Module 5: Bio fertilizers & Plant protection chemicals
Biofertilizers – Biological control of pests – integrated pest management (IPM) –
Genetically modified crops – outline of the process of modifying – their advantages
and disadvantages.
Plant protection chemicals – definition of toxicity and LD50 values.
Pesticides – Insecticides, Fungicides, Herbicides, Acaricides – definition with
examples – Preparation and uses of some pesticides: DDT, BHC (Gammexane),
Chlordane, Dithiocarbamates, Dalapon, Alachlor, Parathion, Malathion – general
methods of application – Safety measures when using pesticides
Bio fertilizers
A biofertilizer is a substance which contains living micro-organisms which,
when applied to seeds, plant surfaces, or soil, colonize the rhizosphere or
the interior of the plant and promotes growth by increasing the supply or
availability of primary nutrients to the host plant
Biofertilizers such as Rhizobium,
Azotobacter, Azospirilium and blue green
algae (BGA) have been in use a long time.
Rhizobium inoculant is used for
leguminous (beans, peas, and lentils)
crops.
Azotobacter can be used with crops like
wheat, maize, mustard, cotton, potato
and other vegetable crops.
Biological control or biocontrol is a method of controlling pests such as insects,
mites, weeds and plant diseases using other organisms.
It relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms, but
typically also involves an active human management role.
Biological control has the advantage of being effective, environmentally friendly, and self-
sustaining. The plants, predators, and natural deterrents used in biological control are
called biological control agents.
When gardeners introduce lady bugs into their gardens to control aphid colonies, they’re
practicing biological control — in this instance, the lady bugs are the biological control
agents. Likewise, planting mint to keep spiders away from entrances, uses mint as the
biological control agent and is actually a form of conservation biocontrol, or habitat
manipulation.
•In the 1880s, California citrus farmers introduced the Australian
vedalia beetle to their plantations in an effort to decrease and
control the population of cottony cushion scales in the area. The
success of this example of classical biological control allowed the
citrus industry in California to boom.
•Nematodes that target insects have been used by farmers to
control the populations of vine weevils. Specifically,
Heterorhabditis bacteriophora nematodes, which release bacteria
in the soil that infect and kill vine weevils, are used.
•A spray of the entomopathogenic virus CpgV has been used
successfully to control the population of codling moths, which
infest apples and pears making them unsuitable for eating.
Integrated pest management (IPM)
Integrated pest management, also known as integrated pest control
is a broad-based approach that integrates practices for economic
control of pests. IPM aims to suppress pest populations below the
economic injury level
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an effective and
environmentally sensitive approach to pest management that
relies on a combination of common-sense practices. IPM programs
use current, comprehensive information on the life cycles of pests
and their interaction with the environment.
IPM is an ecosystem-based strategy that focuses on long-term
prevention of pests or their damage through a combination of
techniques such as biological control, habitat manipulation,
modification of cultural practices, and use of resistant varieties
IPM Programs
1.Pest identification
2.Monitoring and assessing pest numbers and damage
3.Guidelines for when management action is needed
4.Preventing pest problems
5.Using a combination of biological, cultural, physical/mechanical
and chemical management tools
6.After action is taken, assessing the effect of pest management
IPM programs combine management approaches for greater
effectiveness
The most effective, long-term way to manage pests is by using a
combination of methods that work better together than separately.
Approaches for managing pests are often grouped in the following
categories.
Biological control is the use of natural enemies—predators,
parasites, pathogens, and competitors—to control pests and their
damage. Invertebrates, plant pathogens, nematodes, weeds, and
vertebrates have many natural enemies.
Cultural controls are practices that reduce pest establishment,
reproduction, dispersal, and survival. For example, changing
irrigation practices can reduce pest problems, since too much water
can increase root disease and weeds.
Mechanical and physical controls kill a pest directly, block pests out, or
make the environment unsuitable for it. Traps for rodents are examples
of mechanical control. Physical controls include mulches for weed
management, steam sterilization of the soil for disease management, or
barriers such as screens to keep birds or insects out.
Chemical control is the use of pesticides. In IPM, pesticides are used
only when needed and in combination with other approaches for
more effective, long-term control. Pesticides are selected and applied
in a way that minimizes their possible harm to people, nontarget
organisms, and the environment. With IPM you'll use the most
selective pesticide that will do the job and be the safest for other
organisms and for air, soil, and water quality; use pesticides in bait
stations rather than sprays; or spot-spray a few weeds instead of an
entire area
Genetically modified crops
Genetically modified crops are plants used in agriculture, the DNA
of which has been modified using genetic engineering methods.
Plant genomes can be engineered by physical methods or by use of
Agrobacterium for the delivery of sequences hosted in T-DNA
binary vectors.
The transfer DNA (T-DNA) is the transferred DNA of the tumor-inducing plasmid of some
species of bacteria such as Agrobacterium tumefaciens and Agrobacterium rhizogenes. The
T-DNA is transferred from bacterium into the host plant's nuclear DNA genome.
GM is a technology that involves inserting DNA into the genome of
an organism. To produce a GM plant, new DNA is transferred into
plant cells. Usually, the cells are then grown in tissue culture where
they develop into plants. The seeds produced by these plants will
inherit the new DNA.
The characteristics of all living organisms are determined by their genetic
makeup and its interaction with the environment. The genetic makeup of an
organism is its genome, which in all plants and animals is made of DNA. The
genome contains genes, regions of DNA that usually carry the instructions for
making proteins. It is these proteins that give the plant its characteristics. For
example, the colour of flowers is determined by genes that carry the
instructions for making proteins involved in producing the pigments that
colour petals.
Genetic modification of plants involves adding a specific stretch of DNA into
the plant’s genome, giving it new or different characteristics. This could
include changing the way the plant grows, or making it resistant to a
particular disease. The new DNA becomes part of the GM plant’s genome
which the seeds produced by these plants will contain.
Outline of the process of modifying
The first stage in making a GM plant requires transfer of DNA into a
plant cell. One of the methods used to transfer DNA is to coat the
surface of small metal particles with the relevant DNA fragment, and
bombard the particles into the plant cells. Another method is to use a
bacterium or virus. There are many viruses and bacteria that transfer
their DNA into a host cell as a normal part of their life cycle. For GM
plants, the bacterium most frequently used is called Agrobacterium
tumefaciens. The gene of interest is transferred into the bacterium and
the bacterial cells then transfer the new DNA to the genome of the
plant cells. The plant cells that have successfully taken up the DNA are
then grown to create a new plant. This is possible because individual
plant cells have an impressive capacity to generate entire plants. On
rare occasions, the process of DNA transfer can happen without
deliberate human intervention. For example the sweet potato contains
DNA sequences that were transferred thousands of years ago, from
Agrobacterium bacteria into the sweet potato genome.
Benefits of genetic engineering
>Genetic modification is a faster and more efficient way of getting the
same results as selective breeding.
>Improve crop yields or crop quality, which is important in developing
countries. This may help reduce hunger around the world.
>Develop herbicide resistance, which results in less herbicides being
used, as weeds are quickly and selectively killed.
>Insect and pest resistance can be developed. The plant produces
toxins, which would discourage insects from eating the crop.
>Sterile insects (impotent) could be created such as a mosquito. They
would breed, which would lead to infertile offspring. This may help
with spread of diseases, such as malaria, dengue fever and the Zika
virus.
Risks of genetic engineering
Transfer of the selected gene into other species.
Some people believe it is not ethical to interfere with nature in this
way.
Also, GM crop seeds are often more expensive and so people in
developing countries cannot afford them.
GM crops could be harmful, for example toxins from the crops have
been detected in some people’s blood.
GM crops could cause allergic reactions in people.
Pollen produced by the plants could be toxic and harm insects that
transfer it between plants.
Definition of toxicity and LD50 values.
Pesticide applicators should understand the hazards and risks associated with the
pesticides they use. Pesticides vary greatly in toxicity. Toxicity depends on the
chemical and physical properties of a substance, and may be defined as the quality
of being poisonous or harmful to animals or plants.
Pesticides have many different modes of action, but in general cause biochemical
changes which interfere with normal cell functions. The toxicity of any compound is
related to the dose. A highly toxic substance causes severe symptoms of poisoning
with small doses. A substance with a low toxicity generally requires large doses to
produce mild symptoms.
Even common substances like coffee or salt become poisons if large amounts are
consumed.Toxicity can be either acute or chronic.
• Acute toxicityis the ability of a substance to cause harmful effects which develop
rapidly following exposure, i.e. a few hours or a day.
• Chronic toxicityis the ability of a substance to cause adverse health effects
resulting from long-term exposure to a substance.
The toxicity of a pesticide can’t be changed but the risk of
exposure can be reduced with the use of proper personal
protective equipment (PPE), proper handling and application
procedures.
Measuring Acute Toxicity (LD50And LC50Values):
Acute toxicity of a pesticide refers to the effects from a single dose or
repeated exposure over a short time (e.g. one day), such as an
accident during mixing or applying pesticides.
Acute toxicity is measured by LD50and LC50 values.
The LD50value is the amount of pesticide (lethal dose) which kills 50%
of the test animals. These treatments are through the skin (dermal) or
through the mouth (oral). These values are given in milligrams per
kilogram of body weight of the animal (mg/kg body wt.). A pesticide
with a lower LD50 is more toxic than a pesticide with a higher number
because it takes less of the pesticide to kill half of the test animals.
The LC50value is a measure of the toxicity of a pesticide when test
animals breathe air mixed with pesticide dust, vapours or spray mist.
The LC50 is the concentration of pesticide which is lethal to 50% of a
population of test animals and is usually determined for a specific
exposure period (e.g. inhalation for 4 hours). The length of exposure
is important because shorter exposure periods generally require
higher pesticide concentrations to produce toxic effects. LC50 values
for pesticides in air are expressed as the ratio of pesticide to air, in
parts per million (ppm) or parts per billion (ppb). LC50 values are also
determined for fish and aquatic organisms based on the
concentration of pesticide in water.
