A research proposal on:

ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT OF TOMATO LEAF MINER EFFECT ON TOMATO

PRODUCTION AND CONTROL MEASURES IN EAST NAWALPARASI, NEPAL

Principle researcher: Ashish Pandey

Type of research: survey

Academic level: B.Sc. Ag.

Exam roll number: 1553

Email ID: ap1625461@gmail.com

Contact number: 9865508268

Responsible institute: Agriculture and Forestry University

Major supervisor: Dr. Rishi Ram Kattel

Associate professor

Agriculture Economics and Agribusiness Management Department

Mobile no: 9841373843

Email ID: rrkattel@afu.edu.np

Site supervisor: Bishnu Prasad Sharma

Senior Agriculture Officer

PMAMP, PIU

Vegetable zone

Mobile no.: 9857087031

Research locations: Kawasoti Municipality, Madhyabindu Municipality, Hupsekot Gaupalika

Internship duration: 5 months

Total budget: NRs 28,600.

Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY…………………………………………………………………...6

1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………..7

1.1 Background information…………………………………………………………………….7

1.1.1 Tomato…………………………………………………………………………….............7

1.1.2 Tuta absoluta………………………………………………………………………………7

1.2 Statement of the problem………………………………….....................................................8

1.3 Rationale of the Study……………………………………………………………………….9

1.4 Objectives……………………………………………………………………………………9

1.5 Scope and limitations………………………………………………………………………...9

2. LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………………………………..10

2.1 Tuta absoluta………………………………………………………………………………...10

2.2 Distribution in Nepal………………………………………………………………………...10

2.3 Economic loss and yield loss of Tuta absoluta in a global scenario………………………...11

2.4 Production loss estimation due to Tuta absoluta attack……………………………………..12

2.5 Cost of applying pesticides………………………………………………………………….12

2.6 Climate change impacts on Tuta absoluta…………………………………………………...13

2.6 Control measures…………………………………………………………………………….14

2.6.1 Sex pheromone-based control strategy……………………………………………………14

2.6.2 Good cultural practices…………………………………………………………………….14

2.6.3 Use of Physical and mechanical control measures………………………………………...15

2.6.4 Chemical control…………………………………………………………………………...15

2.6.5 Non-chemical control……………………………………………………………………...16

2.6.6 Strict quarantine measures………………………………………………………………..17

2.4.7 IPM approaches…………………………………………………………………………..17

3. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK…………………………………………………………18

4. METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………………………………19

4.1 Study Site…………………………………………………………………………………...19

4.2 Preliminary Survey………………………………………………………………………….20

4.3 Sample Size, sampling population, and sampling procedure……………………………….20

4.4 Source of data……………………………………………………………………………….20

4.4.1 Primary Data………………………………………………………………………………20

4.4.2 Secondary Source………………………………………………………………………….20

4.5 Survey Design and data collection…………………………………………………………..20

4.6 Pretesting of the Interview Schedule………………………………………………………...20

4.7 Field Survey………………………………………………………………………………….21

4.8 Focus group discussion……………………………………………………………………....21

4.9 Data Analysis………………………………………………………………………………...21

5. EXPECTED OUTCOMES…………………………………………………………………23

6. BENIFICIARIES……………………………………………………………………………23

7. RISK AND ASSUMPTION ………………………………………………………………..23

8. GANTT CHART…………………………………………………………………………….24

9. BUDGET SUMMARY………………………………………………………………………25

10. PROBLEM TREE AND OBJECTIVE TREE……………………………………………26

References………………………………………………………………………………………..28
LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Semi-structured Survey Schedule………………………………………………….30

Appendix 2: Logical Framework………………………………………………………………...34

ACRONYMS

ABPSD: Agri-Business Promotion and Statistics Division

AFU: Agriculture and Forestry University

APP: Agriculture Prospective Plan

ASC: Agriculture Service Center

CABI: Centre for Agricultural and Biosciences International

CBS: Central Bureau of Statistics

cm: centimeter

DADO: District Agricultural Development Office

EPPO: European Plant Protection Organization

F/Y: fiscal year

FGD: Focus Group Discussion

GDP: Gross Domestic Product

Ha: Hectare

IARI: Indian Agricultural Research Institute

IPM: Integrated Pest Management

Kg: Kilogram

Kg/ha: Kilogram per hectare

KII: Key Informant Interview

KIS: Key Informant Survey

M: meter

Masl: meters above sea level

Mm: millimeter

MoAD: Ministry of Agricultural Development

MOF: Ministry of Finance

MT: metric tons

NARC: National Agricultural Research Center

NGO: Non-Governmental Organization

SPSS: Statistical Package for Social Science.

TLM: Tomato Leaf Miner

USD: United States Dollar

VDC: Village Development Committee

WTO: World Trade Organization

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

One of the significant vegetable crops growing in East Nawalparasi is the tomato. The output of
tomatoes has been dwindling recently. Insect pests and disease infestations, a lack of timely input
availability, and a lack of sufficient water for timely irrigation are some of the causes of
declining tomato yields. The tomato leaf miner (Tuta absoluta) infestation has caused substantial
economic produce loss in the district over the past few years, among other insects, pests, and
illnesses. This study will make it easier to acquire data on the awareness of invasive species
among farmers, the financial effects of this insect pest on tomato output, and the management
techniques employed by farmers to manage this pest. This will help farmers who are missing
information about tomato cultivation spread information about tomato production and its
limitations. As a result, tomato production and productivity will naturally rise, increasing farmer
revenue and supporting farmers in improving their financial situation. A combination of primary
and secondary sources will be used to get the data. Pre-testing of the questionnaire will be done,
and methods for gathering data, such as household surveys, focus groups, and key informant
interviews, will be used. Next, using programs like MS Excel and SPSS, the data will be
analyzed. Farmers will be the survey's main beneficiaries, followed by PMAMP vegetable zones,
AKC, NGOs, INGOs, etc.
1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION

1.1.1 TOMATO
One of the main commercial horticulture crops grown in Nepal is Lycopersicum esculentum
(Ghimire et al., 2001). According to productivity and total cultivated area, Nepal is still ranked
third in the world (MoALD, 2020). According to MoAD (2015), the sector of vegetables is one
of the most important subsectors within the horticulture crops industry, which accounts for 17%
of the overall AGDP (Agricultural Gross Domestic Product). About 20,000 hectares of land are
used for tomato cultivation in Nepal, with an average production scale of 0.3 million metric tons,
or 15 tons per hectare, in the fiscal year 2013/14 (MoAD, 2014). This number has increased to
22,566 hectares with a productivity of 18 tons per hectare in the year 2018/19 (MoALD, 2020).
With the plastic house, tomato farmers may make a net profit of NRs 85,400 (about $700) per
ropani of land or $1,400 per hectare. In comparison to growing tomatoes in an open field, this
profit is two to three times more (Bhudathoki, 2006).

The tomato, Solanum lycopersicum, is a flowering plant of the nightshade family (Solanaceae)
and is cultivated extensively for its edible fruits. Tomato comes from the Spanish word "tomate".
It originated in the South American Andes, originated as a food source in Mexico, and spread
throughout the world following the Spanish colonization of America (PACT, 2014). Labeled as a
vegetable for nutritional purposes, tomatoes are a good source of vitamin C and the
phytochemical lycopene. The fruits are commonly eaten raw in salads, served as a cooked
vegetable, used as an ingredient in various prepared dishes, and pickled. Additionally, a large
percentage of the world's tomato crop is used for processing; products include canned tomatoes,
tomato juice, ketchup, puree, paste, and "sun-dried" tomatoes or dehydrated pulp. Tomato plants
are generally much branched, spreading 60–180 cm (24–72 inches), and somewhat trailing when
fruiting, but a few forms are compact and upright. Leaves are more or less hairy, strongly
odorous, pinnately compound, and up to 45 cm (18 inches) long. The five-petalled flowers are
yellow, 2 cm (0.8 inches) across, pendant, and clustered. Fruits are berries that vary in diameter
from 1.5 to 7.5 cm (0.6 to 3 inches) or more. They are usually red, scarlet, or yellow, though
green and purple varieties do exist, and they vary in shape from almost spherical to oval and
elongate to pear-shaped. Each fruit contains at least two cells of small seeds surrounded by jelly-
like pulp.

1.1.2 Tuta absoluta

The common names South American tomato pinworm, tomato leafminer, tomato pinworm, and
South American tomato moth are all used to refer to the moth species Tuta absoluta, which is a
member of the Gelechiidae family. It is well known as a significant pest of tomato crops in
Europe, southern Africa (Chidege, Hassan, Julie, Kaaya, and Mrogora, 2016), western Asia, and
South and Central America. The first record of the tomato leaf miner (Tuta absoluta) in Nepal
was made in the Kathmandu Valley in May 2016. (Bajracharya, Mainali, Bhat, Bista, Ashank,
and Mesheam, 2010). If control measures are not implemented, it can diminish the productivity
and quality of tomatoes in newly invaded areas by 80–100%, both in field and greenhouse
conditions.
1.1.2.1 Naming History
Edward Meyrick first identified Tuta absoluta as Phthorimaea absoluta in 1917 using specimens
gathered in Huancayo, Peru. Later, the pest was identified as Gnorimoschema absoluta,
Scrobipalpula absoluta, or Scrobipalpuloides absoluta (Povoln), although Povoln's description of
the pest as T. absoluta under the genus Tuta was made in 1994.
1.1.2.2 Morphology
Adults are 6–7 millimeters (1564–932 in) in length and present filiform antennae and silvery to
gray scales. Black spots are present on the anterior wings, and the females are wider and more
voluminous than the males. The adult moth has a wingspan of around 1 centimeter (38 in). In
favorable weather conditions, eight to ten generations can occur in a single year.
1.1.2.4 Host plant
Tomato is the main host plant, but T. absoluta also attacks other crop plants of the nightshade
family, including potato, eggplant, Pepino, pepper (Fernandez and Montage, 1990), and tobacco.
It is known from many solanaceous weeds, including Datura stramonium (Estay, 2000), Lycium
chilense, and Solanum nigrum.
1.2 Statement of the problem
The tomato leaf miner (Tuta absoluta) has intensified its occurrence in different parts of Nepal
and has become an indicator pest, causing severe losses in tomato production during its short
presence. Cultivation of tomatoes requires high attention and expenditure. Unlike other crops,
the production of tomatoes is very risky. There is great fluctuation in the price of tomatoes
during supply. Tomatoes worth 57,200 ha have been lost, which account for 25–30% of total
production (Sah, 2016). In Nepal, the potential losses due to this pest could reach 550 million per
annum (Poudel, 2017). Adults lay eggs on the underside of leaves, and larvae feed on leaves,
aerial fruits, or stems, creating conspicuous mines that may be invaded later by secondary
pathogens, leading to fruit rot (EPPO, 2005), which reduces the crop value. Infestation can
reduce yield and fruit by up to 80% (Desneur et al., 2010), which harms food security and the
farmers involved in tomato farming. However, most farmers are unaware of its life cycle, control
measures, and management strategies, which led to a significant reduction in the tomato yield in
their fields and how to effectively manage and control this pest while minimizing the impact on
the environment and human health. This involves identifying sustainable and effective methods
of controlling the pest, such as biological control, cultural control, and the use of
environmentally friendly insecticides that combine different control methods to achieve long-
term and effective control of the Tuta absoluta.

1.3 The rationale of the study

One of the most important vegetable crops is the tomato, which is grown all year in various parts
of our country. Growing tomatoes is a practical way to boost farm revenue and reduce pervasive
poverty. An emerging and invasive pest in Nepal is the tomato leaf miner. It is a terrible pest for
tomatoes. It is likely to result in a loss of 80–100% in tomato yield. Fear of crop loss owing to
this bug has demotivated tomato farmers in East Nawalparasi because it significantly harmed
tomato production and led to an increase in the usage of insecticides. Frequent pesticide use
results in hazardous products, poor sustainability concerns, serious human health concerns, and
increased production costs. There is an urgent need for immediate action and practical solutions
to control and manage this pest. The study will serve as a baseline for providing technical and
managerial solutions for PMAMP. The study will document the best management practices for
farmers that are economically and ecologically sound. Similarly, research and findings related to
farmer knowledge and management practices could be helpful for the concerned stakeholders.
1.4 Objectives
General objective
 To assess the tomato leaf miner's effect on tomato production and household economy,
Specific objective
 To estimate the potential losses by Tuta absoluta in yield and quality of tomato.
 To determine the cost of controlling Tuta absoluta on tomato crops.
 To compare the benefit-cost ratio with management and without management of Tuta
absoluta.
 To examine the impact of climate change on the distribution and prevalence of Tuta
absoluta, and evaluate the effectiveness of current control measures in managing farmers.

1.5 Scope and limitations

The fact that farmers are unable to get maximum production from agribusiness due to the
emergence of new pests on their crops is prevalent in most parts of our country. Tomato growers
in East Nawalparasi are no exception. There are the ravages of the devastating pest Tuta
absoluta, which spreads rapidly, causes considerable damage, and can ruin even a tomato crop.
The farmer is unable to give relevant information about the cost, income, losses, and market due
to a lack of knowledge about the records. Therefore, there is ample room to study current pests
and effective and environmentally sound management strategies to ensure sustainable tomato
products. The study provides an opportunity to assess the overall state of the tomato business in
the East Nawalparasi district and also helps create a marketable surplus for the district itself by
minimizing pest losses.

2 Literature Review
2.1 Tuta absoluta
The tomato is one of the most important vegetable crops and an important income source in
Nepal. Many insects and pests that cause high economic losses attack it. Tuta absoluta (Meyrick,
1917) is one of the most important and serious pests of tomatoes; it also attacks solanaceous
plants. It belongs to the family Gelechiidae. It is a highly destructive pest. It is also known as the
tomato leaf miner (TLM). It can reduce yield and quality by 80–100% in newly invaded areas,
both in field and greenhouse conditions, if control measures are not taken (Sah, 2017). Tomato
leaf miner larvae feed on the leaves, buds, stem, and fruit of the tomato. It mainly attacks the
leaf, and on advancement, it affects the other parts. Fruit rot occurs due to secondary pathogen
invasion in fruits bored by the insect.
The South American tomato leaf miner (Tuta absoluta) is native to South America and present in
Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela
(EPPO, Tuta absoluta. Data sheets on quarantine pest, 2005). It was first detected in eastern
Spain at the end of 2006 and then spread to the European and North African Mediterranean
Basin countries. It has been reported from Italy in 2008 (EPPO, 2009b), from Turkey in August
2009, and from Iraq in 2010 by Abdul-Razzak. The first reports of the pest in Greece and Cyprus
were in July 2009 and November 2009, respectively (Roditakis & Seraphides, 2011). The earliest
report of this pest in the UK was in March 2009, and in July an outbreak of the pest was reported
in the same year in the UK (Gorman et al., 2011). It was detected in Sudan in 2010, and the
invasion subsequently crossed the Sahara desert and was found in Kenya in 2014 (Maroo, 2015).
It was first detected in Ethiopia in 2012 (NAPPO, 2012). It has been recorded from Maharashtra
(India) and Nepal during October 2014 and May 2016, respectively (Bajracharya, Mainali, Bhat,
Bista, Shashank, & Meshram, 2016). This pest spreads rapidly, and its status in the world has
completely changed from a South American tomato pest to a major threat to tomato production
worldwide within a few years.
2.2 Distribution in Nepal
Tuta absoluta has been recently reported on a tomato farm for the first time in Nepal and
identified as Tuta absoluta in May 2016 from the farmer's field in Balaju (IARPS, 2016).
Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, Kavreplanchowk, and Dhading districts have confirmed their
presence (JUNIOR, 2016). Tomatoes imported into Nepal to fulfill the demand of the
Kathmandu Valley could be a probable source of entry for South American tomato leaf miners in
Nepal. Among the surveyed area, the pest was found only in one location (SopyangKhola),
which lies near Kathmandu in Dhading but was not found in areas away from Kathmandu Valley
from the same district (Gajuri, Benighat, and Dhusa-10). Tuta absoluta was recorded at an
altitude ranging from 725 masl (Sopyang Khola) to 1664 masl (Tukucha Nala). The highest
infestation of South American tomato leaf miners was recorded in Kavrepalanchowk district's
Ugrachandi Nala-2 and Panchakhal. From Tarakeshwor-9 of Kathmandu district and
Kamalbinayak-4 of Bhaktapur district, more than 50% of the infestation was found. It was found
that this insect is spreading from Kathmandu Valley into its vicinity (NARC, 2016).
2.3 Economic loss and yield loss of Tuta absoluta in a global scenario
The economic assessment of Tuta absoluta on tomato production will depend on several factors,
including the severity of the infestation, the tomato variety, and the specific pest management
strategies that can help mitigate the economic impact of Tuta absoluta on tomato production, and
reduce the risk of significant losses of tomato farmers. Economic losses caused by Tuta absoluta
in tomatoes have been reported to be up to 100% in some African countries, most notably Sudan,
Kenya, and Ethiopia. Chidege et al. (2016) reported yield losses of 80–100% by this pest in
Northern and Western African countries. EPPO (2008a) reported up to 100 percent losses in
tomato crops planted in Valencia during the winter. In 2016, it destroyed 80% of Nigeria's
tomatoes, causing newspapers to declare a "tomato emergency" (Poudel, 2017). According to
Sah (2017), the pest is likely to cause an 80–100% loss in tomato yield and a financial loss of
more than USD 50 million. According to Muniappan (2015), Tuta absoluta had already infested
1.0 M ha of tomato-cultivated area in 2011 (22% of the total cultivated surface) out of 4.4 M.
Pesticides were applied 15 times per season in Spain in the first year, and the cost increased by
450 euros per hectare due to the use of expensive insecticides (Muniappan, 2015). If T. absoluta
infests the rest of the world, tomato pest management costs will rise by $500 million per year
(Muniappan, 2015). Due to the fear of crop failure due to this pest, farmers are demotivated in
tomato farming because of increased costs and losses in tomato production (Sah, 2017).
Relative yield loss (RYL) = 100× [(Ya˗Y) / Ya ]. (Zadoks, 1985)
Where, Ya = attainable yield and Y = actual yield
YL = Ya – Y
Ya = f (PS)
 Pest

Injuries

PS Ya

Yield loss
Y

Figures. Relationship between production situation (PS), attainable yield (Ya), actual yield (Y),
and yield loss (YL) (Willocquet et al., 1988).

2.4 Production loss estimation due to Tuta absoluta attack

Estimating production losses due to Tuta absoluta attack is important for growers and
policymakers to understand the economic impact of the pest and to make informed decisions
about pest management strategies so the production losses from Tuta absoluta attack can vary
depending on the severity of the infestation, the stage of the crop, and the management practices
employed (Guerrieri, E., Lingua, G., Digilio, M. C., Berta, G., & Massa, N. (2016). To determine
the production loss, farmers were asked to provide an estimate of their current production
(farmer recall), as well as the potential production had they not had Tuta absoluta (farmer
prediction) for the previous season. The production loss (%) was then estimated as the relative
change between both production values per year (Abrahams et al., 2017; Day et al., 2017). On
average, farmers reported a higher production loss due to Tuta absoluta in Zambia (mean 57%,
lower quartile 40%, upper quartile 75%) than in Kenya (mean 41%, lower quartile 24%, upper
quartile 56%) (Rwomushana, I., Beale, T., Chipabika, G., and Day, R., Gonzalez-Moreno, P.,
Lamontagne-Godwin, J., Makale, F., Pratt, C. and Tambo, J. (2019).

2.5 Cost of applying pesticides

The cost of applying pesticides on tomato leaf miners can vary depending on several factors,
such as the type of pesticide used, the size of the infested area, and the method of application (E.
Lewis et al., in Journal of Environmental Management (2019). Insecticides were the main control
method for Tuta absoluta, used by 96.5% of farmers in Kenya and 97.6% of farmers in Zambia,
of which 6.4% used highly toxic products ( Rwomushana, I., Beale, T., Chipabika, G., and Day,
R., Gonzalez-Moreno, P., Lamontagne-Godwin, J., Makale, F., Pratt, C. and Tambo, J. (2019).
However, only 27.2% and 17.2% of farmers in Kenya and Zambia reported that their pesticide
treatments were very successful. In Kenya, 73.1% of farmers applied 1-5 times per season, while
in Zambia 29.2% applied 1-5 times, and 33.9% applied 6-10 times per season. The average
expenditure on anti-ivy absoluta pesticides per household was US$47.2, about US$33.7/ha in
Kenya, while in Zambia, this cost was US$42.1 per household and US$9.4 per hectare Bottom.
The average cost of a single pesticide application for Kenyan ivy absoluta was US$12.3 in
Zambia and US$4.2 in Zambia. The implications of these results for the sustainable management
of this pest are debated

2.6 Climate change impacts on Tuta absoluta

Tomato leaf miner, or Tuta absoluta, is a highly destructive pest that can cause significant
damage to tomato crops. The impact of this pest on tomato production has been well
documented, but there is growing concern about how climate change may be affecting its
distribution, population dynamics, and management.

i. Impact of Temperature

Temperature is a key factor in the life cycle and distribution of tomato leaf miner. Several studies
have found that temperature increases can lead to more rapid development and higher
reproductive rates of the pest, which can result in larger infestations and greater damage to
tomato crops (Sato et al., 2018; Arthurs et al., 2019). Warmer temperatures can also lead to
earlier emergence and longer breeding periods of the pest, which can increase the number of
generations per year and lead to greater overall damage (Desneux et al., 2010).

ii. Impact of Rainfall

Rainfall patterns can also affect the distribution and infestation levels of tomato leaf miner.
Excessive rainfall can create conditions that are favorable for fungal infections, which can
weaken tomato plants and make them more susceptible to pest infestations (Nwanze et al., 2017).
Prolonged drought conditions can also stress plants and make them more vulnerable to insect
damage, which can increase pest infestations (Castañeda et al., 2017).

iii. Impact of Humidity

Humidity is another important factor that can affect the population dynamics and management of
tomato leaf miner. High humidity can increase the survival and reproductive rates of the pest, as
well as create conditions that are favorable for fungal infections (Picanço et al., 2015). This can
lead to larger infestations and greater damage to tomato crops. However, low humidity can also
be problematic, as it can lead to the desiccation of eggs and pupae, which can reduce pest
populations but also make them more resistant to insecticides (Liu et al., 2018).

iv. Management Strategies

Given the potential impact of climate change on tomato leaf miner infestations, it is important to
develop effective management strategies that can mitigate the economic and ecological impacts
of the pest. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a promising approach that involves combining
multiple control measures to reduce pest populations while minimizing the use of chemical
pesticides (Ferreira et al., 2020). This approach can include cultural practices (such as crop
rotation and sanitation), biological control (such as the use of natural enemies), and chemical
control (such as the judicious use of insecticides). In addition, the use of resistant tomato
varieties and regular monitoring for signs of pest infestation can help to reduce the impact of
tomato leaf miner on crop yields (Pazini et al., 2019).

2.7 Control measures

Tuta absoluta is challenging to control because of its biology and behavior. In our country, Tuta
absoluta has already been introduced and is spreading throughout the country; it is now seen in
the east Nawalparasi district. The complete eradication of this pest is impossible. However, many
control measures are being discovered to control it. The management package for pests includes
cultural, physical, mechanical, quarantine, biotechnological, biological, chemical, and IPM
methods. The control methods for this pest are as follows:
2.7.1 Sex Pheromone-based Control Strategy
The pheromone traps can be used for pest detection, population monitoring, mass annihilation,
and mating disruption (Megido, Haubruge, & Verheggen, 2013). In the case of mass trapping, a
higher number of traps are placed for higher captures, which is an option for both open-field
production and greenhouse production. Control condition treatments should be carried out
primarily with biorational products, such as Bacillus thuringiensis and Azadirachtin if the
pheromone trap catches less than ten moths per trap per week (Anonymous, 2016, Guidelines for
the control of Tuta absoluta). If the number exceeds, treatments are recommended to be carried
out by combining biological insecticides with synthetic chemical insecticides. A research study
conducted by El-Aassar, Soliman, and Elaal (2015) in Egypt showed promising results when
sex-pheromone was combined with other pesticides in controlling an infestation of tomatoes by
Tuta absoluta.
2.7.2 Good cultural practices
Good agricultural practices regarding the control of Tuta absoluta include the following:
 Cropping non-solanaceous crops, preferably cruciferous crops, to avoid pest carryover
(Koppert, 2009)
 Deep plowing and exposure to the sun
  Soil solarization for at least 4–5 weeks eliminates pupa that remains on the ground in
greenhouse conditions (Info Agro System, 2009)
 Adequate irrigation and fertilization
 Use of plastic mulch to reduce pupation in the soil
 removal of infested plants and wild solanaceous host plants to prevent the buildup of a
potential population reservoir (Koppert, 2009)
 Complete removal of post-harvest plant debris and fruit Elimination and burning of
infected plants during the growing season and of the remnants of the crop immediately
after the harvest of the last fruits
 keeping a good planting distance between rows, not having to crowd plants for the
removal of weeds, and keeping the area clean of harmful residues
 use of healthy tomato seedlings from healthy nurseries with no signs of pests and
accompanied by a plant passport
In the case of greenhouse conditions, all infected plants should be cut from above the soil level
and left to dry out inside the greenhouse, followed by burning.
2.7.3 Use of Physical and mechanical control methods:
Greenhouses should be fitted with insect exclusion nets throughout, with double doors capable of
being sealed tightly. Any openings or gaps in the structure should be avoided. Human traffic
from infested to non-infested greenhouses should be avoided, and growers should make sure that
live adult moths are not present before entering greenhouses (Anonymous, 2016; Guidelines for
the Control of Tuta absoluta). The mechanical method usually involves the operation of
machinery developed for pest management purposes. Traps used are:
 Pan traps/Wota-T traps
 Delta traps
 Light traps
 Sticky traps
These methods can be integrated with other methods of pest control (cultural, chemical, and
biological) or can even replace the use of synthetic chemical insecticides in pest management.
2.7.4 Chemical control
Chemical control has been the main control measure used since the pest was reported
(Anonymous, 2016, Guidelines for the control of Tuta absoluta). In Brazil, abamectin, cartap,
chlorfenapyr, phenthoate, methamidophos, spinosad, and indoxacarb were recommended for use
in the southern, southeastern, and Savannah tomato-growing regions, while chlorfenapyr,
phenthoate, and spinosad were recommended for use in the eastern region (IRAC, 2007).
Indoxacarb, spinosad, imidacloprid, deltamethrin, and Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki were
applied for the control of larval infestations in Spain (FERA, 2009b; Russell IPM, 2009b).
Indoxacarb and BT were recommended for use in France (Fredon-Corse, 2009a). Unfortunately,
farmers' frequent and intensive application of insecticide has resulted in pest resistance. The non-
judicious application of insecticides can lead to the development of resistance. In Bolivia and
Chile. Tuta absoluta was reported to be resistant to organophosphates in the early to mid-1980s.
Resistance to carbapenem, abamectin, permethrin, and methamidophos (Siqueira et al., 2000,
2000b), and acephate and deltamethrin (Branco et al., 2001), has been reported in Brazil. To
avoid this, insecticides should not be used early in the cropping season or when signs of Tuta
absoluta are absent. Low infestations should be controlled with the minimal application
frequency possible of chemical insecticides. Recommended chemical pesticides to use against
Tuta absoluta in Nepal are:
 i .Chlorantraniliprole (Coragen, Allcora) 18.5% SC 3 ml/10 lit
Waiting period: 7 days
Registered: PPD KISAN PERSUAP PAHAL PERSUAP
ii .Spinosad (Tracer): 45% SC, IM, 3 lit
Waiting period: 7 days
Registered: PPD PAHAL PERSUAP
Source: IDE Nepal, 2017.

2.7.5 Non-chemical control

i. Botanical pesticides
Neem oil (Azadiractin) is a systemic or contact insecticide. The neem plant contains several
active metabolites, such as alkaloids, which can control insect pests (Zekeya, Ndakidemi,
Chacha, & Mbega, 2016). It is used when there is a low infestation of Tuta absoluta larvae on
the tomato plant. The use of Bacillus thuringiensis is recommended at low-medium infestation
levels in conjunction with Azadiractin.
ii . Biological methods
a . Parasitoids
Trichogramma species parasitize the eggs of Tuta absoluta. Inundative releases of
Trichogramma toideabactrae in Argentina (Botto et al., 2009; Riquelme et al., 2006) and
Trichogramma achaeae in southeastern Spain (Cabello et al., 2009a) have controlled T. absoluta
in greenhouse-grown tomatoes. Of the larval parasitoids, the braconid Pseudapanteles dignus is
frequently found in parasitizing larvae in South America (Sanchez et al., 2009).

b. Predators
The eggs are the most dangerous part of the pest. Common predators against Tuta absoluta are
the mirid bugs Nesidiocoristenuis and Macrolophus pygmaeus in Europe, as they are large
consumers of the pest's eggs.
c. Entomopathogens
Bacillus thuringiensis, an entomopathogenic bacterium, has been used in the control of tomato
plant pests and reported by many authors as a very effective bioinsecticide (Youssef & Hassan,
2013). The entomopathogenic nematodes Steinernema carpocapsar, Steinernema feltiae, and
Heterorhabditis bacteriophora are capable of infecting late larval instars of Tuta absoluta and are
used in its control (Gözel & Kasap, 2015). Several fungal species, like Metarhizium anisopliae
and Beauveria bassiana, are reported to attack the eggs, larvae, and adults of the pest. Studies
have revealed up to 54% mortality of T. absoluta adults by M. anisopliae (Pires et al., 2009,
2010).

2.7.6 Strict quarantine measures

The movement of infested seedlings, tools, and equipment from one place to another should be
strictly checked. For the effective control of T. absoluta, implement a monitoring program.
(Illakwahhi & Srivastava, 2017). The establishment of international, national, and regional
quarantine regulations is a must.

2.7.7 IPM approaches

The basis of effective and sustainable management of Tuta absoluta is the integration of cultural,
physical, mechanical, behavioral, biological, and chemical control. In Argentina, BT and
triflumuron were recommended for control of Tuta absoluta as part of an IPM program that also
included parasitoids (Riquelme, 2006). The following integrated pest management strategies can
be used for the control of Tuta absoluta:
 Clearing the soil and area of crop residues, fruits, and wild host plants,
 mass trapping before planting or upon planting,
 Elimination and burning of infected plants during the growing season and of the remnants
of the crop immediately after the last,
 The use of sulfur, neem oil, and Bacillus thuringiensis in conjunction with the
 application of either deltamethrin, spinosad, or indoxacarb
 As soon as there are more than 5 plants, spray a neem-based botanical pesticide or
biopesticide (Bt),
 One tuta moth is trapped per day in any of the pheromone traps.
 Alternate applications of botanical pesticides with biopesticides at a seven- to ten-day
interval (IDE Nepal, 2017).

3. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
 Tomato
Insect pest
and
diseases
Tomato leaf
miner
infestation
Correct
perception Effective
and impact control
of TLM measures

Increased tomato production

And productivity

4. Methodology
4.1 Study site
The sites used for the study were Kawasoti municipality, Madhyabindu municipality, and
Hupsekot rural municipality in East Nawalparasi District. These were purposefully selected since
these municipalities are areas of the vegetable zone under PM-AMP and were more prone to
Tuta infestation. In these areas, the majority of farmers have started vegetable production on a
commercial scale. The study was carried out in wards no. 4, 9, 12, and 13 of Kawasoti
municipality; wards no. 1, 2, 3, and 6 of Madhyabindu municipality; and wards no. 1, 2, 3, and 4
of Hupsekot rural municipality.

Research area

Figure 1. Map showing East Nawalparasi district and the study site

4.2 Preliminary Survey

Pre-survey field visits will be conducted to collect preliminary information about the site's
demographic, socio-cultural, and agricultural settings. This information will be used in preparing
questionnaires and designing a sampling framework.
4.3 Sample size, sampling population, and sampling procedure
Three municipalities namely Kawasoti, Madhyabindu, and Hupsekot will be selected for the
study .30 households from each municipality, will be selected making a total of 90 samples from
the sampling frame. The simple random sampling technique will be applied to draw the sample
from the population. Farmers cultivating tomatoes and practicing controlling measures for Tuta
absoluta will be the sampling unit for this study.
4.4 Sources of data
4.4.1 Primary Source
The primary source of data will be farmers, and a field survey will be conducted to collect the
data. A field survey will be conducted through a structured and semi-structured questionnaire,
important data will be collected by focus group discussion, direct observation, and key informant
interviews.
4.4.2 Secondary source
Secondary information will be collected from related journals, research articles, books,
newspapers, and reports of the vegetable Zone, PIU, East Nawalparasi, the agriculture
knowledge center (AKC), NGOs, INGOs, etc. The local political leaders, working agencies, and
local government will also be sources of secondary information.
4.5 Survey Design and Data Collection
A schedule of interviews will be prepared to collect primary information from farmers. A
structured questionnaire will be the major tool used to collect primary data, and a semi-structured
survey schedule will be used. Participatory methods will be used to collect data and share the
experience, knowledge, and perceptions of people towards diseases, insect pests, and their
management practices.
4.6 Pre-testing of the Interview Schedule
Pre-testing of the interview schedule will be done by administering the designed schedule to the
five households around the study area. The final interview schedule will be prepared after due
consideration of the suggestions obtained during the pre-testing.

4.7 Field Survey

The pre-tested interview schedule will be administered to the respondent to collect the primary
data. A face-to-face interview will be used to gather detailed information about their knowledge,
perceptions, and management practices of diseases and insects.
4.8 Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
One comprehensive focus group discussion (FGD) will be conducted at the study area after
completing the field survey with the help of the checklist to verify the results obtained from the
field survey and to determine whether the knowledge, perceptions, and management of farmers
obtained from the survey are valid. In the FGD, participants will be local farmers; all ethnic
groups and both males and females will be included.

4.9 Data Analysis.

The information collected from the field will be coded first and entered. Descriptive statistics
such as mean, standard deviation, percent, and frequency will be used to analyze socio-economic
and farm characteristics. Data entry and analysis will be done by using computer software
packages which are SPSS and Ms-Excell. Cobb Douglas production function will be used to
analyze the production cost. The following analysis will be performed.

4.9.1 Socio-economic and farm characters

Variables like gender, age group, education status of respondents, ethnicity, occupation, and
area under tomato were analyzed by descriptive statistics such as mean, frequencies,
percentages, and standard deviation.
 4.9.2 Cost of Production

The cost included in the study will be the input cost of tomato production and the cost of
labor. Input cost includes the cost of seed, fertilizers, manure, packaging material, and
transportation. Labor cost includes costs of bullocks, field preparation, weeding, spraying,
harvesting, cleaning, grading, sorting, and packaging.

4.9.3 Gross return

It is the total amount of the revenue after the total quantity of tomato production is sold

Gross return = Quantity (kg) *price per unit (NRs.)

4.9.4 Benefit-cost analysis

The gross return of production of tomatoes and the total cost for production are used to
analyze the B/C ratio. The formula used for calculating the B/C ratio is

B/C ratio = Gross return (Rs.)

Total cost(Rs.)

Where Gross return was calculated from the income of tomato products (NRs.)

The total cost of production was calculated by summation of variable costs in the production
process (NRs.)

If the B/C ratio >1, the project is feasible

If the B/C ratio <1, the project is infeasible

If B/C ratio =1 neutral

4.9.5 Relative yield loss (RYL)

Yield loss is frequently expressed as the fraction (percentage) of the attainable yield lost to pest
injuries. It is then called relative yield loss (RYL) and is computed as:
Relative yield loss (RYL) = 100× [(Ya˗Y) / Ya ]. (Zadoks, 1985)
Where, Ya = attainable yield and Y = actual yield
4.9.6 Cost of controlling
The total cost to control Tuta absoluta can be calculated as;
Cost of chemical fertilizer + cost of organic fertilizer +cost of labor
4.9.7 Indexing
Scaling techniques provide the direction and extremity attitude of the respondents towards any
proposition. A respondent was asked to choose various categories indicating various strengths of
agreement and disagreement. The categories were scores and his total score measures the
respondent's attitude, which was the sum of the score of categories. Thus each response was
given a numerical score, and the total score of a respondent was found out by summing his
different scores for different responses. This total score indicated his position in the continuum
(Timilsina, 2008). Farmer’s perception of the importance given to the different control measures
against Tuta absoluta was analyzed based on priority i.e. 5 for priority, 4 for second, 3 for third,
2 for fourth, and 1 for fifth priority. Then, the priority index for each variable will be calculated
by weightage average mean to draw valid conclusions and make a reasonable decision.
The index of importance was computed by using the following formula:
I imp =∑ (SiFi / N)

Where,
I imp = Index of importance
∑ = Summation
Si = Scale value
Fi = Frequency of importance given by the respondents
N = Total number of respondents

5 Expected Outcomes
 Major insect pests and diseases of tomatoes will be known.
 The impacts of the tomato leaf miner (Tuta absoluta) on the study site will be known.
 Control measures for Tuta absoluta adopted by farmers will be known.
6 Beneficiaries
 The primary beneficiaries of the output of this research will be the farmers.
 Secondary beneficiaries will be the policymakers involved in the policy, INGOs and
NGOs, development workers, etc.
 Tertiary beneficiaries will be the researcher, students, traders, whole-sellers, retailers, etc.
7 Risks and Assumptions
 Budgets will be available in time.
 political situation (strikes and roadblocking).
 Farmers and responsible organizations and institutions will cooperate with the study.

8. Gantt Chart

February March April May June July

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

Literature
review
Preliminary

Field visit

Questionnaire

Preparation

Pre-testing of
questionnaire

Household

Survey

Data entry
process and
analysis

Seminar

Draft report
and preparation

Presentation

Report
publication

9. Budget Summary

Particulars Amount (Rs)

Preliminary survey 1,000

Interview schedule preparation and pretesting 2,000

 Interviewing and data collection 6,000

Travel expenses 2,000

Validation and data entry 1,000

Literature collection, communication, and stationery 1,000

Focus group discussion 2,000

Analysis of data 3,000

Result seminar 3,000

Thesis writing 5,000

Subtotal 26,000

Overhead (10%) 2,600

Total 28,600

10 Problem tree and objective tree

Economic
Crisis
CAUSES
 Low supply

Of tomato Poverty

Low

Production

CORE PROBLEM

Timely unavailability Insect pest Lack of irrigation

Of input( seed , fertilizer) and disease

Infestation

EFFECTS

Tomato Tomato

Leaf miner mosaic viral

( Tuta absoluta) disease

Fig: problem tree (cause and effect relationship )

Peace and

Prosperity
High supply increased

Of tomatoes income of the farmer

High production

Timely unavailability Lack of irrigation

Of input( seed, fertilizer Insect pest and

Disease management

Tomato mosaic viral

Tomato leaf miner ( tuta
absoluta ) management Disease management

Fig: objective tree (mean and end relationship)

References

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Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), in Botswana. Agriculture and Food
Security, 6(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/S40066-017-0128-2/FIGURES/9
Tonnang, H. E. Z., Mohamed, S. F., Khamis, F., & Ekesi, S. (2015). Identification and risk
assessment for worldwide invasion and spread of tuta absoluta with a focus on Sub-Saharan
Africa: Implications for phytosanitary measures and management. PLoS ONE, 10(8),
e0135283. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0135283
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A., González-Cabrera, J., Ruescas, D. C., Tabone, E., Frandon, J., Pizzol, J., Poncet, C.,
Cabello, T., & Urbaneja, A. (2010). Biological invasion of European tomato crops by Tuta
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Tumuhaise, V., Khamis, F. M., Agona, A., Sseruwu, G., & Mohamed, S. A. (2016). First record
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MEYRICK LARVAL INFESTATION TO EGGPLANT FRUITS AT MATROUH
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Appendix 1:Semi-structured Survey schedule

ECONOMICS ASSESSMENT OF TOMATO LEAF MINER EFFECT ON TOMATO
PRODUCTION AND CONTROL MEASURES IN, EAST NAWALPARASI

Date: Schedule no:

NAMASTE, I am Mr. Ashish Pandey, studying for a Bachelor of Agriculture in Agriculture and
Forestry University. I am here at your place to gather some information for my research
Entitled, “Economic impact of tomato leaf miner infestation on production and control measures
in East Nawalparasi”. I assure you the highest level of confidentiality and your cooperation will
be highly appreciated and acknowledged.
1. Personal Information
1.1 Name of Respondent:…………………………. Is respondent HH head? (1- Yes, 0-No)
1.2 Age of Respondent:…………………. Age of HH head:…………………. (in years):
1.3 Sex:……..(1- Male, 0- Female) Sex of HH head ………..(1- Male, 0- Female)
1.4 Address: RM/Municipality ………………. Ward No: ....... Village Name………….
1.5 Education level: Illiterate ( ) Literate ( ) primary ( ) Education of HH head…………...
1.6 Ethnicity: Brahmin/Chettri/Janajati/Dalit/Others (Specify……..)
1.8 Family type: Nuclear ( ) Joint ( )
1.9 Major sources of income:
a. Agriculture b. Business c. Remittance d. Service e. Others

Farm characteristics
2. How much land do you own?
…………………………………………..
3. How much area is covered by the following crop?
(a) Cereal crop: ………… (b) Vegetable: ………… (c) Fruits: …………
4. Membership of any vegetable/agriculture co-operatives: …….. (1- Yes, 0-No)
4. What type of vegetable cultivation level do you adopt?
(a) Subsistence (b) Commercial
5. Do you cultivate tomatoes? ……….. (1- Yes, 0-No)
6. In which season cultivate tomatoes?
………………………………………………
7. If yes, what type of tomato cultivation do you adopt?
(a) Subsistence (b) Commercial
8. Which variety of tomatoes are cultivated?
(a) Srijana (b) Manisha (c) Aayush (d) Dalila (e) Local (f) other (……………………………….)
9. How do you cultivate tomatoes?
(a) Plastic house (b) Open field
10. How much area is under tomato cultivation (kattha)?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
11. How many tomato crops do you take in a year?
(a) One (b) Two

12. What are the problems you face in tomato cultivation? (Ranking risk)
(a) Unavailability of input
(b) Lack of technical knowledge
(c) Insect
(d) Diseases
(e) Labour shortage
(f) Lack of irrigation
13. What are the major diseases you have in your field?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
14. What are the major insects/pests you have in the tomato field?
(a) ………….... (b) …………… (c) …………… (d) …………….
15. Is there any infestation of Tuta absoluta in your tomato field? ....... (1- Yes, 0-No)
16. If yes, when does the infestation start?
………………………………………………………………………………..
17. What are its damage symptoms?
(a) On Leaves:
(b) On the stem
(c) On Fruits:
(d) On twigs
18. At which stage it affects the most?
(a) Seedling (b) Flowering
19. Have you noticed any changes in the weather patterns in your area over the past few years?

……………… (1- Yes, 0-No)

20. Have you observed an increase in the incidence of tomato leaf miner in your tomato crops in
recent years?

…………….... (1- Yes, 0-No)

21. How does climate change affect the growth and development of tomato plants on your farm?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
22. Do you think that climate change has contributed to the increase in the incidence of tomato
leaf miner in your tomato crops?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

23. What is the level of infestation /crop damage in your field?

(a) Low (0-10%) (b) Medium (10-20%) (c)High (20-40%) (d) Very high (40-60%)
(e) Extreme (60-80%)
24. What is the expected yield (kg) you feel from your field?
…………………………………………………………………….
25. How much loss (% or kg) do you feel in tomato yield due to Tuta absoluta?
…………………………………………………………………………
26. Do you know about its life cycle?
………… (1- Yes, 0-No)
27. Do you have any idea about control measures against Tuta absoluta?
………… (1- Yes, 0-No)

28. Have you implemented any pest management strategies to control tomato leaf miner in your
tomato crops?
………… (1- Yes, 0-No)
29. If yes, what are the measures you adopt? (Ranking best effective method)
(a) Biological (b) Cultural (c) Chemical (d) Physical (e) Innovative (lures traps)
30. Do you know about Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Strategies?
………… (1- Yes, 0-No)
31. Do you know about TLM (pheromone) lure?
………… (1- Yes, 0-No)
32. Have you used TLM lure in your field?
………… (1- Yes, 0-No)
33. (If yes) what changes have you observed in your field?
………………………………………………………………………………………..
34. How is it? Is it effective or not?
………………………………………………………………………………
35. Are they easily available in the market?
………… (1- Yes, 0-No)
36. Which chemical pesticide do you use to control insects in your field?
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
37. Are they easily available in the market?
………… (1- Yes, 0-No)
38. Has the use of pest management strategies affected the market value of your crops?
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
39. What is the cost of tomato production?
 Particulars Unit Quantity Costs Total
(NRs/unit)

Variable Costs
Non-labor Costs
Seeds Kg
Manures
FYM Kg
Poultry Manure Kg
Chemical fertilizers
Urea Kg
DAP Kg
Potash Kg
Other Kg
micronutrients
Kg or Lt
Pesticides/Herbicides
Tractor Cost Hour
Irrigation (pump Hour
use)
Labor Costs
Land preparation Man-
days
Weeding Man-
days
Harvesting/ Man-
Threshing days
Nursery Man-
transplanting days
Fertilizer application Man-days
and spraying

Total

40. What is the average price you receive per kg of tomato?

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………..
41. How much profit do you typically make from your field?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
42. In your opinion, how has Tuta absoluta infestation affected the overall profitability of tomato
farming?
(a) Increased profitability (b) Decreased profitability (c) No effect on profitability?
43. from where, did you get knowledge about control measures?
(a)Television (b) Radio (c) Internet (d) Newspaper (e) Friends/Family
(f) Government agencies (g) Specialist publications/ journals
44. Which measures have been proven best to control Tuta absoluta?
(a) ……………………………………………….. (b) ………………………………………
45. Anything, you want to add about this topic?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Name of the enumerator: …………………………………………………………………..
Date of the enumeration: ………………………………………………………………….

Appendix2: Logical framework

Project title: Economics assessment tomato leaf miner effect on tomato production and control
measures in East Nawalparasi.

Native summary Objectively Means of verification Risk and assumption

(MOV)
Verifiable
indicators(OVI)

Goal: The improved livelihood of the farmer by increasing tomato production and quality
products through the efficient management of tuta absoluta.

Purpose : MOALD report

● By the end of ● The political
the research, the situation will
economic be favorable.
PMAMP profile
● Studied the impacts of tuta
economic absoluta on
impacts of tuta tomato
absoluta on production will Survey report
tomato be studied. ● The budget
production ● By the end of will be
 the research, the available will
farmer's time.
● Assessed the perception of
farmer's tuta absoluta
perception will be assessed
towards tuta
absoluta
● By the end of
the research, the
● found out the best possible
best possible control
control measures of
measures of tuta absoluta
tuta absoluta will be found.

Output Survey report

● By the end of this ● High

● Economic loss research, yield participation of

loss and damage respondents.
caused by tuta caused by Tuta
absoluta ● Farmers are
absoluta will be
assessed. assessed. very much
● Best measured to interested in the
● By the end of the research.
control tuta research, the
absoluta report will be
identified. developed and
● Report /document information will
developed and be disseminated
disseminated. to concerned
stakeholders
through
documenting and
audiovisual
products.
● By the end of the
period, the
population of the
 village will be
benefited from
awareness raising
and information
sharing for
capacity building
to the farmer.

Activates : Inputs/ Budgets (in NRs.):

 Baseline survey Programs Cost
Program Orientation and Baseline 1000
Survey
 Sample identification and pre- Sample identification and 2000
testing of the questionnaire Pretesting of the Questionnaire
Household survey 8000
 The household survey, conducted
of the survey of total 90 Focus Group Discussion (FGD) 2000
households in 3 municipalities of
East Nawalparasi Key Informant Interview (KII) 2000
Data Analysis 5000
 Focus Group Discussions Report preparation and 7,000
presentation
 Key Informant Interview: KII with Subtotal 27000
the stakeholders of different fields
Contingency (2.5%) 675
will be done
Overhead (10%) 2700
 Grand Total 30,375
 Data Analysis: It will be carried
out using SPSS software and
Microsoft Excel

 Report preparation and

presentation: After completion of
the study, a district-level
conference will be conducted for
report presentation