Overview

There are links between hydrological and geophysical

properties and we can show the potential value of
measuring resistivity as a means of determining
information about hydrological structures and/or states.
DC Resistivity methods
Here we present approaches for measurement of DC
resistivity.

We cover:
the basic background to the measurement principle;
measurement approaches and limitations;
example applications.

Important reminder Resistivity basic measurement principles

Measurements are usually done at low frequency (so

Measure
equates to DC resistivity).
resistance (R) in Ω or Ohm (depends on geometry)
If we drive current into the ground at a point:
but we wish to determine the C+ source current,
C- sink current (placed a long distance away)
resistivity (ρ) in Ωm or Ohm-m (intrinsic property)
C+

Resistance, R over length, L

ρ= R A
ρ
L
Cross sectional area, A

1
 The voltage V due to current injection I in the
subsurface with electrical conductivity σ (=1/ρ) satisfies:
The voltage field can be measured with a potential electrode
(P+) some distance away from the current source, and ∇ ⋅ (σ ∇V ) = − I δ (r )
measured relative to a remote (infinite) potential electrode ρI 1
If σ is uniform then current injection at
(P-) V= ⋅
the surface leads to: 2π r
C+

P+ C+
0

Elevation (m)
-1

-2

-3

-4

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Distance (m)

ρI 1
Note that we can also compute the analytical solution to V= ⋅
2π r
∇ ⋅ (σ ∇V ) = − I δ (r )
This means that if the subsurface has a uniform
Even if the electrode is not on the surface. To do this we
(homogenous) resistivity then we could determine the value
make use of an imaginary source above the ground and
from a measurement of voltage (potential) at some distance
use superposition (just as in pumping test analysis in
(r ) from the current injection.
hydrogeology)

0 P+ C+
Elevation (m)

-1 C+
-2

-3

-4

-5
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 This has limited practical value (but see later) as the signal
Distance (m) will be too weak far away from the source.

2
Measurements are usually done with four electrodes.
For a pair of current electrodes (dipole) we can then
C+ (A) source current,
determine the voltage at a potential electrode from the
C- (B) sink current
superposition of potential fields from both current
P+ (M) potential measurement (positive)
electrodes. Iρ Iρ
P- (N) potential measurement (negative) V = −
2πrC + 2πrC −
(A) (M) (N) (B)
C+ P+ P- C- Where rC + and rC− are the distances from the C+ and C-
electrodes.

(A) (M) (N) (B)

C+ P+ P- C-

Current is injected between C+ and C-

The voltage difference between P+ and P- is measured

The voltage difference is a function of the current

injected and the resistivity beneath the electrode array

The difference in voltage between the two potential Iρ ⎛ 1 1 1 1 ⎞

ΔV = ⎜ − − + ⎟
electrodes is then: 2π ⎝ AM BM AN BN ⎠
Iρ ⎛ 1 1 1 1 ⎞ For the example layout below:
ΔV = ⎜ − − + ⎟
2π ⎝ AM BM AN BN ⎠ AM=a, BM=2a, AN=2a, BN=a
Iρ ⎛ 1 1 1 1⎞
Where AM is distance A to M, BN is distance B to N, etc. ΔV = ⎜ − − + ⎟
2π ⎝ a 2a 2a a ⎠
Iρ
=
(A) (M) (N) (B) (A) (M) (N) (B) 2πa
C+ P+ P- C- C+ a P+a P- a C-

3
For a pair of current electrodes (dipole) we can then The apparent resistivity is the equivalent resistivity if the
determine the apparent resistivity given the measured ground is uniform and is a useful way of expressing
potential difference (dipole) for a given injected current. measured data (and also for plotting surface data as we will
see later)
ΔV
For the arrangement below:
I
ρa = 2πa
= kR ρ a = kR
Where R is the transfer resistance and k is the geometric
factor ( = 2πa ) in layout below. The configuration below is a Wenner configuration

C+ P+ P- C- C+ P+ P- C-
a a a a a a

C+ C-
Various surface measurement configurations
C+ C- na P+ a P- na
AB
A M N B
AM P+ MN P- NB
Schlumberger
A M N B
General In this configuration the current electrodes A and B still remain
outside the potential electrodes M and N (this keeping the
C+ C- C+ C-
measured potential difference high) but the distance between
a
P+ P- P+ P- the electrodes M and N is much smaller than that between the
a a a na a
current electrodes.
A M N B A B M N
Wenner Dipole-dipole
The apparent resistivity can be written as:
C+ C-
π ( s 2 − a 2 ) ΔV
ρa =
na P+ a P- na
4a I

A M N B where s is the distance AB and a is the distance MN.

Schlumberger

4
 C+ C-
Current is normally injected as a switched square wave

P+ P- Why is this ?
a a a

A M N B
Wenner

Current
+I

The depth we are sensitive to will depend on the array

configuration and the subsurface properties.
-I

0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Time (s)
Vp +Vsp
For the Wenner array above we may assume that the

Voltage
+V
apparent resistivity is at about half the electrode spacing. Vsp
0

-V

0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Time (s)

Resistivity profiling (assessing lateral variation) Resistivity profiling

We can profile the subsurface by moving our array Note that the wider the spacing the greater the
C+ P+ C+
C+ P- P+
P- C+
P+ C+
C- P-
C- C+
P+ C-
P+ C+
P- P-
P+ C+
C- C-
P- P-
P+ C-
P+ C-
P- C- smearing as we cross any vertical feature
C+ P+ P- C-

ρa ρa

Distance Distance

5
The Pulled Array Continuous Electrical Profiling (PACEP)
method was developed by the Aarhus hydrogeophysics
Resistivity soundings (determining vertical variability)
group as a cost effective method for spatially dense Soundings - often called vertical electrical soundings (VES) –
measurement over large areas. allow us to build up a 1D profile of the subsurface.

An electrode array is towed

across the field behind a small
vehicle and measurements with
three sets of electrodes with
different separations are
performed continuously and
simultaneously while actively
towing the electrode array.

Depth of sensitivity increases as the electrode seperation

Schlumberger
increases

Schlumberger array is
commonly used for VES
because only the current
electrodes are moved (so
easier) but also because the
measurements are not
sensitive to lateral variation
in resistivity

6
 Inverse methods (see later) are then used to determine There can be problems with ambiguity of the measured
a 1D resistivity structure that best matches the data. response.

ρ (Ohm-m)
In this example as the lower resistivity becomes small,
the ability to differentiate the middle layer is lost.
10 100 1000
1000 0

10
ρ a (Ohm-m)

Depth (m)
100 20

30

40
10
1 10 100 1000
50
Schlumberger curves for different lower
AB/2

layer resistivity

VES has been widely used in hydrological investigations

to determine lithological boundaries.
Resistivity surface imaging
Developments in multi-electrode
The method has also been used ρ (Ohm-m) instruments has led to widespread
to monitor dynamic processes, 10 100 1000 use of resistivity imaging.
e.g. responses to recharges and 0

travel times of pollutants. Here profiles are measured at

10 different electrode separations (i.e.
The approach is clearly limited if different survey depths).
C+ P-
Depth (m)

20
the 1D assumption is not valid. C+ P+ P- C-
P+ C- Electrode
30

Because of ambiguities in the 1

Survey
40
3
level
solution, it is useful to have other
5
information to allow assignment 50
7
of layer thicknesses.
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Distance (m)

7
 A pseudosection is built up using measured apparent These data may be inverted (see later) to determine a
resistivities resistivity image that is consistent with the data
Electrode Electrode
Elevation (m)

Elevation
0 0

100 Ohm-m Synthetic model 100 Ohm-m Synthetic model

(m)
-2 -2
-4
-6
10
10 Ohm-m Ohm-m -4
-6
10
10 Ohm-m Ohm-m
-8 -8
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Distance (m) Distance (m)

Elevation
Survey

1 0
Wenner array Wenner array
level

(m)
3 -2
5 pseudosection -4 model
7 -6
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 -8
Distance (m) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Distance (m)
60 70 80 90
Apparent resistivity (Ohm-m)
100 0

Elevation
-2

(m)
-4
1
Survey

-6
Dipole-dipole array Dipole-dipole array
level

3 -8
5 pseudosection 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
model
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Distance (m)
Distance (m) 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
100
Resistivity (Ohm-m)
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
100
Apparent resistivity (Ohm-m)

Note that the pseudosection doesn’t always show a Note that the pseudosection doesn’t always show a
structure that resembles the subsurface. structure that resembles the subsurface.
Electrode Electrode
0 0
Elevation

Elevation
-2 100 Ohm-m -2 100 Ohm-m
(m)

(m)
-4 Synthetic model -4 Synthetic model
-6
10 Ohm-m -6
10 Ohm-m
-8 -8
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Distance (m) Distance (m)

Elevation
0
Survey

1
level

Wenner array -2
Wenner array

(m)
3
5 -4
7
pseudosection -6 model
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 -8
Distance (m) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Distance (m)

Elevation
50 60 70 80 90 0
100
Apparent resistivity (Ohm-m)

(m)
-2
-4
Survey

-6
1
level

3 Dipole-dipole array -8
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Dipole-dipole array
5
pseudosection Distance (m) model
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Distance (m) 10 20 40 60 80 100
Resistivity (Ohm-m)
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
100
Apparent resistivity (Ohm-m)

8
Surface resistivity imaging has been used widely to look at Surface resistivity imaging has been used widely to look at
subsurface structure and dynamic processes subsurface structure and dynamic processes
Before pumping

140 minutes after pumping

180 minutes after pumping

20 minutes after pumping

240 minutes after pumping

60 minutes after pumping
20 minutes of recovery

100 minutes after pumping

19 hours of recovery
After Slater and Sandberg (2000) After Barker & Moore (1998) -15 15
% change in resistivity

Surface resistivity imaging based on continuous surveys have Multiple 2D or true 3D data can be used to show
been developed for land and marine investigations subsurface structure …

GPS

A B P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7P8 P9

WATER
0m

SEDIMEN
TS 16 m

BEDROCK
155 m

0m

1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3

log10 resistivity in Ohm-m

log10 resistivity in Ω m

9
… and changes over time in 3D
East Shefford Farm site Variation in Apr ‘05 survey as
Resistivity data acquisition issues
NE
Nov ‘04 survey compared to Nov ‘04 NE
Data collection speed will depend on:
0.2-0.5m Soil 0.2-0.5m

Peat Number of channels (detectors),

SW
SW Source frequency,
1.2-1.6m
Alluvial gravel 1.2-1.6m Stacking requirements
Chalk
Basic old (single channel)
2.1-2.6m
Alluvial gravel 2.1-2.6m systems may only be capable of
Chalk
around 500 measurements per
hour. Multi-channel systems can
5.0-6.0m 5.0-6.0m work at around 2000
0
Chalk
0
measurements per hour or faster.
0 Newer instruments are adopting 61 channels. Claimed to
(m) 0
Distance (m) allow 60,000+
-70
-100 -70
-100 Distance many channels, allowing rapid
Resistivity (Ωm) measurements per hour
Relative increase in resistivity (%)
data collection. on a 64 electrode array.
10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190 210 56 -40 -3072 76 -20
60 64 68 -1092 96 100
80 84 88 0 104 108
10112 116

Nimmer(2005) used mise-à-la-masse to study tracer

Resistivity single borehole surveys
migration in fractured basalt. She also used enhanced the
survey by using borehole electrodes for potential
To gain better resolution at depth we may use electrodes measurements.
in boreholes.

These can be in single boreholes, e.g. mise-à-la-masse … 1.04

1.03
1.02

V P- 1.01
C- P+ 1
0.99
0.98
0.97
0.96

C+ Contour Interval = 0.005

Well
0 2 4 6 8
Conductive Anomaly Meters

10
Resistivity cross-borehole imaging Resistivity cross-borehole data acquisition issues

Electrodes in two (or more) boreholes can also be used to Low cost systems developed for surface imaging may
gain maximum resolution – cross-borehole electrical be used for cross-borehole work but some suffer from:
resistivity tomography (ERT)
electrode Single channel (slow),
drive
Stainless steel current
mesh, copper and between
measure
Poor dynamic range (limited application),
lead are common electrode
voltage
electrode pair
between
materials. electrode
pair

Electrodes need to have Above the water table electrodes are normally
contact with the soil/rock and permanently installed.
the medium allowing this
contact should resemble Pushed holes in unconsolidated sediments
(electrically) the native minimise electrode effects.
soil/rock.
If drilled holes do not
collapse backfill is
Below the water table required - typically
electrodes may be drill returns or sand
temporarily installed in open but avoid Bentonite.
holes or inside slotted plastic
cased wells. In such cases
inflatable packers may be
used to prevent current flow
along the borehole
conductive fluid

11
 Many different types of measurement schemes are We can’t build up pseudosections like in surface imaging
possible but can invert data in the same way to get a model that is
most consistent with the data

A 0 0
B 100 Ohm-m
-2 -2
M
Electrode

Elevation (m)
N
-4 -4

-6 -6
10 Ohm-m
-8 -8

-10 -10

-12 -12
A
M -14 -14

B 0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
N Distance (m)
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
100
Resistivity (Ohm-m)

Elevation (m)(m)
We have to be careful about borehole spacing since we In some
0
-5
loose sensitivity away from the boreholes cases a

Elevation
-5

combination
-10
-10 (a)
of arrays is
(a)
-15
00 55 10
10 15
15 20
20 25
25 30
30 35
35 40
40 45
45 50
50
0 0 more suitable Distance (m)
Distance (m)
100 Ohm-m 10
1 20 40 60 802 100
Resistivity (Ohm-m)
-2 Resistivity (Ohm-m)
Electrode
-2
Elevation (m)
Elevation (m)

(m)
-4 -4

Elevation (m)
-5

Elevation
-6 -6
10 Ohm-m
-8 -8 -10

(b)
-10 -10 -15
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
-12 -12 Distance (m)
Distance (m)

0 0

(m)
-14 -14

Elevation (m)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 -5 -5

Elevation
Distance (m) Distance (m)
-10 -10

30 40 50 60 70 80 90
100 (c) (d)
Resistivity (Ohm-m) -15 -15
15 20 25 30 35 15 20 25 30 35
Distance (m)
Distance (m) Distance (m)
Distance (m)

12
 Cross-borehole imaging of permeable reactive barriers
Example application to study
subsurface structure beneath a river
Distance from midpoint (m)
channel
-2 -1 0 1 2
0

Soil Peat
Borehole D River channel Borehole E
0
2
-2 3

-4 Alluvial gravel

Depth (m)
Log10 Resistivity (Ωm)
reactive iron
4
-6 sand
2
Depth (m)

clay backfill
-8 silty clay
6 basal gravel
-10
1 shale bedrock
Weathered chalk
-12

-14 8
Flinty Chalk 0
-16
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 10
Distance (m)

Cross-borehole imaging of permeable reactive barriers Monitoring leakage into the vadose zone at Hanford

BH2-1 BH4-3

sand
clay backfill
water table?
active electrode
redundant electrode

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Conductivity (S/m)

After Slater and Binley (2003)

13
Monitoring leakage into the vadose zone at Hanford
Resistivity core and block imaging
We can also apply the same methods for imaging core and
27-Jul 30-Jul 6-Aug 16-Aug 18-Aug
blocks (and any shape object)
Start of event B End of event B
Drive current
between electrode
pair

20-Aug 25-Aug 27-Aug

I
22-Aug 23-Aug

Start of event D End of event D

28-Aug 30-Aug 31-Aug 1-Sep 6-Sep

Start of event F End of event F

V
Measure voltage
After Daily, Ramirez and Binley (2004) between electrode pair

Monitoring tracer movement

through a soil column The methods may be used to look at changes within the
block or core due to changing environmental conditions or
hydraulic loading

drive
current
between I
electrode
pair

Change in
resistivity over V
time maps Measure voltage
tracer front After Ramirez & Daily (2000)
between electrode
pair

14
Summary
DC resistivity can be measured in varied geometrical
arrangements.
Pseudosections have limited value as an image of the
subsurface but are useful (for surface imaging) as a data
check.
The choice of measurement scheme can have an effect on
the final image.
Inverse methods can be used to determine images of
resistivity (later lecture).

15