Electrical Methods in

Geophysical prospecting

MAG 704

DEPARTMENT OF GEOSCIENCES
Recommended Textbooks
Environmental and Engineering
Geophysics By Prem Sharma
Introduction to Geophysical Prospecting By
Milton Dobrin
An Introduction to Applied and
Environmental Geophysics By John M.
Reynolds
Electrical Methods
There are many electrical and
electromagnetic methods used in
geophysics. These methods are most
often used where sharp changes in
electrical resistivity (resistance in the
ground) are expected - particularly if
resistivity decreases with depth.
Applied current Methods: when a
current is supplied by the geophysicist.
Currents are either DC or low frequency
A.C
 In the Electrical resistivity method, the
potential difference (voltage) is measured at
various points;
 In the Induced Polarization method, the
rise and fall time of the electric potential are
measured.
 In Spontaneous Potential method, natural
potential that may arise from electrochemical
reactions due to many ore bodies is measured.
 The electromagnetic method applies an
alternating current with a coil and the
resulting field magnetic field is measured
with another coil.
Natural Currents: when natural currents in the earth
are measured. Movement of charge in the
ionosphere and lightning cause telluric currents to
be generated in the earth.
 Variation of the spectra of these current fields
and their magnetic counterparts yield information
on subsurface resistivity.
Concept of Electricity

First, a review of basic electricity:

Consider the circuit:
battery
- +
current meter
i
R1 R2

resistor
V
volt meter

A battery acts as an energy supply, pushing electrons

around the circuit
A resistor resists the flow of current
A voltmeter measures the potential difference between
two points
A current meter( ammeter)measures the current flow at
a point
This is equivalent to the water and pipe system:

The voltage (potential) of a battery is equivalent to the

water level difference between the two tanks.
BASIC EQUATIONS:

 Current= charge/sec past a point: I=dq/dt

Coulombs/sec=Amperes

 Current density = current/cross sectional area: J= i/A

 Resistance= potential /current = Ohms Ω =volts/ampere

(Ohm's LAW)

 Resistance tells us the total drag on the current, but not the
property of the material that is generating the drag. The
value of resistance depends upon both the material and its
shape ( e.g., Cu and Pb)
 Resistivity is the resistance in ohms between the opposite
faces of a unit cube of a material.
 The resistivity of a material is a measure how well the
material retards the flow of electrical current. It varies
from one material to another. A good conductor like
Cu is on the order of 10-8Ohm-m, the resistivity of an
intermediate conductor such as wet topsoil is ̴ 10Ωm,
and the resistivity of poor conductors such as sandstone
is ̴ 10Ωm.
 Due to this great variation, measuring the resistivity of an
unknown material has the potential for being very useful
in identifying that material, given little further
information.
Resistivity of different Materials

Material Resistivity ( Ohm.cm)

Wet to moist clayey soils 1.5- 3.0
Seawater 0.3
Shale and Clay 1.0
Massive rocks Above 400
Resistivity of different Materials
•Resistivity is determined by measuring the
voltage required to pass a measured amount of
electrical current through the rock.
• For a rock cube with sides of 1 m, if
electrical potential of 1 V (Volt) is required for
current flow of 1 A (Ampere), then resistivity
is 1 ·m (Ohm ·meter).
•Electrical resistance () is inverse of Electrical
conductance (S, Siemens)
•2  = (1/2) S

•Resistivity is the inverse of conductivity

•2 ·m = (1/2) S/m
Electrical methods are based on the principle
that different materials of earth crust methods
posses widely different electrical properties.
Resistivity, electrochemical activity and
dielectrical constant are some of these
properties that are generally studied through
these methods.
Results obtained from such studies when
interpreted give useful clues regarding the
nature and make up of the subsurface
materials.
 Point Current Source

Consider an electrode stuck in the ground with it's matching

electrode far away (just like a magnetic monopole). It's
potential relative to the distant electrode is measured in Volts.
Battery

C1 P1
current

current dr
equipotential
 If we measure the potential difference between
two shells at some a distance D from the
electrode, we get
 l   dr 
dV  iR  i  i 2 
 A   2r 

where dr is the thickness of the shell across which

we measure the potential, Recalling that the
 resistivity of air is so high, no current will flow
through it, so we only need have the surface of a
hemisphere (2πr2).
We now integrate in from infinity (where potential is
zero) to get the potential at a point a distance D
from the source:

 i dr i
V   D dV   D r 2  2D Eq *
2
IF the resistivity of the ground is UNIFORM.
 This is the basic equation of resistivity, in that
we can add the potentials from many sources to
obtain a "potential" map of a surface.
 By contouring that map, we have equipotential
lines, along which no current flows. Current
flows in directions perpendicular to equipotential
lines.
TWO CURRENT ELECTRODES:

What if we move the other current electrode in from far

away?

We can calculate the potential at point P1 by just adding the

potentials from both current electrodes - remembering that
one is positive, and the other negative:
The potential at point P1 is determine using equation * above.
The effects of the source at C1(+) and sink at C2 (-) are both
considered and therefore,

i i i  1 1 
VP1   ( )   
2r1 2r2 2  r1 r2 
What is the potential between the electrodes vs. depth?
We can express r1 & r2 in terms of the x-z coordinate

 
i  1 1 
VP1    

2  d
  
2 2
 x  z 2 d  x  z 2 
 2 2 
Current flow…
We have seen that the current flow lines are
perpendicular to the equipotential lines, but
we do not know how the current is
distributed.
A simple equation was established by Van
Nostrand and Cook, 1966 that provides
current distribution as a fraction of the total
current between the two electrodes.
Along a vertical plane midway between the two
electrodes, fraction of the total current (if)
penetrating to a depth z for an electrode separation
d is given by:
2 2z
1
if  tan
 d
We can use the equation above to investigate the
current distribution for various current electrode
separations ( d) and depth (z).

If several values for the current electrode
separation are used, it will be observed that the
values in depth electrode separation and the % of
Total current do not change.
Percentage of current penetrating a homogeneous Isotropic earth

* Note the current electrode separation is 10m

A plot of the results in
Table 1
50% of the current is
confined above a horizontal
plane with a depth of one-half
the current electrode
separation.
70% of the current is
confined below a depth which
is equal to the electrode
separation (represented by
dash lines).
It follows that , the greater
the electrode separation, the
greater the depth to which a
given percentage of current
penetrates.
This is however valid for a
homogeneous isotropic
subsurface.
 C1 C2

10%

40%

70%

This is the pattern of equipotentials (blue) and current flow

(red) expected for a constant-resistivity material. The
current flow lines are perpendicular to the equipotential
lines. Labels indicate the percentage of total current that
penetrates to the depth of the line.
Potential Electrodes
 In ER survey our interest is to measure the
potential difference between two points.
M &N are two potential electrodes located
on the surface like two electrodes for
current.
Since we have obtained an equation to
determine the potential at a point due to a
source and a sink, we can get the potential
difference by determining the potential at
one potential electrode M(P1) and
subtracting from it the potential at N (P2) .
The most common form of resistivity measurement uses
two current electrodes and two potential electrodes:
We use the same argument, summing potentials, to obtain
the voltage across two electrodes we get:
+ - current
i

potentia l
The potential
C1 + P1 P2
- C2 difference between
r1 r2
P1 and P2 is:
r3 r4

VP1 P2  VP1  VP2

VP1  VC1  VC 2  , VP2  VC1  VC 2 
P1 P2

 i i   i i  i 1 1 1 1 
VP1 P2            
2r1 2r2  2r3 2r4  2 r1 r2 r3 r4 
 ip 1 1 1 1
V  Vp1  Vp2      
2  r1 r2 r3 r4 

Solving for the resistivity,:

2V 1

i 1111
r1 r2 r3 r4
Thus, we can measure the current, voltage, and
appropriate distances and solve for resistivity.
Factors Affecting Electrical Resistivity

Resistivity of water
Porosity of the formation
Pore geometry
Lithology of the formation
Degree of cementation
Type and amount of clay in the
rock
 Rock containing pores saturated
Saturation
with water and hydrocarbons Equation Formation
Non-shaly rock, 100% saturated
Factor
with water having resistivity, Equation
Rw

Rt Cube of water
= 20% having resistivity,
Sw = 20% Rw
Ro
= 20%
Sw = 100%

Rw
= 100%
Sw = 100%
(1) Rock
Conductivity
Increasing
Resistivity
Increasing

(2) Gas
(3) Oil
(4) Fresh Water
(5) Salt Water
Electrode configurations/ Arrays
 The electrode patterns used in resistivity
surveying almost always are the Wenner,
Schlumberger, dipole-dipole, pole-dipole
and pole-pole.
In conducting an expanding-spread Wenner
survey, we move all electrodes along a
straight line after every reading so the
spacing between electrodes remains equal
and takes on certain prescribed values
 Wenner array
In Wenner array four electrodes are arranged
collinearly and the separations between adjacent
electrodes are equal.
The apparent resistivity of the medium measured
with this array is given by:
Schlumberger Array
The Schlumberger array is arranged with two current
electrodes on the outside of the array, set apart by a
distance at least five times the spacing between the
two interior potential electrodes.
The potential difference measurement is believed to
lie at the mid span of the interior potential electrodes,
at a depth approximately one half of the length
between the exterior current electrodes.
The Schlumberger Array is preferred for VES
applications due to the strong horizontal resolution
and ease of setup in the field
The apparent resistivity measurement for the Schlumberger
Array can be represented by equation given above.
In the equation, the spread length or distance between
current electrodes is L, and the length between the potential
electrodes is expressed by the variable l.
With respect to L and l, the apparent resistivity measurement
is valid as long as the spread length, L, does not exceed 5
times the potential electrode spacing, l
Fig. Some commonly used electrode arrays
 Electrical Resistivity Methods
Resistivity surveying investigates variations of
electrical resistance (or conductivity, the inverse
of resistivity), by causing an electric current to
flow through the ground, using wires connected
to current electrodes pushed into the ground.
 In resistivity surveying, we are concerned with
the movement, or flow, of charges through rocks
 Electrical resistivity techniques
 The resistivity method involves the measurement of the ability of
soil, rock and ground water to resist the flow of an electrical
current.
 It is a function of the soil and rock matrix, percentage of fluid
saturation and the conductivity of the pore fluids.
 The electrical resistivity method is used to map the subsurface
electrical resistivity structure, which is interpreted by the
geophysicist to determine geologic formations and/or physical
properties of the geologic materials.
 The electrical resistivity of a geologic unit or target is measured in
ohm-meters (Ω-m), and is a function of porosity, permeability,
water saturation and the concentration of dissolved solids in pore
fluids within the subsurface.
 Techniques in ER
Vertical Electrical Soundings (VES)
Constant Separation Traversing (CST)
VES
When the ground consists of a number of more or less
horizontal layers, knowledge of the vertical variation of
resistivity is required.
The vertical electrical sounding (or drilling) deduces the
variation of resistivity with depth below a point on the
ground surface and the procedure is based on the fact
that the current penetrates deeper with increasing
separation of the current electrodes.
 The two most common arrays for electrical resistivity
surveying in the sounding made are the Wenner and
Schlumberger arrays (Reynolds, 1997).
 CST cont’d
Resistivity profiling involves moving an array of
electrodes while keeping the array arrangement and
spacing fixed (Sheriff, 1989).
Lateral changes in resistivity are mapped, allowing
for the delineation of contaminant plumes and of
lateral changes in hydrogeologic conditions.
Profiling can allow for rapid data interpretation by
mapping apparent resistivity values and noting
anomalous features relative to background.
CST cont’d
If the layers or boundaries are vertical,
rather than horizontals planes, the electrical
profiling or constant separation traversing is
usually employed.
The objective of this method is to detect
lateral variation in the resistivity of the
ground (Reynolds, 1997).
The two most common arrays for electrical
resistivity surveying involving profiling
mode are the Wenner and dipole-dipole
arrays (Reynolds, 1997).
CST cont’d
The electrode geometry for the Wenner
array is the same as in sounding, the
difference is that in the profiling mode, the
entire array is moved laterally along the
profile while maintaining the potential and
current electrode separation distances.
In the dipole-dipole array the distance
between the potential and current dipoles (a
dipole consists of a pair of electrodes) is
maintained while the array is moved along
the profile
 CST’D
The data listed below were acquired using a constant-spread, Wenner
array was used at a-spacing = 3m. Interpret the data as completely as
possible
Horizontal Resistivity (ρa)Ωm Horizontal Resistivity (ρa)Ωm Horizontal Resistivity (ρa)Ωm
Position (m) Position (m) Position (m)

5.0 20.05 19.0 22.55 33.0 858.94

6.0 20.06 20.0 25.32 34.0 872.33
7.0 20.07 21.0 28.45 35.0 880.40
8.0 20.08 22.0 27.97 36.0 885.58
9.0 20.10 23.0 27.11 37.0 889.07
10.0 20.12 24.0 242.39 38.0 891.51
11.0 20.15 25.0 460.00 39.0 893.26
12.0 20.19 26.0 572.39 40.0 894.57
13.0 20.24 27.0 580.25 41.0 895.55
14.0 20.32 28.0 541.30 42.0 896.31
15.0 20.44 29.0 519.88 43.0 896.90
16.0 20.61 30.0 660.54 44.0 897.38
17.0 20.91 31.0 785.22 45.0 897.76
18.0 21.45 32.0 834.74
 1000

900

800

700
Apparent resistivity (Ωm)

600

500
Resistivity Ωm

400

300

200

100

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Horrizontal position of spread centre (m)
Electrical Resistivity (ER)
Various problems can hinder the collection of accurate
resistivity data. Dry surface material (high resistivity) can make
injection of current very difficult.
Common problems include: Coupling between wires and reels.
Poor electrical contact with the ground.
Cultural noise, including stray currents, potential fields and
electromagnetic currents as a result of power lines, man-induced
ground currents, fences, railroad tracks, and buried metallic pipes.

Resistivity sounding is used to determine vertical changes in the

geologic section. Data is collected at fixed stations as the distance
between electrodes is successively increased.
As a consequence, the apparent resistivity is determined as a
function of the effective depth of penetration.
ER DATA PROCESSING
VES – The interpretation of VES curves is
usually made by curve-matching procedures
 PARTIAL CURVE MATCHING
Resistivity values obtained on the field and calculated
using the geometric factor can be interpreted
quantitatively using the curve types depending on the
contrast in resistivity values
Using the multiple horizontal interface, for three layers
of resistivity in two interface case, four possible curve
types exist. They include the following
ρ1> ρ2> ρ3 Q – type
ρ1> ρ2< ρ3 H – Type
ρ1< ρ2> ρ3 K – Type
ρ1< ρ2< ρ3 A – Type
Three layer geo-electric section curve types (H, A, K and Q)
 In four layer geo-electric sections there
are 8 possible relations:

ρ1> ρ2< ρ3< ρ4 HA-Type

ρ1> ρ2< ρ3> ρ4 HK-Type
ρ1< ρ2< ρ3< ρ4 AA-Type
ρ1< ρ2< ρ3> ρ4 AK-Type
ρ1< ρ2> ρ3< ρ4 KH-Type
ρ1< ρ2> ρ3> ρ4 KQ-Type
ρ1> ρ2> ρ3< ρ4 QH-Type
ρ1> ρ2> ρ3> ρ4 QQ-Type
Four layer geo-electric section curve types (HK and KH)
Modeling
The ultimate goal of electrical methods is to
derive the distribution of electrical properties of an
object within the subsurface.
A set of measurement is usually conducted on the
boundary of the object, or at least outside the
region of interest.
The theoretical outcome of such a measurement
can be mathematically modeled for some given
electrical properties from the governing physical
law, the Poisson equation, subject to some
boundary conditions.
This exercise defines the so-called “forward
problem”
Forward Modeling
 A set of measurements (data), the
distribution of electrical properties (model)
is sought that explains the observations to
an acceptable degree.
For resistivity surveys, data will be in the
form of transfer resistances or apparent
resistivities, and the model is parameterized
regarding resistivity or conductivity.
Inverse modeling
 It is the process of trying to recover
parameters from experimental
measurements .
It is an attempt to solve an inverse problem.
In this case, we consider a vector in data
space, d, and we would like to map it back
to a vector in model space, m, as illustrated
below
For a 1-D problem, m normally contains the
parameter (e.g. conductivities, or velocities)
and thickness of a multilayer model.
For arbitrary 2-D and 3-D distributions its elements
generally correspond to the measured parameters
of individual elements or cells of the finite difference
mesh used in forward modeling

Forward & Inverse problem

Forward problem

Model space Data space

Electrical properties Electrical measurements
(conductivity, polarizability) (transfer resistance, apparent
resistivities/ chargeability)

Inverse problem
Computer Modeling
Inversion scheme in geoelectric
sounding
Inversion cont’d
For 1D VES, inversion is carried out using
geophysical inversion softwares (Winresist,
Res1Dinv etc).
The layer resistivity and thicknesses
obtained after curve matching i.e. forward
modeling were used as input during the
inversion process are input.
The layer parameters are altered until a
good fit is achieved between the observed
and the calculated values.
Inversion cont’d
The iteration process of a curve can go as
far as 30 times of achieving an effect match,
after which the computer displays the final
result of the iteration and the layer
parameters.
In CST, forward modeling is used to
calculate the apparent resistivity values of
2-D resistivity data using DIPPRO
software or
 Res2Dinv a popular inversion program
(Geotomo)
Inversion cont’d
 Resistivity of each block is then calculated
to produce an apparent resistivity pseudo
section.
A pseudo section is obtained when a good
model misfit is obtained between the
calculated and observed apparent resistivity
values (Optimization process).
A measure of this difference is given by the
root-mean-square (RMS) error.
 Possible interpretation errors
Equivalent models
 Resistivities and thicknesses of each layer can be derived
from the apparent resistivity curve clearly.
 In the field measurement errors occur .
 The apparent resistivity curve can be interpreted by
different resistivity models.
The principle of equivalence: The thickness and resistivity
can not be derived independently
 Dar Zarrouk Parameters

Fig. Schematic diagram of the construction and inversion of DZ curves, hj, layer
thickness; pj layer resistivity; T, transverse resistance; S, longitudinal conductance, ρm,
DZ resistivity; Lm, DZ depth
 VES1 133.3 VES2 147.3
A 118.4 A'
1356.5 354.9
5
152.5
10
1640.8
DEPTH(m)

15
1740.3 LEGEND
20
TOPSOIL
145.7
25 SANDY CLAY

30 141.4 SAND

35 145.7 RESISTIVITY(Ohm-m)

Geoelectric section along profile AA

2-D Resistivity imaging
 Model selection
The geophysicist has to select the model, that
agrees best with the known geological and
hydrogeological structures of the ground.
Another selective criterion is the comparison
with neighboring soundings.
 Suppression
Suppression occurs when the presence of a thin
layer in a multilayer sequence can’t be recognized
on an apparent resistivity curve.
This is particularly a problem when three or more
layers are present and their resistivities are
ascending or descending with depth.
The middle intermediate layer may not be evident
on the field curve.
Suppression is controlled by the relative thickness
of a layer (thickness of the layer divided by the
depth of the layer) and the resistivity contrast b/w
the thin layer and adjacent layers.
Anisotropy
In reality geological formations are far from
isotropic, this is especially true of shale and
clay formations.
In clay, the resistivity is the same in all
directions along a layer but has a different
value in the direction perpendicular to the
stratification.
Effect of anisotropy
 Induced Polarization method
 Introduction
 Basic principles of IP
 Data acquisition and processing
 Interpretation
Applications of IP
 Introduction
• Just as the Earth can behave like a battery, it can also
behave like a capacitor; in the sense that if you send a
current into the ground it charges up and when switched
off, a current continues to flow until the charge dissipates,
just like a condenser in an electrical circuit.
• The IP uses the capacitive action of the subsurface to
locate zones of interest e.g. where clay/conductive mineral
is disseminated within their host rocks.
• IP is a current-stimulated electrical phenomenon observed
as a delayed voltage response in earth materials.
• IP phenomena are of electrochemical origin, and depend
mainly on the surface characteristics of the pore structure.
 Introduction cont’d
• What is collected? The chargeability in mv/v
• How is it measured? IP is often measured in
conjunction with other electrical properties
(spontaneous potential, single point resistance,
and electrical resistivity) using a square AC
waveform.
• The IP signal is measured at various time
windows during the decay of the current from
the on-time to the off-time.
• The chargeability is defined as the ratio of this
value to the primary on-time voltage (ΔV/V).
 Basic principles of IP surveys
• The resistivity & IP methods involve the measurements of
an impedance, with subsequent interpretation in terms of the
subsurface electrical properties, and in turn, the subsurface
geology.
• An impedance is the ratio of the response,i.e., output, to the
excitation, i.e., input. In both resistivity and IP methods, the
input is a current injected into the ground b/w current
electrodes & the output is a voltage from the potential
electrodes.
• In the frequency domain impedance measurements, the
input current is a sine wave with frequency f, the output also
is a sine wave function.
 Basic principles cont’d
• An illustration of IP can be obtained with a standard 4-
electrode dc resistivity spread.
• When the current is abruptly interrupted, the voltage across
the potential electrodes does not drop to 0 immediately but
decays slowly after an initial large decrease of its steady-
state value
 This decay time is of the order seconds or even minutes.
 Conversely, if the current is switched on again, the potential
increases suddenly at first and then gradually reaches the
steady-state value.
• The slow decay and growth of part of the signal are due to
“Induced Polarization”.
(a)

(b)

Electrode array for IP survey (b) transmitter & receiver

responses
 For a pair of electrode with current
I and –I at electrode A, and
electrode B respectively, the
potential at a point within the
medium is given as;

 where rA and rB are distances

from the point to electrodes A and Equipotential and current lines for a
B. pair of current electrodes A and B on a
homogeneous halfspace.

 For M and N pair of electrodes with no currents, the potential V

between them could be measured.

 where UM and UN are potentials at M and N. AM = distance between

electrodes A and M, etc.
 Sources of the IP effects
Electrode (electronic) polarization or overvoltage occurs when
metallic particles block a pore space.
As a result, charges build up when an electric field is applied.
The result is two electrical double layers that add to voltages
measured at the surface.
Conductive minerals generate the electrode polarization effect in
rocks such that the current flow is partly electrolytic and partly
electronic (through the conductive mineral)
Minerals that are electronic conductors exhibit electrode
polarization. These include almost all the sulfides, some oxides such
as magnetite, ilmenite, and cassiterite, and graphite.
The magnitude of the electrode polarization depends on the
external current source also on the number of characteristics of the
medium.
 Membrane polarization

•In clays, electrolytic

current flow is impeded
by +ve ions (attracted to
–vely charged clay
particles), charges
accumulate, voltage
build up.
•On release of current,
charges drift back to
equilibrium causing
voltage decays.
 Electrode polarization
Metallic mineral gains
conduct electronically,
electrolytic ions
accumulate at pore
restrictions causing a
build-up of voltage.
•On release of current,
ions drift to equilibrium
positions, leading to
voltage decays.
•All minerals which are
good conductors
contribute to this effect.
 Sources of the IP effects
 It varies directly with the mineral concentration, but because it is a
surface phenomenon, it should be larger when the mineral is
disseminated than when it is massive.
The fact that disseminated mineralization gives good IP response is a
most attractive feature, because other electrical methods do not work
very work in these circumstances.



Factors affecting induced polarization
Membrane polarization Electrode polarization

 Clay content  Metallic mineral concentration

 Clay mineralogy  Type, size of grains porosity
 Porosity  Porosity
 Fluid salinity  Fluid salinity
 Temperature  Temperature
Frequency-Domain Measurements
 Frequency effect. In FDIP, one measures the apparent
resistivity at two or more alternating current frequencies.
The FE is usually defined as:

ρdc is apparent resistivity measured at DC or at very low AC

frequency (0.05 – 0.5Hz)
ρac is the apparent resistivity measured at very high AC
frequency (0.1 – 10Hz)
 IP measurements cont’d

 Also, the Percent frequency effect (PFE) is given by:



 where рdc, рac are apparent resistivities measured at dc and very

high frequency. Measurements are made at two or more frequencies
in the range 0.1 to 10 Hz, while рdc being taken as the value obtained
at the lowest frequency.
 (b) Metal factor (MF). Since the IP effect varies with effective
resistvity of the host rock, that is, the type of electrolyte, temperature,
pore size, and so forth. The MF parameter corrects for this variation. It
is a modification of FE and it is given by:

•Unit of MF is the same as conductivity [mho/m or or siemen/m ]

TUTORIALS
 In a frequency domain IP study, the apparent resistivity
values are measured at two frequencies. of 0.1Hz and 5Hz
are 120Ωm and 65Ωm respectively. Calculate the
(i) Percentage Frequency Effect and
(ii) Metal Factor for the IP effects.
 In an IP surveys, measurements were made by sending
dc pulses for a duration of 10s into the ground. The
voltage remaining at time of 2s after the switch-off is 5 V
and 12 V is the volatge that existed when the current was
flowing. Estimate the polarizability in percent.
 Starting from the equation of frequency effect (FE) and
assuming that the chargeability is given by

 Show that
Metal factor of some earth materials
 Survey principle with multi-electrode system

•Multi-electrode & roll-along system as used for resistivity

surveys is also valid in IP survey to reduce time of operation
and to provide more data coverage.
Electrode configuration and movement along survey line
Electrode arrays for resistivity & IP surveys
 IP INTERPRETATION
 Quantitative interpretation is considerably more complex
than for the resistivity method.
 Laboratory modelling can also be employed in indirect
interpretation to simulate an observed IP anomaly
 Much IP interpretation is, however, only qualitative.
 Simple parameters of the anomalies, such as sharpness,
symmetry, amplitude and spatial distribution may be
 used to estimate the location, lateral extent, dip and depth
of the anomalous zone.
IP INTERPRETATION
• Plotting methods
•IP results are usually
displayed in profiles of
Chargeability, Percent
frequency effect, phase and so
forth , plotted against location.
• The results are plotted at the
midpoint of the spread.
•In case of the double dipole
or the pole-dipole, the
midpoint of either the current
or potential pair is taken as the
station location.
• Pseudodepth plots from the
results of using a particular
electrode array is then
obtained by contouring of a
tent shape with 45 degree
slope as shown.
•The values of n range from 1
to 10, though 6 is the upper
limit for double dipole. Data plotting and contouring
Pseudosections of (a) resistivity (b) chargeability
 Applications/Uses of IP
 Search for disseminated ores, clay minerals, pollution, and
groundwater.
 Over the past two decades IP measurements have improved, and new
applications in the environmental field have emerged.
 Exploration of metalliferous mineral deposits
 Mapping electrochemical reactions for pollutants in the ground.
Geology/ Landfills
Bauchi, Nigeria

Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia

Unregulated dumpsites in Nigeria and Malaysia

 Dumpsites
• Open dumping and unregulated landfills are the dominant waste
management procedures in the developing countries (Singh et al.
2011).

• With the rapid growth of population and the subsequent

increasing need for shelter, the expanding residential and
commercial areas sprawl over old landfill sites.
• The contaminant leachate plume from these dumpsites seeps into
underground and surface water resources, which creates a
potential for hazard to the inhabitants and the ecosystem.

• In order to manage the vulnerability of the water resources to

pollution, continuous monitoring and evaluation of the sites are
crucial for the environmental risk assessment.

• Monitoring wells are usually installed within a site and its environ
to gauge the extent of contamination of the water resources.
 SW BH 1 NE
0

-10
clay
-20 leachate sand

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Elevation Inverse Model Resistivity Section
(m)
0

-10

-20
weak IP unit

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Inverse Model Chargeability Section
Resistivity Chargeability
Horizontal Distance (m) (Ωm) (ms)

Resistivity and chargeability inverse models

 SW BH 2 NE
0

-10

unsaturated clay
-20
section sand

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Elevation Inverse Model Resistivity Section

(m)
0

-10

-20
weak IP unit

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Inverse Model Chargeability Section
Resistivity Chargeability
Horizontal Distance (m) (Ωm) (ms)

Resistivity and chargeability inverse models

 saturated sections
SW (without leachate) BH 3 NE
0

-10

-20 clay
sand
Elevation -30
(m) 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Inverse Model Resistivity Section
0

-10

-20
strong IP units
-30
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Inverse Model Chargeability Section Resistivity Chargeability

(Ωm) (ms)
Horizontal Distance (m)

Resistivity and chargeability inverse models

 NW SE
0

-20 dry soil

-40
uncontaminated
leachate with waste saturated area
-60
Elevation 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
(m) Inverse Model Resistivity Section

-20

-40 saturated waste

waste with leachate (largely without leachate)
-60
50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Inverse Model Chargeability Section Resistivity Chargeability
(Ωm) (ms)
Horizontal Distance (m)

Resistivity and chargeability inverse models

 SE
0
NW

-20

-40
unsaturated soil
-60
leachate without waste
Elevation 50 100 150 200 250 300
(m) Inverse Model Resistivity Section
0

-20

-40
waste with fraction of leachate
-60
50 100 150 200 250 300
Inverse Model Chargeability Section
Resistivity Chargeability
Horizontal Distance (m) (Ωm) (ms)

Resistivity and chargeability inverse models

 NE SW

20

uncontaminated
0 leachate upslope saturated surface

leachate downstream
Elevation
(m) 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Inverse Model Resistivity Section
20

0
waste with leachate waste with leachate
Resistivity Chargeability
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 (Ωm) (ms)

Inverse Model Chargeability Section

Horizontal Distance (m)

Resistivity and chargeability inverse models

 NE SW

20
uncontaminated
saturated surface
0 leachate upslope leachate downstream

Elevation 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

(m) Inverse Model Resistivity Section

20

buffer zone with leachate

0 (waste free)
Resistivity Chargeabilit
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 (Ωm) y
Inverse Model Chargeability Section (ms)

Horizontal Distance (m)

Resistivity and chargeability inverse models

 SW NE
0

-20
saturated soil
(not clay) unsaturated soil
-40
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Elevation
Inverse Model Resistivity Section
(m) 0

-20

weak IP unit
-40
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Resistivity Chargeability
Inverse Model Chargeability Section (Ωm) (ms)

Horizontal Distance (m)

Resistivity and chargeability inverse models

• This interpretation suggests that the leachate plume is
either susceptible to a resistivity evaluation rather than an
IP assessment or exhibits low chargeability signals.

• The investigation in this work attempts to address the

chargeability status of the disseminated contaminant
plume and generate a procedure for landfill
characterization with minimal ground truthing.
 Table 1: Interpretation Template
Section Resistivity Chargeability
Mixture of leachate Low (Dahlin et al. 2010) High (Dahlin et al. 2010)
and waste
Saturated clay Low (Guérin et al. 2004) High (Breede and Kemna 2012)
(uncontaminated)
Unsaturated waste High Low

Unsaturated soil High Low

Leachate Plume Low (Guérin et al. 2004; Low (Gallas et al. 2011)
Kaya et al. 2007)
Saturated waste Intermediate High (Dahlin et al. 2010)
(without leachate)
Saturated soil Intermediate (Guérin et Low
(uncontaminated) al. 2004)
• In the joint application of resistivity and IP surveys, the
interpretation of resistivity models is more definite than analysis of
chargeability models. There is negligible controversy on resistivity
status of various subsurface sections of the waste disposal sites.

• However, the correct assessment of chargeability status of the

diffused leachate is still under discussion. Some authors delineated
the contaminant plume as high chargeability zone (Abu-Zeid et al.
2004; Martinho and Almeida 2006). Whereas Galas et al. (2011)
postulate that the leachate plume has low chargeability status.

• In addition, Dahlin et al. (2010) demarcate leachate zones with

resistivity inverse models at landfill sites, while chargeability
models delineate the waste areas.
o Additional information from the Control Profile upstream
confirmed the contrast of resistivity and chargeability results
between surveyed landfill sites and the uncontaminated areas,
although responses from unpolluted saturated clay zones perturb
the signals of waste deposits.

o However, the non-chargeable character of the leachate plume,

which is corroborated in this study, differentiates the contaminant
plume from saturated clayey sections outside the landfill waste
boundaries, both of which display low resistivity signals.
• The combination of resistivity and Induced Polarization (IP) profiling
at landfill sites minimizes the interpretation ambiguity and could
demarcate various sections of a municipal solid waste dumpsite.

• Several formations could exhibit similar resistivity anomaly with

waste areas and leachate plumes. Such cases could be distinguished
if the chargeability ratings of the sediments and landfill sections are
established.

• Information on leachate plume monitoring and landfill

characterization is the basis for waste management practices as it
affects protection of the environ and remediation or reclamation of
waste dumpsites.
Geothermal Hydrogeology
 IP responses from different theoretical models such
sphere ; Ellipsoid; Two beds; vertical contact; vertical dike;
dipping dike.
 Drawbacks
 Same disadvantages than resistivity method.
 Electrochemical phenomena are still not well understood.
 IP surveys is slow and more expensive than resistivity surveys.
 The sources of significant IP anomalies are often not of
economic importance, e.g. water-filled shear zone.
 Field operations are slow and more expensive than other ground
geophysical techniques such as magnetic survey.
 Exercises
 The results in Table below were obtained using frequency-
domain IP in a survey over suspected sulfide mineralization. The
dipole-dipole array was used with dipole separations of 100 ft
and n=1,2,3. Resistivity values are in the form ρa/2πΩ−ft. The
grid line is roughly N-S with stations every 100 ft. In all cases
the potential dipole was south of the current dipole.
 (a) Prepare pseudosection plots for ρa/2π and MF
 (b) Draw contours and interpret the results
 SELF POTENTIAL
OR
SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL
METHOD
 Introduction - SP
 The self-potential (SP) method is a passive geoelectrical
technique.
 It is the natural occurring electrical potential of the earth
resulting from geologic, geochemical, and hydrologic
interactions which cause electric potentials to exist in the
earth in the vicinity of the measurement point.
 SP is based on the surface measurement of natural
potentials resulting from electrochemical reactions in the
subsurface which cause currents to flow.

Occurrence of SPs
SP is a passive method, i.e. differences in
natural ground potentials are measured
between any two points on the ground surface.
 The potentials measured can range from < a
millivolt (mV) to > 1 Volt.
+ or – signs of the potential is an important
diagnostic factor in the interpretation of SP
anomalies.
 Occurrence of SPs cont’d
Natural ground potentials consist of 2 components

 1. Background Potentials:Potentials fluctuate with

time caused by different processes ranging from AC
currents induced by thunderstorms, variations in
Earth’s magnetic fields, effects of heavy rainfalls
2. Mineral Potentials:Associated with ores that
conduct electronically rather than ionically such as in
sulphide ores.
SP occurs in ore body due to oxidation of the part of
the ore body above the water table. constant due to
electrochemical processes
Table 1 Types of SP anomalies and their sources
Mechanism of SPs
Some physical processes caused sources of SP
include :
Groundwater is thought to be common factor
responsible for SP.
Potentials are generated by the flow of water, by
water reacting as an electrolyte and as a solvent of
different minerals.
Electrical conductivity to produce potentials of
porous rocks depends on porosity and on mobility
of water to pass through the pore spaces ---
depend on ionic mobilities, solution
concentrations, viscosity, temperature & pressure.
Types of SPs
Electrokinetic potential/ streaming potential
Thermoelectric potential
Electrochemical potential
Mineral/mineralization potential
 Electrokinetic potential


 It is the most commonly observed SP phenomenon. It

arises as a results of electric currents which are set up by
the interactions of electrolytic fluids and matrix i.e., by the
motion of electrolytic fluids through porous media. The
streaming effect is the most important component of
electrokinetics, in which an electric field is generated by the
movement of a liquid through porous or finished materials.
Thermoelectric potential
 Arises from differential heating of the ground by sources
such as magma and coal-mine fibres.

Electrochemical potential
If the concentration of the electrolytes in the ground
varies locally, potential differences are set up due to the
difference in mobilities of anions and cations in solutions
of different concentrations‐‐‐called liquid‐junction or
diffusion potentials
Electrical potential is also generated when 2 identical
metal electrodes are immersed in solutions of different
concentrations‐‐‐ called Nernst potential.
Diffusion + Nernst potentials = Electrochemical, or
static, self potential.
One of the most common natural electrolytes is NaCl.
For NaCl solutions of different concentration (C1,C2)
but at the same temperature ,T (°C), the amplitude of
the electrochemical potential (Ec) is given by
MINERAL POTENTIALS

It is the most important in mineral exploration

of associated with massive sulphide ore bodies.
Large negative (‐) SP anomalies
(100‐1000mV)can be observed particularly
over deposits of pyrite, chalcopyrite,
pyrrhotite, magnetite, and graphite.
The potentials are almost invariably negative
over the top of the deposit and are quite stable
in time
A schematic model of the
origin of the SP anomaly
of an ore body which is
the most common
example of SP
phenomenon.
Part of it are above the
water table where
oxidation takes place
while below the water
table reduction occurs.
These mechanisms result
in different charge
concentrations that cause
current flow.
Basic Equipment for SP survey
The basic equipment required is simple, consisting
of a pair of electrodes connected by wire to a digital
multimeter (DVM) with a high input impedence
capable of a reading accuracy.
There are two restrictions on the electrodes and
voltmeter which are most important.
They are : (i) no spurious potentials can be
introduced by the measurement technique (ii) the
refernce or base electrode must be placed outisde
the system, above the water table
Schematic of the procedure used to
collect SP data
 Figure 1 shows schematically the method of conventional SP
data acquisition. The operator attaches one end of the wire to
the base station electrode.
 The wire is unreeled to station 1 where the roving electrode is
placed in a shallow hole in the ground.
 The voltage between the base station electrode and the roving
electrode is recorded with the defined sign convention. The
base pot is always attached to the negative lead of the
voltmeter.
 After making the voltage measurement the roving electrode is
picked up and more wire is unreeled to station 2.
 The roving electrode is again placed in the earth, and another
voltage measurement is made.
 This procedure is repeated until the end of the wire is reached,
at which point the wire is rewound, and the base station is
moved to the end of the completed line, where a secondary
base station is established. This is repeated until survey is
Difficulties in obtaining reliable data
The potential of a point on the earth's surface
results from the superposition of several different
electric fields.
The direct current (DC) field contains the SP field
and possibly cultural noise.
The time-varying field consists of telluric
currents and cultural noise.
In SP surveys, only the DC field is of interest; all
other electric potentials are regarded as "noise"
and are to be avoided.
Cultural noise
Changes in the "natural" SP field can result
from power lines, radio (mainly ULF)
communications, buildings, fences, pipelines,
etc. Noise from such sources may be common
in many SP survey areas.
Care should be taken to avoid measurements
suspected of significant cultural noise.
The following is a list of the more common
noise sources.
Powerlines : Near high tension lines or generating
stations, ac signal may be strong to saturate the
voltmeter and cause major fluctuations in the voltage
readings.
 Power lines are grounded on every, every other pole.
No measurement should be made within 10 m of a
ground wire to avoid any cultural DC offset.
Base stations should not be located within 500m of any
power 1ines.
If it proves impossible to avoid cultural noise due to
power transmission, it is sometimes possible to filter
out the 60 Hz with a suitable notch or low pass filter.
 Telephone lines
Telephone lines
Telephone lines are grounded at regular
intervals.
No measurement should be made within 10m
of a ground wire to avoid any cultural DC
offset.
Base stations should not be located within
500m of any telephone line
 Metal pipes, gas lines, cased drill holes,
railroad tracks, fences, etc
 Metal pipes, gas lines, cased drill holes, railroad tracks, fences, etc
These objects alter the electrical potential field of the earth
wherever they are in contact with the ground.
They either "short out" the potential or interfere with the earth's
natural state with cathodic protection devices as are commonly
found on pipelines.
If possible, measurements should not be made within 20m of any
metal object.
Pipelines are often electrically charged in order to prevent
corrosion. Measurements should not be made within 500m of an
electrically-protected pipeline. This includes all gas lines and most
other metal pipe lines.
When a measurement must be taken near such objects, the distance
to the object and description of the object should be recorded on
the data sheet. A note should be made stating that cultural
interference is suspected.
Mistakes in polarity
SP measurements are made and recorded
with both possible polarities as an aid to
minimizing errors.
The normal polarity is the first potential
measurement taken.
It consists of the base pot connected to the
negative terminal of the voltmeter and the
roving pot to the positive.
Electrode problems
Copper-copper sulfate, non-polarizing electrodes are
used to make contact with the ground.
They consist of a plastic container filled with a
saturated solution of copper sulfate. Immersed in
this solution is a copper rod to which the DVM lead
is attached.
The base of the container is porous and allows the
solution to leak slowly into the ground. The porous
pot itself can affect the SP readings made by the
crew in a variety of ways as detailed below.
 Chemical differences
Chemical differences in the copper sulfate solution
between the porous pots can result in a potential
difference of several millivolts, independent of the
earth.
It can be measured with the DVM when both are
placed in the copper sulfate bath.
If necessary, this voltage may be reduced to less
than 1 mV by mixing the solutions together or
changing the solutions.
Cleaning the ceramic surface on the bottom of the
pots after each station will also help in this respect.
Measurement of SP
SPs measurements simple and inexpensive.
2 non‐polarizable porous‐pot electrodes p p p
connected to a precision voltmeters capable of
measuring to at least 1 mV
Each electrode is made up of a copper electrode dipped
in a saturated solution of copper sulphate which can
percolate through the porous base to the pot.
An alternate zinc electrode in saturated zinc sulphate
solution or silver in silver chloride can be used.
Maximum depth of sensitivity of SP method =
~60‐100m depending on ore body and nature of
overburden.
Porous Pot Electrode
(PPE)

For SP survey, porous pot

electrodes as shown as used
instead of metal electrodes as
the latter themselves produce
a self potential.
 A PPE consists of a ceramic
container with holes.
A copper tube is surrounded
by a solution of copper
sulphate that slowly leaks
though the holes into the
ground.
This solution disseminates
the charges that otherwise
would build up if the ground
was in direct contact with a
copper electrode
 Measurement of Self‐potentials
 2 Field techniques or 2 electrode configurations
1. Potential gradient method (dipole/leap
frog/gradient configuration)
Fix separation of 2 electrodes (5 or 10 m)
measure potential difference between 2 electrodes
= potential gradient [mV/V]
2 porous are leap‐frogged along traverse with
care of correct polarity of potential recorded
Observation points = midpoint between 2
electrodes
Measurement of SPs Cont’d
2.Potential amplitude, or Total field method
(fixed‐base) configuration
Keep one electrode fixed at a base station
Measure potential difference [mV] between
base & 2nd electrodes moving along traverse
lower level of cumulative errors & confusing
polarity
Disadvantage of transporting long wire
 Interpretation of SPs Data
SP anomalies are often interpreted qualitatively by
– Profile shape
– Amplitude
– Polarity (+ or ‐)
– Contour pattern
Top of ore body is assumed to lie directly beneath
position of minimum potential.
Interpretation of SPs cont’d
For quantitative interpretation, it is possible to
calculate the potential distributions around
polarized bodies of simple shape, such as
sphere, ellipsoid, and dipole, by making some
simplifications and assumptions concerning
the potential on the surface of the sources
SP profiles over buried polarized rod
SP profiles over buried sphere
SP profile over a
landfill
SP anomaly over a
closed landfill ,
showing the typical
larger anomalies
associated with the
landfill boundaries
compared with those
observed in the
interior