3/16/2009

Instractor:
Eyassu Tesfamariam (PhD)

Assist. Instractor:
Sophonyas Asrat(BSc)

Course contents
y Highway route selection
y factors
f considered
d d in highway
h h route selection
l
y Steps in highway route selection
y Geometric design of highways:
y Design controls and criteria
y Functional classification systems of highways
y Vehicle and driver characteristics
y Highway cross‐section elements:
y Lane and shoulders, sidewalks, medians, and p pedestrian crossings
g
y Elements of geometric design:
y Horizontal alignment, Transition and super‐elevation, Vertical
alignment, Sight distance, Intersections and Interchanges
y Earthwork quantities and mass‐haul diagram
y Drainage and drainage structures

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Vehicle performance
Road vehicle performance
y Forms the basis for highway design guidelines
y The determination of the length of freeway acceleration and
deceleration lanes
y Maximum highway grades
y Stopping /passing sight distances
y It is a major consideration in
y The design
g of traffic control devices
y Determination of speed limits
y The timing and control of traffic signal systems
y It forms the basis to access the impact of advances in
vehicle technologies

Vehicle performance (Cont…)

Performance of road vehicle is determined byy two
opposing forces:
y Tractive effort
y Force available at the road surface to perform work (N)
y Resistance
y The force impeding vehicle motion (N)
y Aerodynamic resistance
y Rolling resistance (surface‐tire interface)
y Grade / gravitational resistance
y Inertia resistance
y Curve resistance

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Vehicle performance (Cont…)

Forces acting on a road vehicle

Vehicle performance (Cont…)

Forces acting on a road vehicle

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Vehicle performance (Cont…)

Vehicle performance (Cont…)

y Resistance
y Aerodynamic resistance
y A function of the frontal cross‐sectional area of the vehicle
and the square of the vehicle speed.

y Equation:

y Fa = air
i resistance
i (N
(Newtons))
y CD = aerodynamic drag coeficient
y A = frontal cross‐sectional area (m2)
y ρ = air density (kg/m3)
y v = vehicle velocity (m/sec)

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Vehicle performance (Cont…)

y Rolling
g resistance
y Higher on low quality pavement surfaces
y Increases with increase in vehicle speed
y Decreases with higher tire inflation pressure

y Equation:

y Fr = rolling resistance (Newton, N)

y fr = coefficient of rolling resistance (unitless)
y Wn = vehicle weight acting normal to roadway surface (N)
y v = vehicle speed(m/sec)

Vehicle performance (Cont…)

y Grade / gravitational resistance
y A component of the gravitational force (parallel to the
roadway) acting on the vehicle

y Equation:
Æ for small grades
y G = grade (m/m),
[defined as the vertical rise per horizontal distance]
e.g. A roadway that rises 5 m vertically per 100 m
horizontally is said to have a 5% grade ⇒ G = 0.05

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Vehicle performance (Cont…)

y Inertia resistance
y the tendency of a body to resist acceleration

y Equation:
y Fi = force required to overcome a vehicle inertia (N)
y m = vehicle mass (kg)
From physics:
(m/sec2) A body at rest or set in motion remains
y a = acceleration (
at rest or in motion in a straight line
unless acted by some force.
y Curve resistance
y The force required to cause a vehicle to move along a
curved path (Rc)

Vehicle performance (Cont…)

y Basic equation of vehicle motion

Power requirements
y Power:‐ rate at which work is done

y Equation:
y P = power required to overcome the various resistances and
to propel a vehicle (Watts)
y R = sum of the various resistances (N)
R = Ra + Rr + Rg + Ri + Rc
y v = vehicle speed (m/sec)

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Vehicle performance (Cont…)

y Available tractive effort ((F))
Available force to overcome resistance and/or to accelerate the vehicle
y It is the lesser of the following two tractive efforts…

y Maximum tractive effort (N)

y a limiting value beyond which tire spinning begins

y Engine‐generated tractive effort

Engine outputs:‐
y Torque: work generated by engine – twisting moment (N‐m)
y Power: the rate of engine work (hp, kW)

Vehicle performance (Cont…)

y Maximum tractive effort (N)
y a limiting value beyond which tire spinning begins
y Max tractive effort
Fmax = μ ⋅ Wn
y Equations:
y moment about point A/B

y Rear‐wheel‐drive

y Front‐wheel‐drive

Vehicle force and moment‐

generating distances

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Vehicle performance (Cont…)

Maximum tractive effort (N)

μ = coefficient of road adhesion

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Vehicle performance (Cont…)

y Engine
Engine‐generated
generated tractive effort
Engine outputs:‐
y Torque: work generated by engine – twisting moment (N‐m)

y Power: the rate of engine work (hp, kW)

y Relationship: power – torque

y Pe = engine‐generated power (kW)

y Me = engine torque (N‐m)
y ne = engine speed in crankshaft (rev/sec)

Vehicle performance (Cont…)

y Engine‐generated tractive effort (Cont…)
y Equations:

y Fe = engine generated tractive effort reaching the

drive wheels (N)
y Me = engine torque (N‐m)
y εo = overall gear reduction ratio
y ηd = mechanical efficiency of the driveline (0.75 – 0.95)
y r = radius
di off the
th drive
d i wheels
h l (m)
( )

y V = vehicle speed (m/sec)

y ne = engine speed in crankshaft (rev/sec)
y i = slippage of the driveline (0.02 – 0.05)

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Vehicle performance (Cont…)

y Vehicle acceleration

y Equation: Fnet = F − ∑ R = γ m ma
γ m = 1.04 + 0.0025 ⋅ ε o2
y F = available tractive effort (the lesser of Fe and Fmax)
y γm = the mass factor

y Note:
y If Fnet = 0, then there is no acceleration, the vehicle is at its
maximum speed for specified conditions (grade, air density, engine
torque, etc…)
If Fnet > 0, then the vehicle is travelling at a speed less than its
maximum speed

Vehicle performance (Cont…)

y Example:
y A car is travelling at 16.1 km/hr on a roadway covered with hard
packed snow (coefficient of road adhesion of 0.20). The car has CD =
0.30, Af = 1.86 m2, and W = 13.34 KN. The wheel base is 3.048 m, and
the centre of gravity is 508 mm above the roadway surface and 1.27 m
behind the front axle. The air density is 1.054 kg/m3. the car’s engine
is producing 128.8 N‐m of torque and is in a gear that gives an overall
gear reduction ratio of 4.5 to 1, the wheel radius is 356 mm, and the
mechanical efficiency of the driveline is 80%. If the driver needs to
accelerate quickly to avoid an accident,
accident what would the acceleration
be if the car is
(a) front wheel drive and
(b) rear wheel drive.
y

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Velocity V = 16.1 km/hr

⇒ v = 16.1(1000/3600) = 4.472 m/s
Coefficient of road adhesion μ = 0.2
y Solution:
ffi i t C D = 0.3
D coefficien
Drag
Frontal area A f = 1.86 m 2
Vehicle weight W = 13.34 KN = 13340 N
Wheel base L = 3.048 m
Given:
l f = 1.27 m , lr = 1.778 m
Height y h = 508 mm = 0.508 m
g of centre of ggravity
Air density ρ = 1.054 kg/m 3
h
Engine torque M e = 128.8 N - m
L
Gear reduction ratio ε 0 = 4.5
lf
Radius of drive wheels r = 356 mm = 0.356 m
Efficiency of driveline η d = 0.8

Vehicle performance (Cont…)

The basic equation : Fnet = F − ∑ R = γ m ma
Calculation of resistance forces
∑R = R a + Rr + Rg ; Rg = 0
ρ ⋅v 2
Ra = C D A f , v = 16.1×1000 / 3600 = 4.472 m/s
2
Ra = (0.3)(1.86)(1.054)(4.472) 2 / 2 = 5.88 N
⎛ v ⎞ ⎛ 4.472 ⎞
Rr = f r ⋅ Wn , f r = 0.01⎜1 + ⎟ = 0.01⎜1 + ⎟ = 0.011
⎝ 44.73 ⎠ ⎝ 44.73 ⎠
Rr = 0.011× 13340 = 146.74 N
∑ R = 5.88 + 146.74 = 152.62 N

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F = available tractive effort (the lesser of Fe and Fmax )

a ) Engine generated tractive effort
M eε oη d (128.8)(4.5)(0.8)
Fe = = = 1302.47 N
r 0.356
b) Maximum tractive effort
i) Front - wheel - drive
μW (lr + f rl h) / L
Fmax = =
1 + μh / L
(0.2)(13340)(1.778 + 0.011× 0.508) / 3.048
= = 1510.86 N
1 + (0.2)(0.508) / 3.048
ii) Rear - wheel - drive
μW (l f − f rl h) / L
Fmax = =
1 − μh / L
(0.2)(13340)(1.27 − 0.011× 0.508) / 3.048
= = 1144.94 N
1 − (0.2)(0.508) / 3.048

Vehicle performance (Cont…)

y Solution:
Fnet = F − ∑ R = γ m ma
The mass factor γ m = 1.04 + 0.0025 ⋅ ε o2
= 1.04 + (0.0025 × 4.52 ) = 1.091
F −∑R
⇒ a=
γ mm
1302.47 − 152.62
i) Front - wheel - drive a= = 0.775 m/s 2
1.09(13340 / 9.8)
1144.94 − 152.62
ii) Rear - wheel - drive a= = 0.669 m/s 2
1.09(13340 / 9.8)
Exercise:
Calculate the max gradient that the vehicle can ascend at a velocity of 50 km/hr, all
other factors remaining the same. (Ans. Front‐wheel G = 8.0%, Rear‐wheel G = 6.8%)

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Vehicle performance (Cont…)

y Exercises:
y (1) A 8.9 KN car has CD = 0.40, Af = 1.86 m2, and an available tractive
effort of 1.134 KN. If the car is travelling at an elevation of 1524 m (ρ =
1.0567 kg/m3) on a paved surface at a speed of 112.6 km/hr, what is
the maximum grade that this car could ascend and still maintain the
112.6 km/hr speed?
(Hint: ma = 0)

y (2) A 11.1 KN car is designed with a 3.048 m wheelbase. The centre of

gravity is located 559 mm above the pavement and 1.12 m behind the
front axle. If the coefficient of road adhesion is 0.6, what is the
maximum tractive effort that can be developed if the car is (a) front
wheel drive and (b) rear wheel drive.

Vehicle performance (Cont…)

y Solution ((1):
) F −∑R = 0 ⇒ F = Ra + Rr + Rg
ρ ⋅v 2

Given : Ra = C D A f
2
W = 8.9 KN = 8900 N
= (0.4)(1.86)(1.0567)(31.28) 2 / 2 = 384.56 N
C D = 0.4 , A f = 1.86 m 2
⎛ 31.28 ⎞
F = 1.134 KN = 1134 N Rr = f r ⋅ W ; f r = 0.01⎜1 + ⎟ = 0.017
⎝ 44.73 ⎠
ρ = 1.0567 kg/m 3 = (0.017)(8900) = 151.23 N
V = 112.6 km/hr Rg = WG = 8900G
⇒ v = 112.6(1000/3600)
= 31.28 m/s
∑ R = 384.56 + 151.23 + 8900G
⇒ F = 1134 = ∑ R
⇒ G = 0.0672 ( g = 6.72%)

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Vehicle performance (Cont…)

y Solution ((2):
)
Given :
W = 11.1 KN = 11100 N
L = 3.048 m
l f = 1.12 m , → lr = 1.928 m
h = 559 mm = 0.559 m
μ = 0.6
Fmax = ??

0
⎛ v ⎞
f r = 0.01⎜1 + ⎟ = 0.01
⎝ 44.73 ⎠

Vehicle performance (Cont…)

y Solution ((2):
)
Maximum tractive effort Fmax
i) Front - wheel - drive
μW (lr + f rl h) / L
Fmax = =
1 + μh / L
(0.6)(11100)(1.928 + 0.01× 0.559) / 3.048
= = 3806.15 N
1 + (0.6 × 0.559) / 3.0
048
8
ii) Rear - wheel - drive
μW (l f − f rl h) / L
Fmax = =
1 − μh / L
(0.6 ×11100)(1.12 − 0.01× 0.559) / 3.048
= = 2736.11 N
1 − (0.6 × 0.559) / 3.048

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Driver characteristics
y Highways
g y must be designed
g to accommodate drivers
with a wide range of differences in ages (young and
old) and driving skills (experience)

y Driver perception and reaction (PRT)

y Detection Æ Identification Æ Decision Æ Response
y Expected Event: 0.6
0 6 sec to 22.0
0 sec
Used to calculate SSD
y Unexpected Event: 1.0 sec to 2.7 sec
y Expected Complex Situation: 3.5 sec –4.5 sec
y The less expected a design feature is, the longer it takes a
driver to react to it

Driver characteristics (Cont…)

y Good design practice
y Design to 95th – 99th percentile drivers
y Improve sight distance KEY

y Simplify intersections
y Reduce conflicts in traffic
y Improve signals at intersections
y Improve signs
y Provide more redundant information

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Driver characteristics (Cont…)

y Driver information needs
y In order to make sound decisions, a driver must receive reliable and
understandable information to reduce uncertainty

y Driver activities Guidance tasks

y Control Road/Lane Following
y Steering – Speed Control
y Speed control – Obstacle Avoidance
y Guidance (more complex) Car Followingg (more complex)
p
y Road/lane following – Speed Control Modifications
y Safe path maintenance – Obstacle Avoidance
y Navigation (most complex) Passing Maneuvers (most complex)
y Trip planning – Road Following Modification
y Route Following – Speed Control Modifications
– Obstacle Avoidance

Traffic characteristics
y Traffic Volume
y AADT – Annual average daily traffic
y The average 24 hour traffic
volume at a given location over
a full year (365 days ), i.e., the
total number of vehicles passing
AADT
through the observation station
divided by 365 days.
365
Daily traffici
AADT = ∑
i 365

y ADT – Average daily traffic n

Daily traffic
ADT = ∑
i n

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Traffic characteristics
y Traffic Volume
y DHV – Design hourly volume
y The DHV represents the 30th highest hourly volume during a year
y DHV = 30HV (in average rural and urban areas*)
* An exception to the above occurs where seasonal traffic dominates
DHV forms the basis for planning, design and control

y 30HV – 30th average hourly volume of the year

y 30HV ≈ k * ADT = 0.15 ADT (for average rural roads, recom. 12 – 18 %)
y 30HV ≈ k * ADT = 0.10 ADT (for average urban areas, recom. 8 – 12 %)

y k factor represents the percentage of traffic occurring during the peak

hour during an average weekday.

Traffic characteristics
y Traffic Volume
y DHV ‐ Design Hourly
Volume approximately 15%
of AADT usually determined
as the 30th highest hourly
volume. This means over
99% of annual traffic
volume are less than the
DHV.
y The selection of an
appropriate hour for
planning, design, and
operational purposes is a
compromise between
providing an adequate level
of service (LOS) and
economic efficiency

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Traffic characteristics
y DDHV – Directional design hourly volume
y DHV = 30HV * D , where:
D = % of traffic in the peak direction during the design hour

NB: For two‐way rural highway, the DHV is total traffic in both
directions of travel, in the design of 2+ lane highways, directional
distribution of traffic needs to be considered.

y Directional distribution (D)

y The directional distribution (D) ranges from 55 to 80 percent with an
average value of 67 percent for rural roads
y The directional distribution (D) for urban facilities tends to
approximate an equal split in each direction (D = .50)

Traffic characteristics
y Composition of Traffic
y Essential in the determination of design volume
The composition of heavy vehicles
(T) in the traffic stream during the
Percent of two-way hourly vehicular flow

Passenger car
design hour typically varies from 5 80

to 10 percent but in some cases can

60
be as high as 25 percent
40

y Passenger Car Unit (PCU)

Percentage of trucks and buses 20

need to be identified and adjust truck

bus
to equivalent passenger Cars (pcu)
in calculation of design volume. 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Hour of the day

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