UNIT 2

HOMEOSTAIC
CONTROL SYSTEM

Structure
1.1 Introduction Physical, chemical and
neural regulation
Expected Learning
Outcomes 1.4 Summary

1.2 Homeostasis Control 1.5 Terminal Questions

Systems and Components
1.6 Answers
Feedback Mechanism

1.3 Thermoregulation

Body temperature

Heat exchange between

body and environment

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Homeostasis control systems play fundamental role in maintaining stability
and balance in in human physiology using various mechanism and processes.
It tells us how humanbody coordinates with various organs such as lungs,
heart, kidney, stomach, liver, brain etc. We will start understanding the
homeostasis and different homeostasis systems of human body. We will also
study thermoregulation and its components and physical, chemical and neural
mechanism helping in thermoregulation.

In this unit you will study about the basic of homeostasis, homeostasis control
systems, body temperature, thermoregulation and its components and role in
body system, physical, chemical and neural components and feedback
mechanisms.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
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Block 1 Homeostasis and Cardiac Physiology

 define homeostasis;

 describe body temperature;

 explain the thermoregulation;

 elucidatecomfort zone;and acclimatization

 describe physical, chemical and neural regulation.

1.2 HOMOESTASIS
Cluade Bernard, nineteenth-century French scientist identified the importance
of animal functions to maintain equilibrium in the “milieu intérieur” or internal
environment. He also observed the mammals regulate internal environment
within narrow limit. He(1852) concluded that “consistency in internal
environment is the condition of fee life”. Homeostasis is the term used by
Walter Cannon to characterize the way the human body maintains a normal
and consistent internal environment. The ability of a living thing, especially a
cell, to maintain its internal environment and keep it at an equilibrium, is
referred to as homeostasis (homeo- = "same, resembling", stasis = "standing
still or state"). In steady state conditions, it is a dynamic biological process that
preserves and stabilizes internal variables. The bodily homeostasis
continuously monitors and maintains balance over a wide range of common
factors, including temperature, the pH of body fluids and water, blood
Walter Cannon pressure, sugar levels, hormones, breathing gases, and nutrition.

1.2.1 Homeostasis Control System and its

components
The human body's homeostasis regulation system plays a crucial role in
preserving equilibrium between the chemical and physical states by
continuously monitoring internal factors. The homeostasis control system is
always in action, keeping a variety of physiological variables stable. It is
necessary for the body to perform at its best and adjust to environmental
changes. An imbalance or malfunction in the homeostasis regulation system
can result in a number of illnesses and disorders.
All together, these variables' typical levels in the body are called "set points."
or “balance point”. Stated differently, the set point refers to the physiological
range or typical value that is required for bodily activities.
For the body and life processes to work at their best, the set points of
variables are regulated by the homeostasis control center. For instance, the
optimal body temperature for a healthy person is 37̊ °C (98.6 °F), and the set
point for blood glucose is 70–100 mg/dl. The body does not function at its best
when certain set points are reached or exceeded. Certain physiological
parameters, such body temperature and blood pressure (which should be
within the normal range of 120/80 mmHg), do exhibit some variation. But the
homeostasis control system detects these changed set point levels and relays
the information to the control center so that chemical signals are released to
adjust various bodily variables.
There are two types of organisms are found based on ability to change in
internal environment with respect to change in external stimulus.
First,conformers, these organism lacks homeostasis and not able to maintain
internal conditions like temperature, body fluid salinity, and tissue oxygenation.
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Unit 2 Homeostasis Control System
Second, regulators, these are the organisms those have ability to maintain
their internal environment with respect to external stimulus (Fig 2.1).

Fig2.1: Types of organism based on the maintenance of internal environment.

Image attribution: Eckert Animal Physiology_ Mechanisms and Adaptations
(Fourth Edition) -W.H. Freeman & Company (1997).
Homeostasis control mechanism consists of four components that help in
regulation of homeostasis (Fig.2.2). These are stimulus (variables), receptors
or sensor, control center and effectors.

Figure 2.2: Components of Homeostasis control system.

1.Stimulus: Stimulus is an internal and external variable like change in

temperature, blood pressure, pH, osmotic stress, glucose level, change in
action potential that causes change in a set point or normal functional
physiological range in the body and requires a cell to react. Such variables
stimulate the homeostasis control system through receptors.
2. Sensor or sensory receptors: Sensors are specialized chemical
structures in organs which detect the change in the set points of variables.
Receptors send information to the control center to counteract. For
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Block 1 Homeostasis and Cardiac Physiology

example,beta cells of the pancreas detect the abnormal sugar level in the
body, receptors in certain arteries detect the change in blood pressure and
sensory nerve cells monitor change in the body temperature etc. Receptors
produce a signal and send impulse to the central center for action. These
signals are transmitted by activating signaling cascade within the cell that
brings necessary changes.Sensory receptors are organized within various
sensory organs that consist of multiple tissues that allow to detect incoming
stimulus as in retina in human eye. They can also be embedded in isolated
places in other organ like skin.Specialized receptor proteins that are
designed to recognize incoming sensory signals are present in the
membranes of sensory receptor cells. These proteins' altered conformations
trigger the sensory receptor's signal transduction pathways, altering the
membrane potential and potentially sending a signal to the nervous system.
Based on the location of the stimulus sensory receptor are classified into two
types- Interoceptors detect stimuli that occur inside the body, such as blood
pressure and blood oxygen, while exteroceptors detect stimuli that occur
outside the body, such as pressure and temperature (Fig 2.3).
Based on the types of stimulus a receptor senses, they can also classified into
various groups as chemical signals are detected by chemoreceptors, which
are the foundation for the senses of smell and taste as well as vital for the
detection of internal environment elements like pH and blood oxygen.
Pressure and movement activate mechanoreceptors, which are responsible
for the senses of touch, hearing, and balance as well as proprioception, or
body position Fig 2.3 and 2.4). Mechanereceptors are also involved in the
detection of numerous vital internal body parameters, like blood pressure.
Photoreceptors are responsible for the detection of light and are the basis for
the sense of vision, while thermoreceptors sense temperature.
Polymodal receptors are receptors that have the ability to detect multiple
classes of stimuli. The most prevalent polymodal receptors in humans are
nociceptors, which are capable of detecting a wide range of extremely potent
stimuli, such as chemicals, pressure, and temperature. In humans and many
other animals, nociceptors are the organs that sense pain.

Figure 2.3: Different types of receptors.

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Unit 2 Homeostasis Control System

Figure 1.4: Different types of receptor based on stimulus. (Image attribution:

Christopher D. Moyes , Patricia Schulte - Principles of Animal Physiology (2014,
Pearson)

3. Control center: The control centers are located in the brain which monitor
the normal range of variable in the body and act to maintain homeostasis
conditions. As soon as the control center receives sensory impulses from the
receptors, it sends instructions to the effector to counteract the change in the
environment. Action potentials are signals sent by afferent neurons from the
periphery to integrating centers like the brain. Afferent neurons themselves
make up a subset of sensory receptors. When signals come in, these afferent
neurons pick them up and convert them into action potentials that can be
transmitted to the integrating center. A sensory neuron is a particular kind of
sensory receptor.
Epithelial cells that act as additional sensory receptors transmit impulses to an
independent afferent neuron, which in turn transmits signals to integrating
center. A receptor potential is the initial graded potential in a sensory receptor
cell that occurs when it separates from the afferent sensory neuron. The
release of neurotransmitter is triggered by the receptor potential, which travels
via the sensory receptor cell and synapses with the afferent neuron. A
postsynaptic graded potential is then produced by the neurotransmitter binding
to receptors on the original afferent neuron. The afferent neuron's trigger zone
is where this potential goes next, and if it beyond the threshold, it starts action
potentials. Action potentials travel through the axon to the afferent neuron's
axon terminals, where they conduct, releasing neurotransmitter and sending a
signal to the nervous system.For example, hypothalamus, a small region in the
brain, is the thermoregulatory center of the body as it regulates the body
temperature and maintains at 37 °C. When the body temperature alters, it
receives information from sensory receptor and sends signal to the effectors to
stabilize the body temperature at set point 37 °C (98.6 °F).

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Block 1 Homeostasis and Cardiac Physiology

Fig. 2.5: Transmission of signal to control center by sensory neuron and

seonsory receptor cell. (Image attribution: Christopher D. Moyes , Patricia
Schulte - Principles of Animal Physiology (2014, Pearson)

4. Effectors: The cells, tissues or organs that respond to the instructions

received from the control center serve as the effectors. After receiving the
specific signal, effectors reverse the change to normal value and maintain
homeostasis. Different organs are involved in effector functions such as
muscle, skin, liver, pancreas, lung andkidney etc. These regulatory
mechanisms are termed as feedback mechanism. For example, sweat
glands work as effectors by releasing sweat to lower body temperature in the
body; and hepatocytes of the liver release glucose to increase blood glucose
levels.

1.2.2 Types of Homeostasis Control System

The body has various homeostasis control systems, each in charge of
preserving the stability and balance of particular physiological variables. Here
are a few instances (Fig.2.6):

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Fig. 2.6: Types of Homeostasis control systems

1. Thermoregulatory system: This system maintains body temperature within

a narrow range. When the body becomes too hot, the thermoregulatory
system initiates mechanisms to cool down, such as sweating and vasodilation.
Conversely, when the body becomes too cold, the system triggers
mechanisms to conserve heat, such as shivering and vasoconstriction.
2. Cardiovascular homeostasis system: This system regulates blood
pressure and blood flow throughout the body. It involves various mechanisms,
including changes in heart rate, blood vessel constriction or dilation, and the
release of hormones like aldosterone and vasopressin, to maintain adequate
blood pressure and perfusion to vital organs.
3. Respiratory homeostasis system: This system controls the levels of
oxygen and carbon dioxide in the body and helps in maintaining the pH
balance of the blood. When oxygen levels are low or carbon dioxide levels are
high, the respiratory system responds by increasing the rate and depth of
breathing to bring in more oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide.
4. Renal homeostasis system: The kidneys play a key role in maintaining the
body's fluid balance, electrolyte levels, and pH balance. They regulate the
excretion and reabsorption of water, electrolytes (such as sodium, potassium,
and calcium) Table 1.1, and waste products through processes like filtration
and reabsorption.Aldosterone is involved in maintenance of ionic balance by
feedback mechanism (Fig. 2.7).

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Block 1 Homeostasis and Cardiac Physiology

Table 2.1: Electrolyte composition of the human body fluid (Table attribution:
https://open.oregonstate.education/aandp/chapter/26-3-electrolyte-balance/)

Fig2.7: The Aldosterone feedback loop (Image attribution:

https://open.oregonstate.education/aandp/chapter/26-3-electrolyte-balance/)

5. Glucose homeostasis system: This system regulates blood glucose levels

to ensure a steady supply of energy for the body. The pancreas releases
insulin to lower blood sugar levels and glucagon to raise them, responding to
changes in blood glucose concentration.
These are just a few examples of the homeostasis control systems in the
body. There are many more systems and processes involved in maintaining
stability and balance within the body.

.
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1.2.3 Feedback Mechanisms

The homeostasis control system is a feedback looping, signal-directed
mechanism that can exist at the molecular, cellular, or organ level.
.
Negative Feedback Mechanism
Most control systems maintain homeostasis by negative feedback
mechanism. It keeps the set points of the physiological states constant in the
body by reversing the change in physiological variables, if they are outside the
normal range. For example, the enzymatic reactions are regulated by negative
feedback system in which end product of the reaction inhibits the first step of
the same reaction.
Figure 2.7 illustrates the negative feedback loop that regulates body
temperature. In this loop, a rise in body temperature serves as a stimulus that
is detected by skin and brain nerve cells. The hypothalamus, the brain's
temperature regulatory center, receives signals from the sensors and then
passes them on to effectors, or sweat glands, which release a chemical
messenger called sweat to stop the stimulus change and return the body's
temperature to normal.

Fig. 2.8: Negative feedback loop that maintains the body temperature.

(Image attribution: openstax.org)

Positive Feedback Mechanism

Positive feedback mechanism instead of reversing the change, increases the
change in the body’s physiological condition. In nature, a positive feedback
loop happens when the outcome of a reaction increases the initial reaction. A
positive feedback loop pushes a system farther from the equilibrium point
when we examine it in homeostasis. It happens when something is required
rapidly and accomplishes this by enhancing the outcomes of a process or
event.
For example, during childbirth the first contractions of labor (stimulus) pushes
the baby toward the cervix and stimulate the stretch receptors. The brain
(control center) receives the signal and oxytocin hormone is released from the 15
Block 1 Homeostasis and Cardiac Physiology

pituitary gland. Oxytocin causes stronger contractions of the smooth muscles

(effectors) pushing the baby further down. This causes even greater stretching
of the cervix sending more signals. The cycle goes on till the baby is born. The
cessations of the stretching of the cervix stops the release of oxytocin. Another
example is the platelet aggregation and accumulation in response to an
injury.A chemical is released when tissue is cut or ripped. The blood's platelets
become active due to this substance. After activating, these platelets produce
a chemical that prompts additional platelets to do the same, causing the
wound to clot.

Figure 2.9 : The process of wound clotting is a positive feedback loop. (Image
attribution:https://www.albert.io/blog/positive-negative-feedback-loops-biology/)

SAQ 1
Fill in the blanks with appropriate words from the text.

i) The receptor that senses a change in the body is called……………..

ii) The ...............................is regulatory center of the body temperature.

iii) Sweat glands are present..................... in the homeostasis control

system.

iv) The receptor that detect stimuli that occur inside the body is
……………………………….

v) The mechanism in which stimulus/variable is regulated by the end

product of thehomeostasis control system is called …………

1.3 THERMOREGULATION

Humans can withstand exposure to temperatures in the environment between

–110°C, or the moon's surface, and 2000°C. Since, it is now accepted that the
threat posed to human life by the excess heat produced by human activity is
inevitable, humans will also confront significant thermal issues on earth.
The structure of macromolecules and biological reactions are influenced by
heat energy in chemical interactions. As a result, every physiological process
is impacted by temperature. Because of these impacts of temperature, each
animal exhibits a thermal strategy, which is a set of physiological, biochemical,
and behavioral reactions aimed at maintaining body temperature (TB) within a
reasonable range. Ambient temperature (TA) is the primary environmental
factor (although it isn't the sole element) that affects the thermal strategy. The
majority of living things' body temperatures (Tb), which range from 0 to
45°C,only make up a very small percentage of this range (_4%). Below 0°C,
16 most creatures are unable to survive. TB above 45°C, since, this is the
Unit 2 Homeostasis Control System
temperature at which biochemical reaction-catalyzing enzymes begin to
denaturize.
A few things that have been proposed as causes of heat death include:
1. Protein denaturation and thermal coagulation.
2. Enzyme thermal inactivation at rates higher than their generation rates.
3. Insufficient availability of oxygen.
4. Variations in the impact of temperature on interconnected physiological
processes.
5. Impact of temperature on membrane architecture.

An animal's total heat gain from all systems must equal its total heat loss in
order for its body temperature to remain constant.Table 2.2 is showing heat
production in major organs of the man at resting stage. Thermoregulation is
the process by which the body maintains a relatively stable internal
temperature, regardless of changes in the external environment. It involves a
series of physiological mechanisms and responses that work together to
regulate body temperature within a narrow range and maintain homeostasis.

Organ mass Heat production at rest

Organ Kg % of body Kcal h-1 % of total

mass

Kidneys 0.29 0.45 6.0 7.7

Heart 0.29 0.45 8.4 10.7

Lungs 0.60 5.03 0.9 7.7 3.4 4.4 72.4

Brain 1.35 2.1 12.5 16.0

Splanchnic 2.50 3.8 26.2 33.6

organsa

Skin 5.00 7.8 1.5 1.9

Muscle 27.00 59.97 41.5 92.3 12.2 15.7 27.6

Other 27.97 43.0 7.8 10.0

Total 65.00 100.0 78.0 100.0

a
Abdominal organs, not including kidney
Table 2.2 Heat production in the major organs of a man at rest.(Table attribution:
Aschoff et.al. 1971)

Vertebrate can be categorized into different groups based on how they

regulate their body temperature. Cold blooded, Like in fishes, amphibians
and reptiles, body temperature varies with respect to ambient temperature
they are known as poikilothermic. These animals are bradymetabolic,
meaning that their low metabolic rate makes it impossible for it to rise
sufficiently in response to cold to stop a decrease in deep body temperature.
The external environment act as major source of heat so they are
ectothermic organisms.Warm blooded organisms like mammals and birds,
they can maintain their body temperature at relatively constant level with
respect to ambient temperature, they are homeothermic, they can instantly
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Block 1 Homeostasis and Cardiac Physiology

increase their metabolic rate in response to cold so they are tachmetabolic,

and maintain 15-50 times higher metabolic rate than bradymetabolic animals.
As they are endothermic, because they generate the majority of their heat
internally Fig 2.10.

Fig.2.10 : Vertebrate animal as thermoregulators (Image attribute : A.A.

ROMANOVSKY).

The primary center for thermoregulation is the hypothalamus, a region in the

brain that acts as the body's thermostat. The hypothalamus receives
information from temperature receptors located throughout the body, including
the skin, organs, and spinal cord.

1.3.1 Body temperature

Before an animal's heat can be released into the surroundings, it needs to be
brought to the surface. Consequently, the organism's exterior needs to be
colder than its interior since heat cannot be transported if the temperature is
constant throughout. The inference is that an organism cannot have a
constant temperature throughout. Certain areas of the mammalian body
produce more heat than others when we look at where heat is produced. In
humans, the abdominal and chest organs provide 56% of the total heat
produced in the body, despite making up less than 6% of the overall mass
(Table 2.2). Including the big and highly heat-producing human brain, we have
accounted for 72%, or more than two-thirds, of the total heat generation in less
than 8% of the body mass.
Because of this, we can think of the body as consisting of a much larger Shell
that contains muscles and skin and provides a small portion of the body's
overall heat production, and a core that produces the majority of the heat. This
is not the case during exercise, when the total metabolic rate might rise by ten
times or more.
The majority of this increase is felt in the breathing muscles, such as the
diaphragm. Therefore, in order for the body's internal temperature to stay
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Unit 2 Homeostasis Control System
constant during exercise, the body needs to transfer more than ten times as
much heat to its surface as it does during rest.
Body temperature can be divided into core temperature and surface
temperature. It is important to note that while the temperature inside the
inner, or core, stays relatively constant, the temperature inside the core is not
uniform. Although the blood cools the organs with higher heat production
rates—that is, the venous blood that exits these organs is colder than the
arterial blood—the organs are still warmer than the others. There could be up
to 0.5 °C in temperature variations within the core across different locations.
Although it is not possible to discuss a single core temperature, the deep
rectal temperature is frequently employed as a typical measurement in
practical applications.
When someone is in heat balance, their surface temperature is always lower
than their core temperature.As a result, the arterial blood that travels to the
shell becomes cooler venous blood upon return. Naturally, this is the process
by which the majority of the heat generated within the core is elevated to the
surface, thereby cooling the core organs. The surface temperature fluctuates
greatly depending on the surrounding temperatures and the requirement for
heat dissipation. Furthermore, the temperature of the underlying tissues, which
includes a sizable portion of the muscle mass, can drop significantly below the
core temperature.
As we've already seen, the shell temperature can vary greatly, the depth to
which the shell temperature extends within the body can fluctuate dramatically,
and the core temperature does not always reflect the heat condition of the
entire body. Even though the core temperature may not vary, a shift in the
shell's temperature indicates a change in the body's overall heat content.
The drop in shell temperature that occurs when someone goes from 35 °C to
20 °C may result in a heat loss from the shell of 200 kcal (>800 kJ). When we
consider that this amount of heat roughly equates to a person's resting
metabolism for three hours, the immensity of the heat becomes evident (Fig.
2.11).

Fig.2.11: Temperature distribution in the body of a person. (Image attribute:

cosinuss.com)
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1.3.2Heat exchange between body and environment

Heat production occurs through various metabolic processes in the body, such
as cell respiration and muscular activity. These processes generate heat as a
byproduct, raising the body's temperature.
Heat loss is the process of dissipating excess heat in order to cool down the
body. It is achieved through several mechanisms, including radiation,
conduction, convection, and evaporation.
1. Radiation: This is the process by which heat is transferred from the surface
of the body to the surroundings in the form of infrared radiation. When the
body temperature is higher than the surrounding temperature, heat is radiated
from the skin.
2. Conduction: Heat can be transferred from the body to objects or surfaces
that are in direct contact with it. For example, when you sit on a cold chair,
heat is conducted from your body to the chair, causing you to feel cold.
3. Convection: This is the transfer of heat through the movement of air or
liquid currents. For example, when a fan blows air across your skin, heat is
carried away from the body through convection.
4. Evaporation: When the body gets too hot, thermoregulation involves
sweating. Sweat is mainly composed of water, and as it evaporates from the
skin's surface, it absorbs heat, thus cooling the body. This is an important
cooling mechanism, especially in hot and humid conditions.

Fig. 2.12: Source and sink for thermal energy. (Image attribute: Christopher D.
Moyes , Patricia Schulte - Principles of Animal Physiology (2014, Pearson)

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Unit 2 Homeostasis Control System

1.3.3 Temperature adaptation

One way to characterize temperature effects is as how they affect cellular
function. Most of an individual life is usually spent in a temperature range that
is ideal for its physiological functions. Heat production is maintained by two
components in the body, first, autonomic thermoregulatory mechanism and
second is behavioral effects or thermoregulatory behavior. Autonomic
thermoregulatory mechanisms involve neural system to regulate metabolic
rate for thermal adaptation. Two synchronous "components" are involved in
autonomic responses. One responds to significant temperature changes by
producing strong heat gain or loss (sweating or shivering). The other protects
itself from milder blows by depending only on modifications in sensible heat
exchange (skin blood flow). Whereas thermoregulatory behavior are physical
changes done by organism with need of activation of metabolic processes by
nervous system. From simple, instinctual reactions (like shifting one's posture
or avoiding the cold or heat) to sophisticated, taught routines (like controlling
the temperature inside a spacecraft). Even intrinsic thermoregulatory
behaviors can be selectively evoked. Humans are mostly able to survive and
thrive in harsh situations because of their behavioral defenses.
Homeotherm organism tried to adapt their body temperature within the
thermoneutral zone (TNZ), that is: "the range of ambient temperature at
which regulation of temperature is accomplished only by controlling sensible
(dry) heat transfer, i.e. without regulatory modifications in evaporative heat
loss (sweating) or metabolic heat production(shivering)." TNZ involves
autonomic thermoregulatory mechanisms to maintain body temperature.
This is where metabolic rate is very low. The animal will increase its metabolic
rate in order to prevent overheating if temperatures climb over a certain point,
known as the upper critical temperature (UCT). In order to produce more
heat when the temperature drops below a lower critical temperature (LCT),
the metabolic rate increases. Extending the line that characterizes the
metabolic rate at temperatures below LCT allows one to forecast the TB for a
large number of animals.

Fig.2.13: Zone of thermal effects of a resting Homeotherm ((Image attribute:

Christopher D. Moyes , Patricia Schulte - Principles of Animal Physiology (2014,
Pearson).

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Thermal comfort zone (TCZ)

Thermal comfort zone (TCZ) is the mental state that indicates contentment
with the thermal environment. It is characterized in terms of
perception. Moreover, it is proposed that the TCZ is associated with optimistic
expectations for the existing thermal climate. Put differently, negative
anticipation caused by thermal pain prompts an individual to adjust their body
temperature.Compared to the human thermo-neutral zone, the human thermal
comfort zone covers a smaller range of ambient temperatures.
There is little difference between the thermoneutral and thermal comfort
zones. The start of thermoregulatory behavior is determined by thermal
comfort. with addition to being a person's awareness of the thermal
atmosphere, thermal comfort is also characterized as their neutral feeling with
respect to a certain thermal environment—that is, their ability to remain sweat-
free. In tropical regions with persistently high temperatures and humidity,
human thermal discomfort is a major concern. The position of the individual
affects their thermal comfort requirements, as do the environmental factors
both within and outside the enclosure.
The regular variation in circulation of air, relative humidity, speed of air,
ambient temperature, radiant temperature, garment insulation, health and
illnesses, and metabolic heat or activity level are some of the elements that
are used to calculate the thermal comfort over an area. The wind system and
regular fluctuation in air circulation are related. Trade winds from the northeast
could reach elevations of up to 3000 meters. It is accompanied by a dusty
wind that moves in from the desert's solid air masses. The quantity of water
that remains in the air after warm water evaporates into the surrounding
atmosphere is known as relative humidity. For the average areas of the
tropical zone, air velocity affects the rapid loss of heat. The body is chilled and
evaporation is increased.

Acclimatization
For the same species, the summer and winter ranges of heat tolerance are
frequently different. In contrast, a winter animal is less tolerant of hot
temperatures than a summer animal. Winter animals frequently withstand
temperatures so low that they are even active in them. Acclimatization is the
term used to describe such changes in temperature tolerance with climate
changes.
Acclimatization is essential for survival and allows the body to cope with
changes in the environment. However, the duration and effectiveness of
acclimatization can vary depending on individual factors, such as age, physical
fitness, and previous exposure to similar conditions. It is important to note that
acclimatization takes time, and sudden exposure to extreme conditions can
still pose health risks. Therefore, it is important to gradually expose oneself to
changing conditions and engage in proper preparation and adaptation
strategies to ensure a safe and healthy acclimatization process.
One common example of acclimatization is when individuals gradually adapt
to high altitudes. At higher altitudes, the air pressure is lower, and the oxygen
concentration is reduced, which can lead to various physiological challenges.
Initially, individuals may experience symptoms such as shortness of breath,
fatigue, and headaches. However, over time, the body adapts to these
conditions by increasing the production of red blood cells, improving oxygen-
carrying capacity, and enhancing lung function. This acclimatization process
allows individuals to function better at higher altitudes.

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Unit 2 Homeostasis Control System
Similarly, acclimatization can also occur when individuals are exposed to
extreme temperatures, such as hot or cold weather. The body can adapt to
these conditions by adjusting blood flow, sweat production, metabolism, and
other physiological responses. This adaptation helps the body maintain core
temperature within a narrow range and ensures optimal functioning in different
environmental conditions.

1.3.4 Physical, chemical and neural regulation

Physical, chemical and neural regulation is involved in maintaining body
temperature. Receptors detect the signals that is transmitted to the control
system and effectors organs are involved in the transmitting corresponding
change.

Receptors in thermoregulation
The body uses various types of receptors to detect changes in temperature
and initiate thermoregulatory responses. These receptors are located in
different parts of the body and play a crucial role in maintaining optimal body
temperature. Here are some of the main types of receptors involved in
thermoregulation:
1. Thermoreceptors: These are specialized nerve endings that detect
changes in temperature. There are two types of thermoreceptors:
- Cold receptors: These thermoreceptors are most sensitive to temperatures
below normal body temperature (around 35-40 degrees Celsius) and are
primarily found in the skin.
- Warm receptors: These thermoreceptors are most sensitive to
temperatures above normal body temperature (around 35-40 degrees Celsius)
and are also primarily located in the skin.
2. Core temperature receptors: These receptors are located in temperature-
sensitive areas deep within the body, such as the hypothalamus (the region of
the brain that regulates body temperature) and the abdominal organs. They
provide information about the internal body temperature to help regulate
thermoregulatory responses.
3. Peripheral thermoreceptors: These receptors are found in the skin,
particularly in the dermis. They provide information about skin temperature to
help regulate blood flow and sweating.
4. Spinal thermoreceptors: These receptors are located at the level of the
spinal cord and play a role in shivering responses.
5. Vascular thermoreceptors: These receptors are located in blood vessels
and help regulate blood flow and peripheral vasodilation or vasoconstriction in
response to temperature changes.
These receptors send signals to the brain (particularly the hypothalamus) to
initiate appropriate responses to maintain body temperature within a narrow
range. They help trigger mechanisms such as sweating, shivering, and blood
vessel dilation or constriction to release or conserve heat as needed. The
integration of these receptor signals with other thermoregulatory mechanisms
helps achieve and maintain thermal homeostasis.

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Effectors in thermoregulation
Effectors are the structures or organs that carry out the responses initiated by
the receptors in thermoregulation. In the context of thermoregulation, there are
several types of effectors involved, including:
1. Sweat glands: These are the effectors responsible for producing and
secreting sweat. When the body temperature rises above the set point, signals
from the thermoreceptors in the skin prompt the sweat glands to release sweat
onto the skin surface. As the sweat evaporates, it helps to cool down the body.
2. Skeletal muscles: Skeletal muscles act as effectors in thermoregulation
through shivering. When the body temperature drops below the set point,
signals from the thermoreceptors in the skin and spinal cord trigger involuntary
muscle contractions, known as shivering. Shivering generates heat by
increasing muscle activity, which helps raise the body temperature.
3. Blood vessels: Blood vessels act as effectors in regulating blood flow and
heat transfer. When the body temperature rises, thermoreceptor signals cause
blood vessels in the skin to dilate (vasodilation), allowing more blood to flow
closer to the skin surface. This promotes heat loss through radiation and
convection. Conversely, when the body temperature drops, thermoreceptor
signals cause blood vessels to constrict (vasoconstriction), reducing blood flow
to the skin and minimizing heat loss.
4. Adrenal glands: The adrenal glands secrete hormones such as
epinephrine (adrenaline) in response to changes in body temperature. These
hormones can stimulate metabolic processes that generate heat or initiate
responses such as increased heart rate and respiratory rate, which can help
raise the body temperature.
5. Brown adipose tissue: Brown adipose tissue (BAT) is a specialized type of
fat tissue that plays a role in thermogenesis, which is the generation of heat.
When the body temperature drops, signals from the thermoreceptors can
activate BAT, leading to the production of heat. BAT is particularly abundant in
newborns and hibernating animals.
All these effectors work together to regulate body temperature by either
generating heat or facilitating heat loss from the body, thus helping to restore
and maintain thermal homeostasis.

Macromolecular structure and metabolism

Only proteins and lipids, out of the four classes of macromolecules, are
significantly impacted by temperature fluctuations that occur within an
organism's typical range.
Hydrophobic interactions, van der Waals forces, and weak connections control
how these macromolecules interact with one another and with one another.
Every kind of connection reacts to temperature in a different way. High
temperatures cause the disruption of hydrogen bonds and van der Waals
forces, but they also stabilize hydrophobic interactions. Thus, the proportional
significance of each type of link determines how temperature affects
macromolecular structures. It is possible to evaluate how temperature affects
a biological process.

Membrane remodeling to maintain near-constant fluidity

Protein migration is hampered by the solidification of membrane lipids at low
temperatures. On the other hand, high temperatures cause the membrane to
melt, which can damage the membrane's structure and lessen its efficiency as
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Unit 2 Homeostasis Control System
a permeability barrier. The equilibrium between the liquid sol and solid gel
states is controlled by cells.
Temperature has an impact on membranes by changing how proteins behave
and how fluid phospholipids are.One way to assess the impact on membrane
protein function is by kinetic analysis. For example, the Na/K ATPase interacts
with membrane lipids during the transport phase. The activity of the
transporter can be measured at different temperatures, and the findings can
be plotted against temperature.
Arrhenius plot is used to study effect of temperature in structure and function
in macromolecular, complex process and enzymatic reactions.
The following mechanisms are used to help in membrane remodeling fig. 2.14.
1. Fatty acid chain length: Short chain fatty acid phospholipids are very
mobile because they are unable to create as many connections with
neighboring fatty acids. The location of the fatty acids on the
phospholipid determines how efficient chain shortening is. A short
chain fatty acid in position 1 contributes more to improving fluidity than
does the identical fatty acid in position 2, because of the three-
dimensional structure of phosphoglycerides.
2. Saturation:The fatty acid chain gets kinked by double bonds, which
hinders the fatty acids from effectively forming bonds with one another.
A more fluid membrane results from fewer links between fatty acid
chains. Oleic acid (C18:1), for instance, is liquid at 12°C, but pure
stearic acid (C18:0) only becomes liquid at temperatures over 69°C.
Additionally crucial is the location of the double bond. When it comes to
fatty acid chain effectiveness, a double bond close to the middle (like in
the case of oleic acid) is preferable than one close to the end.
3. Phospholipid classes:The polar head groups' different shapes affect
how the phospholipids interact with one another at the membrane's
surface. In warm-acclimated cells, phosphatidylcholine (PC) is more
prevalent in the membranes, whereas phosphatidylethanolamine (PE)
is more prevalent in cold-acclimated cells. As the body adjusts to the
cold, the PC to PE ratio drops.
4. Cholestrol content:At high temperatures, a pure phospholipid bilayer
is primarily fluid, and at low temperatures, it is primarily solid. There is
minimal change in fluidity when cholesterol is introduced to a fluid
phospholipid bilayer. Cholesterol tends to keep a membrane from
hardening when it cools. Stated differently, when external conditions
favor a transition to a gel phase, cholesterol tends to increase a
membrane's fluidity.

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Block 1 Homeostasis and Cardiac Physiology

Fig. 2.14: Phospholipid properties and membrane fluidity.

Image attribute: Christopher D. Moyes , Patricia Schulte - Principles of
Animal Physiology (2014, Pearson).

Change in membrane composition

When a cell's temperature changes, it can adjust its membrane composition in
two general ways: in situ modification and de novo synthesis.
For both pathways to work, cells must use suites of enzymes that lengthen,
shorten, saturate, and de-saturate fatty acids in order to change the
characteristics of the fatty acids within the fatty acid pool. The fatty acid profile
of the membrane is influenced by the food because these enzymes start with
fatty acids that come from the diet.Specific phospholipids within the membrane
have their structures changed directly by enzymes. Membrane phospholipids
are first converted to lysophospholipids by phospholipase A removing an acyl
chain.
Then, to reconstruct the phospholipid, lysophospholipid acyltransferase
employs fatty acyl CoA, a more suitable fatty acid Fig.2.15.
More frequently, endocytosis and exocytosis remodel membranes. To
eliminate the old membrane, endocytosis is used.The endoplasmic reticulum
synthesizes phospholipids from scratch before encasing them in vesicles that
attach to the membranes of living cells (Fig. 2.16).

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Unit 2 Homeostasis Control System

Fig. 2.15: Phospholipid remodeling.

Image attribute: Christopher D. Moyes, Patricia Schulte - Principles of Animal
Physiology (2014, Pearson).

Figure 2.16: Membrane remodeling.

Image attribute: Christopher D. Moyes, Patricia Schulte - Principles of Animal
Physiology (2014, Pearson).

Heat shock proteins (Hsps) are molecular chaperones that facilitate protein
folding following translation by utilizing ATP energy. Additionally, chaperones
can aid in the refolding of proteins that have undergone heat stress and been
denatured. A heat shock response that many cells experience in response to
high temperatures causes a sharp rise in the amounts of particular proteins
that aid in the repair of damaged proteins. Hsps are stress protein that are
induced in thermal extreme.

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Block 1 Homeostasis and Cardiac Physiology

Thermogenesis
Faster metabolic rates, which result in increased heat production, are made
possible by high TB. These processes include growth, development, digestion,
and biosynthesis. Heat-producing metabolic pathways called thermogenesis
and heat-retaining physiological systems are necessary for the body to
become warm.

Shivering thermogenesis
Unsynchronized muscle contraction results into shivering thermogenesis.
Even when at rest, muscle generates a lot of heat. The pace at which muscles
produce heat is accelerated by locomotion.
Neurotransmitters are released at the motor end plate by spinal motor neurons
during a typical contraction, but the pattern of excitation changes during
shivering.
The larger neurons that innervate fast muscle are recruited after the smallest
neurons, which innervate the slow fibers. This causes the muscle to contract
on an individual basis, but the motor units are disorganized and there is no
broad movement over the entire muscle. A viable tactic for brief cold exposure
is shivering thermogenesis, but it is ineffective for extended cold stress.

Non-shivering thermogenesis(NST)
In specialized layers of brown adipose tissue (BAT), mammals have a
distinctive method of producing heat. Brown adipocytes are distinct from white
adipocytes in several significant ways. Their mitochondrial content is
significantly higher, and they express the gene that codes for the thermogenin
protein.
The sympathetic nervous system regulates the growth and thermogenesis of
BAT. These neurons emit norepinephrine, which promotes BAT to increase in
size (hypertrophy) and number of cells (hyperplasia).
Proliferation of undifferentiated precursor cells is stimulated, leading to their
eventual differentiation into BAT. Mitochondria multiply and triglycerides are
produced. Simultaneously, the cells start expressing thermogenin, which
prompts the tissue to enhance the rate of heat production through
mitochondrial respiration.

Membrane leakiness increases thermogenesis

The majority of biological membranes sustain an electrochemical gradient due
to the varying ion distribution within the membrane. The chemical energy that
cells use to produce these gradients is typically in the form of ATP. As a result,
the cell will expend chemical energy to restore the gradient in any process that
dissipates ion gradients.

Neural regulation of thermoregulation

An individual's ability to regulate their body temperature depends on the
cooperation of several physiological systems. They have to be able to keep an
eye on tuberculosis in key anatomical areas. It can determine their overall
thermal balance by keeping an eye on internal core TB. Organisms are able to
detect TA through peripheral thermoreceptors. A thermostat in the central
nervous system receives and interprets data from thermal sensor neurons.
This central thermostat sets off the proper physiological and behavioral
reaction.
Peripheral cold-sensitive neurons found in the skin and viscera detect the
temperature of the body. Peripheral neurons communicate with the
hypothalamus in response to a reduction in temperature (Figure 19). Two
types of neurons that sense body temperature are found in the preoptic area
of the anterior hypothalamus: those that sense cold and those that sense
warm. The posterior hypothalamus incorporates data from both the peripheral
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Unit 2 Homeostasis Control System
and central thermal sensors to modify the body's heat rates production and
dissipation.
Compared to peripheral thermoreceptors, the hypothalamus responds to
information from central thermoreceptors far more strongly. Central
thermoreceptors can be activated by temperature changes of less than 1°C,
which can cause a fast hypothalamic reaction. On the other hand, peripheral
thermoreceptors have the ability to detect and react to temperature changes of
many degrees without triggering a hypothalamus reaction. The temperature of
the animal's central nervous system needs to be more constant, although the
surface temperature can fluctuate by several degrees without endangering it.

Figure 2.17: Hypothalamus and thermoregulation. Image attribute:

Christopher D. Moyes, Patricia Schulte - Principles of Animal Physiology
(2014, Pearson).

Changes in blood flow affect thermal exchange

All animals exchange heat at their body's outside surfaces, but they can
modify the efficiency of this process by adjusting the blood flow pattern. The
blood maintains internal temperature equilibrium throughout the body. Blood
vessels will lose heat more quickly if they get closer to the body's surface.
Similar to this, increasing blood flow via the veins raises the body's potential
for heat loss since it heats the skin's surface, which is where heat loss occurs
through radiation, convection, and conduction.
The term "vasomotor response" refers to the control of blood flow into the
vasculature. Capillary beds are located just beneath the skin, supplied by
subcutaneous arteries and drained by veins that terminate in a network known
as the venous plexus. Additionally, some blood is directly exchanged between
the arteries and veins via anastomoses known as metarterioles, or
arteriovenous anastomoses.
The sympathetic nervous system narrows the arterioles during typical
tuberculosis to lessen blood flow. Vascular smooth muscle responds to
adrenergic impulses to cause this tonic constriction.
Arterioles dilate to let more blood into the skin vasculature when body
temperature rises, and there is a reduction of tonic constriction. Constricting
the anastomoses blood vessels at the same time forces more blood to pass
through the vessels close to the skin. Heat can be easily transferred from the
blood to the skin's surface due to the venous system's enormous volume and
high compliance. Heat loss occurs at a higher rate in proportion to skin
temperature. The posterior hypothalamus regulates the alterations in vascular
smooth muscle tone.

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Block 1 Homeostasis and Cardiac Physiology

SAQ 2
Define

1. Thermoregulation

2. Homeothermic

3. Heat stock protein

4. Thermogenesis

1.5 SUMMARY
So far, you have learned that:

 Human physiology is the science of understanding how the human body

works and maintains steady state, called homeostasis.

 Homeostasis control mechanisms have four interdependent

components: a stimulus, a receptor, control center, and an effector.

 The receptor senses environmental stimuli and sends the information to

the control center.

 The control center, located in the brain, signals theeffectors (e.g.

muscles or an organ) to respond to the stimuli.

 The effectors counteract the change and bring back the physiological
variable to its normal state.

 Negative feedback brings a system back to its level of normal functioning

by reversing the change. Maintenance of blood pressure, metabolism,
and body temperature, etc. are negative feedback mechanisms.

 Positive feedback enhances or accelerates output created by an

activated stimulus. Platelet aggregation and accumulation in response to
an injury, and childbirth are examples of positive feedback.

 Thermoregulation is maintaining relative constant temperature relative

the ambient temperature.

 Birds and mammals are homeotherm having relative constant

temperature.

 Body temperature can be divided into core temperature corresponding

deep internal organs and surface temperature covering the surface.

 Heat transfer can happens with the help of four mechanisms-

conduction, convection, radiation, and evaporation.

 Homeotherm organism tried to adapt their body temperature within the

thermoneutral zone (TNZ).
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Unit 2 Homeostasis Control System

 Comfort zone of body temperature have relative narrow range compare

to thermoneutral zone.

 Thermoreceptors senses the change in the ambient temperature.

 Membrane fluidity changes in thermoregulation.

 Neural regulation involves transmission of signal from central and

peripheral thermoreceptors to the hypothalamus. Hypothalamus sends
signals to effector organs to cause necessary changes.

1.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What are the four components of a homeostasiscontrol system?

2. Define stimulus in a homeostasiscontrol system with the help of any two

examples.

3. What is a sensor (or sensory receptor) and its role in homeostasiscontrol

system?

4. Differentiate between effectors and the control center.

5. Explain what is a set point in the human physiology.

6. Explain the feedback mechanism to maintain the body homeostasis.

7. Name the effector organs in thermoregulation.

1.6 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions
1.
i. Sensory receptor

ii. Brain/hypothalamus

iii. Entire body

iv. Interoceptor

v. Negative feedback mechanism

2.

i. Thermoregulation is the process by which the body maintains a

relatively stable internal temperature, regardless of changes in the
external environment.

ii. Organisms those maintain their body temperature at relatively constant

level with respect to ambient temperature, they are homeothermic.
Extracellular denotes all body fluids that are present outside the cells

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Block 1 Homeostasis and Cardiac Physiology

iii. Heat shock proteins (Hsps) are molecular chaperones that facilitate
protein folding following translation by utilizing ATP energy. These
proteins are activated at stress conditions.
iv. Heat-producing metabolic pathways called thermogenesis and heat-
retaining physiological systems are necessary for the body to become
warm.

TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. There are four components of the homeostasis control mechanism
which are stimulus (variables), receptors or sensor, control center and
effectors.

2. Stimulus is an internal and external variable that causes change in a

set point in the body and requires a cell to react. For example, our
body has the set point of 70-100 mg/dl for blood glucose and the 37̊ °C
(98.6 °F) for body temperature at which our healthy body works the
best. At the conditions below or above these set points, body fails to
work optimally. However, the homeostasis control system recognizes
these altered levels of setpoints, and sends the information to the
control center to release chemical signals in order to regulate variables
in the body.

3. Sensors are specialized chemical structures in organs which detect the

change in the set points of variables. Receptors send information to the
control center to counteract. For example, beta (β) cells of the
pancreas detect the abnormal sugar level in the body, receptors in
certain arteries detect the change in blood pressure and sensory nerve
cells monitor change in the body temperature etc. Receptors produce a
signal and send impulse to the central center for action.

4. The control centers are located in the brain which monitor the normal
range of variable in the body and act to maintain homeostasis
conditions but the cells, tissues or organs that respond to the
instructions received from the control center serve as the effectors.

After receiving the specific signal, effectors reverse the change to

normal value and maintain homeostasis.

For example, hypothalamus, a small region in the brain, is the

thermoregulatory center of the body as it regulates the body
temperature and maintains at 37 °C. When the body temperature
alters, it receives information from sensory receptor and sends signal
to the effectors to stabilize the body temperature at set point 37 °C
(98.6 °F).

5. The set point is the normal physiological value or range of values

necessary for body functions. The homeostasis control center
regulates the set points of variables for optimum function of the body
and life processes. For example, our body has the set point of 70-100
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Unit 2 Homeostasis Control System

mg/dl for blood glucose and the 37̊ °C (98.6°F) for body temperature at
which our healthy body works the best.

6. After receiving the specific signal, effectors reverse the change to

normal value and maintain homeostasis. These regulatory
mechanisms are termed as feedback mechanism. For example,
sweat glands work as effectors by releasing sweat to lower body
temperature in the body; and hepatocytes of the liver release glucose
to increase blood glucose levels. There are two types of feedback
mechanism in the homeostasis: negative and positive feedback
mechanism.

7. These are the following effector organs

a. Sweat Gland

b. Skeletal Muscle

c. Blood vessel

d. Brown adipose tissue

e. Adrenal gland

33