorbs solar radiation, resulting in less insolation reaching the
surface.

Gradients of Insolation

Local differences in sunlight happen because of things like height, the angle of the land, and nearby hills
blocking the sun. For example, in the northern hemisphere south-facing slopes get more sunlight and
warm winds, making them warmer and drier than north-facing slopes.

In the Swiss Alps, farmers grow more crops on south-facing slopes. In the Himalayas, south-facing slopes
are warm, wet, and have forests, while north-facing slopes are cold, dry, and often covered in ice. On
hills with some sunlight, you can see more plants and people.

Perihelion

The Earth is closest to the sun at Perihelion.

Every year on 3rd January Perhelion occurs

Perihelion is the closest point in a planet’s orbit to the Sun.

Aphelion

The Earth is Farthest to the sun at Aphelion

Every year on 4th July Aphelion occurs

It is the farthest point in a planet’s orbit to the Sun.

Axial Tilt of the Earth

The Earth rotates around its axis and makes an angle of 66½ with the plane of its orbit around the sun.
This particular characteristic of the Earth has a significant amount of influence on the amount of
insolation received at different latitudes. The seasonal changes that are seen in both hemispheres are
the result of the axial tilt of the Earth and not because of the closeness of the Earth to the Sun. As the
earth is round, the sun’s rays strike the surface at different angles as the earth is round. The angle
formed by the sun’s rays with the tangent of the earth’s circle at a point is called the angle of incidence.
It influences the insolation in two ways as follows:

 When the sun is almost overhead, the sun’s rays are vertical. Here the angle of incidence is
large. Hence, they are localized in a smaller area and give more insolation at that place. If
the sun’s rays are oblique, the angle of incidence is small and thus sun’s rays have to heat up a
greater area and thus result in less insolation received there.

 The angle of inclination of solar radiation from the Sun depends on the latitude of a place. The
higher the latitude is, the lesser angles they make with the Earth’s surface, resulting in slanting
sun rays. The sun’s rays with small-angle travel more of the atmosphere than rays striking at a
larger angle. The longer the path of the Sun’s rays, the amount of reflection and heat absorption
by the atmosphere is greater.
Insolation in Summer and Winter Seasons

The length of the day depends on where you are (latitude) and the season. The amount of sunlight
(insolation) is connected to how long the day is because sunlight only comes during the day. When days
are longer, there is more sunlight. In summer, the days are longer, so we get more sunlight. In winter,
the days are shorter, so we get less sunlight.

Insolation and Temperature on Earth

On account of the earth’s inclination on its axis at an angle of 23 ½ degrees, rotation and revolution, the
day’s duration is not the same everywhere on the earth. At the equator, there are 12 hours day and
night throughout the year. As one moves towards the poles, the days keep on increasing or decreasing.
This explains why equatorial regions receive the most solar radiation.

The Earth’s atmosphere is nearly transparent to shortwave solar radiation that passes through the
atmosphere before striking the earth’s surface. The transparency depends upon cloud cover, its
thickness, water vapour and solid particles as they reflect, absorb or transmit insolation. The Ozone
Layer absorbs high-energy ultraviolet rays. Thick clouds hinder the insolation from reaching the earth,
while a clear sky helps it reach the surface.

Water vapour absorbs insolation, resulting in less insolation reaching the surface. The troposphere’s
extremely small suspended particles disperse the visible spectrum both toward space and the earth’s
surface.

Insolation Solar Variation

Solar Variation: Solar variation means changes in the amount of radiation the Sun gives off. One main
change is the 11-year sunspot cycle, where dark spots appear on the Sun’s surface. More sunspots mean
slightly more solar radiation, but the difference is very small.

The amount of sunlight received varies, with about 320 Watts/m² in the tropics and around 70 Watts/m²
at the poles. Subtropical deserts get the most sunlight, while the Equator gets less because of clouds.
Land areas receive more sunlight than oceans at the same latitude because clouds over oceans reflect
sunlight away.

Isohels: Isohels are lines on a map that connect places receiving the same amount of sunshine. They are
mostly parallel to lines of latitude, especially in the southern hemisphere.

Insolation - Mechanism

 This mechanism takes place by the coupled effect of atmosphere and ocean circulation and
they maintain the temperature on earth in the following way
Insolation

 The heat engine of the climate ought to redistribute solar heat from the equator toward the
poles but also from the Earth’s surface and lower atmosphere in return to space.

 When the influx of incoming solar energy is harmoniously balanced by an equivalent flow of
heat to space, Earth is in its radiative equilibrium and global temperature is relatively
persistent.

 The equator and the 40° N and S latitudes receive plenty of sunlight, making them energy
surplus areas.

 Beyond 40° N and S latitudes, places lose more heat than they absorb from sunshine, resulting
in energy deficits.

 Most of the heat transfer takes place across the mid-latitudes (30° to 50°), and hence much of
the stormy weather is associated with this region.

 As a result, the flow of surplus energy from lower latitudes to higher latitudes' deficit energy
zone maintains an overall equilibrium over the earth's surface.

Importance of Heat Transfer Processes in the Atmosphere

Heat transfer processes in the atmosphere are fundamental to driving weather patterns, ocean currents,
and global climate. They play a crucial role in maintaining Earth's energy balance and shaping the
environments we live in. Here's a breakdown of their significance:

1. Driving Weather Patterns

 Convection: Warmed air rises, creating areas of low pressure. Cooler air sinks, creating high-
pressure zones. This constant movement of air masses results in wind, storms, and other
weather phenomena.
  Atmospheric Circulation: Large-scale atmospheric circulation patterns, such as Hadley cells,
Ferrel cells, and polar cells, are driven by heat transfer processes, influencing global weather
patterns.

2. Regulating Earth's Temperature

 Greenhouse Effect: Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide and water
vapor, absorb and re-emit infrared radiation, trapping heat and warming the planet. This
process is essential for maintaining Earth's temperature within a habitable range.

 Energy Balance: Heat transfer processes ensure a balance between incoming solar radiation and
outgoing terrestrial radiation.

3. Ocean Circulation

 Thermohaline Circulation: Differences in water temperature and salinity drive ocean currents,
which play a significant role in heat distribution around the globe.

 Climate Regulation: Ocean currents influence regional and global climate patterns by
transporting heat from warmer to cooler regions.

4. Water Cycle

 Evaporation: Heat from the sun causes water to evaporate from oceans, lakes, and land,
transferring water vapor into the atmosphere.

 Condensation and Precipitation: As water vapor rises and cools, it condenses into clouds and
eventually falls as precipitation, replenishing water bodies and supporting life.

5. Human Activities and Climate Change

 Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Human activities, such as burning fossil fuels, release greenhouse
gases into the atmosphere, altering the Earth's energy balance and contributing to climate
change.

 Climate Modeling: Understanding heat transfer processes is crucial for developing accurate
climate models to predict future climate scenarios.

In conclusion, heat transfer processes are the engine that drives Earth's climate system.

By understanding these processes, we can better predict weather patterns, assess the impacts of
climate change, and develop strategies to mitigate its effects.

Albedo

Albedo Of The Earth - Concept

 Albedo is the reflection of a portion of light by a body or a surface. The lower the albedo, the
more solar radiation is absorbed by the planet. The average albedo of the Earth from the upper
atmosphere(planetary albedo), is 30–35%.
  Albedo is the amount of solar radiation reflected back into space from the Earth's surface. It has
a value of less than one and is a reflection coefficient.

 A portion of solar energy is scattered, reflected, and absorbed as it passes through the
atmosphere. The albedo of the earth is the sum of reflected radiation.

 On a scale of 0-1, albedo is measured. A 0 indicates that the material's surface absorbs all of the
sunlight that strikes it. A 1 indicates that a material reflects all light energy that it encounters.

 To put it another way, a 1 on the albedo scale equals 100% reflection. A 0 indicates that there is
no reflection.

 For example, fresh asphalt has an albedo of roughly 0.05, meaning that only 5% of the light is
reflected. The remaining 95% is absorbed.

 Snow and ice have a greater albedo.

 The earth does not gain or lose heat as a whole. It keeps its temperature constant.

 This is only possible if the amount of heat absorbed as insolation equals the amount lost by the
earth as a result of terrestrial radiation.

 Albedo is a measurement of how much light strikes a surface and is reflected back without being
absorbed.

 It has a value of less than one and is a reflection coefficient.

 Some solar radiation is reflected, scattered, and absorbed as it passes through the atmosphere.

 The albedo of the earth is the quantity of radiation reflected.

 Varying surfaces will have different albedo values.

Albedo of Different Objects

 The "Urban Heat Island Influence" occurs when highly developed areas, such as cities, have
higher average temperatures than surrounding suburban or rural areas due to the effect of
albedo.

 Less foliage, larger people density, and more infrastructure with dark surfaces can all be blamed
for the higher average temperature (asphalt roads, brick buildings, etc.).
Effect of Earth’s Albedo On Climate

 The difference in Earth's average albedo has a significant impact on the planet's temperature.

 The amount of radiation absorbed is higher if the average albedo is lower than the previous
year's albedo.

 The Earth's temperature rises as a result of this.

 The albedo of the Earth is regularly measured by satellites in order to track global warming.

Significance of Albedo

Significance of Albedo

 The albedo of the Earth is one of the key features that govern how much energy is absorbed by
the Earth's surface, and cloudiness and ground cover are crucial components in climate models.

 It has a substantial impact on the Earth's equilibrium temperature because it modifies how
much solar energy is reflected rather than absorbed by the Earth.

 As recent albedo losses in the Arctic have increased heat absorption at the surface, it is an
essential factor in climatology.

 It is crucial to the energy balance of the earth's surface because it determines the rate at
which incident solar radiation is absorbed.

Question: What is albedo, and why is it important for the Earth?

Answer: Albedo refers to the measure of reflectivity of a surface, specifically the fraction of solar energy
reflected back into space. It is expressed as a percentage, with higher values indicating greater
reflectivity. Albedo plays a crucial role in regulating Earth's temperature and climate. Surfaces with high
albedo, such as ice and snow, reflect most of the sunlight, helping to cool the planet. In contrast, darker
surfaces like forests and oceans absorb more sunlight, contributing to warming. Understanding albedo is
vital for climate studies and predicting the impacts of global warming.

Question: What role does the greenhouse effect play in the heat budget?

Answer: The greenhouse effect is a natural process where greenhouse gases trap some of the outgoing
terrestrial radiation, warming the Earth's surface and atmosphere. It helps maintain a habitable climate
but can lead to global warming if excess greenhouse gases are present.

Inversion of Temperature

Inversion of Temperature, also called thermal inversion, is a reversal of the normal behaviour of
temperature in the troposphere (the region of the atmosphere nearest Earths surface), in which a layer
of cool air at the surface is overlain by a layer of warmer air.
  Inversion of temperature is a phenomenon in which temperature rises with rising altitude
temporarily and locally under particular conditions.

 Inversion is usually just temporary, yet it is fairly prevalent.

 Long winter nights, bright skies, dry air, and no winds result in rapid heat radiation from the
earth's surface and lower layers of the atmosphere.

 The air near the earth's surface cools as a result of this. The higher layers, which lose heat more
slowly, are rather warm.

 As a result, the normal temperature declines with increasing height. The cooler air is closer to
the ground, while the warmer air is higher up.

 To put it another way, the temperature rises with height, either temporarily or locally.

 The phenomena of temperature inversion is most commonly seen in intermountain valleys due
to air drainage.

 The rapid radiation of heat causes the mountain slopes to chill swiftly throughout the winter.

 The air above them grows colder as well, and its density rises. As a result, it descends the hills
and settles in the lowlands.

 This air forces the comparatively warmer air of the lowlands higher, resulting in a temperature
inversion.

 In the valleys, it is not uncommon for temperatures to drop below freezing, resulting in frost.
The higher slopes, on the other hand, remain noticeably warmer.

 Air drainage is the movement of heavy, dense cold air towards the valley slopes, almost like
water.

Air Drainage

 Because of air drainage, an inversion occurs in hills and mountains. The cold air formed at night
in the highlands and mountains flows under the pull of gravity.

 Because it is heavy and dense, cold air travels down the slope nearly like water, accumulating
firmly in pockets and valley bottoms with warm air above.

 This is referred to as air drainage. It shields plants against the effects of frost.

Inversion of Temperature - Concept

 Under normal circumstances, the temperature in the troposphere declines at a rate of 1 degree
per 165 metres as height rises. This is referred to as the normal lapse rate.

 However, in rare cases, the situation is reversed, and the temperature rises rather than falls
with height. Temperature inversion is the term for this phenomenon.
Mechanism

 In this meteorological occurrence, a layer of warm air sits on top of the cold air layer.

 It is caused by static atmospheric conditions, but it can also be induced by horizontal or vertical
air movement.

 Temperature inversions are usually short-lived, but they are quite common.
Suitable Conditions for Temperature Inversion

1. Long winter nights: During the night, heat loss from the earth surface due to terrestrial
radiation may exceed the amount of incoming solar radiation.

2. Dry air near the surface of the ground: It prevents radiating heat from the Earth's surface from
being absorbed.

3. The slow movement of air: There is no heat transfer or mixing in the lower layers of the
atmosphere as a result.

4. Snow-covered the surface of the ground: It causes the greatest amount of heat loss by
reflecting incoming solar light.

5. Clear and cloudless sky: Heat loss by terrestrial radiation is more rapid when there is no
impediment.

Types

 Temperature inversion can occur in a variety of situations, from the ground to considerable
heights. As a result, there are various types of temperature inversions.

 The following are classified according to their relative heights above the earth's surface and the
sort of air circulation they use:

1. Non-Advectional

Radiation Inversion (Surface Temperature Inversion):

 When air is cooled by contact with a colder surface, it becomes cooler than the surrounding
atmosphere.
  This happens most often on clear nights, when the ground cools off quickly due to radiation.

 Fog can form when the temperature of the surface air falls below the dew point. In the higher
latitudes, it is fairly prevalent.

 It occurs during chilly nights in lower and medium latitudes and is destroyed throughout the
day.

Radiation Inversion

Subsidence Inversion (Upper Surface Temperature Inversion):

 When a spreading layer of air falls, the resulting increase in atmospheric pressure compresses
and heats it, reducing the lapse rate of temperature.

 A temperature inversion occurs when the air at higher altitudes gets warmer than the air at
lower altitudes. Subsidence inversion is the name for this sort of temperature inversion.

 It is especially common in the winter (dry atmosphere) over the northern continents and over
the subtropical oceans; these places generally have sinking air because they are positioned
under massive high-pressure centres.

 Because it occurs in the highest reaches of the atmosphere, it is also known as upper surface
temperature inversion.
Subsidence Inversion

2. Advection

Valley inversion in the intermontane valley:

 The temperature of the lowest layers of air can sometimes increase rather than decrease with
elevation along a sloping surface in high mountains or deep valleys.

 The surface here rapidly radiates heat back to space and cools down faster than the top layers.
The lower cold layers condense and become heavier as a result.

 Because of the sloping surface underneath them, they gravitate to the bottom, where the cold
layer settles as a low-temperature zone, while the top layers are somewhat warmer.

 Temperature Inversion is a circumstance in which the vertical distribution of temperature is the

polar opposite of the typical vertical distribution.

Frontal or Cyclonic inversion:

 When the warm and cold fronts collide, the warm front rises, while the cold front lowers due to
its weight. Frontal Inversion develops as a result.
  Other inversions are essentially horizontal, however this one has a significant slope. It frequently
occurs in the temperate zone, causing cyclonic conditions that produce various types of
precipitation.

 When the weather changes, a frontal inversion becomes unstable and is eliminated.

Effects of Temperature Inversion

 It determines the precipitation, clouds form, and also causes frost due to condensation of warm
air due to its cooling.

 It causes the stability of the atmosphere that stops the downward and upward movement of
air.

 Furthermore, temperature inversion effects diurnal variations.

 Moreover, it limits the diffusion of air pollutants and hence stagnation in weather is witnessed
for some periods.

 Also, convection clouds can’t rise upwards so there is less rainfall and no showers. So, it causes
a problem for agricultural productivity.

 Besides, they also disturb the radio signals which get reflected from the layer above cold air.

 Most noteworthy, if the temperature inversion is broken then it can cause a violent
thunderstorm.

 Due to the formation of cumulus clouds sometimes sunlight is unable to reach the ground.

Significance

 Cloud formation, precipitation, and visibility are all influenced by inversions.

 The upward movement of air from the layers below is slowed by an inversion.

 As a result, convection caused by below-inversion heating is limited to levels below the

inversion.