Student learning outcomes:

• Define homeostasis
• Homeostasis - Explain the components of a feedback
(negative and positive) systems – receptor, control centre
and effector
• Homeostasis - Describe and give examples of feedback
(negative and positive) systems
HOMEOSTASIS
 HOMEOSTASIS

• Definition: i.e. a state of keeping the internal

environment constant (equilibrium) within physiological limits (a narrow
range).
E.g. normal blood glucose – 70 – 100mg glucose per 100 mL blood
• What is the “internal environment”?
“Internal environment” is the immediate fluid surrounding the cells, the milieu
interieur (tissue fluid = interstitial fluid = intercellular fluid)

- About 60% of body is made of body fluids.

- For the body fluids, about 2/3’s are in cells (intracellular fluid) and 1/3 are outside
cells (extracellular fluid).
- The 2 fluid environment are constantly changing as they are continuously
exchanging
 Components of the body fluids

Intercellular fluid = tissue fluid = interstitial fluid

 Internal environment

• Internal environment, milieu interieur – sometimes referred

to as the extracellular fluid, ECF (fluid surrounding cells,
internal mi) but more specifically the tissue fluid.
• ECF and ICF have different compositions. i.e.
- ECF composition – large amounts of sodium (Na+), chloride
(Cl-), calcium (Ca2+) and bicarbonate ions (HCO3-), nutrients
(glucose, amino acids and fatty acids), metabolic waste (e.g.
Carbon dioxide, urea).
- ICF composition – large amounts potassium, magnesium and
phosphate ions.
 Internal environment

- All cells, tissues, organs and organ systems work together to

maintain a relatively constant internal environment (ECF) –
homeostasis.
- That is various ions, nutrients, waste products and other constituents
are maintained at a relatively a narrow range of values within the ECF.
E.g. Blood hydrogen ions kept at less than 5 x10-9 moles per liter.
E.g. Blood sodium ions kept at a few millimoles per liter.

- Powerful control systems (e.g. specialized cells, tissues, organs and

organ system) within local, regional and systemic environments
tightly regulate the blood hydrogen and sodium levels.
E.g. Blood hydrogen ions are tightly regulated by the interaction of the
renal and respiratory system
E.g. Blood sodium levels is tightly regulated by the renal system.
 CAPILLARY EXCHANGE
• ECF is transported around the body through the blood (entire
circulation goes through the body ~ 1x per minute , and ~6x per
minute during exercise) and tissue fluid.
• Homeostasis occurs at capillary level.
• Capillaries are the smallest blood vessel ~ one cell thick
• Substances (e.g. nutrients, O2,CO2 and cellular wastes) move
down their concentration gradient across between the cells, tissue
fluid and the blood capillary by diffusion (kinetic motion of
molecules.
Nutrients added into ECF Metabolic wastes removed from ECF
(Organ systems involved) (Organ systems involved)

Oxygen – taken into the body via the Carbon dioxide – removal by respiratory
respiratory system (gas exchange system
membrane 0.4 -2mm thickness)

Carbohydrates, fats and amino acids – Excess ions, water, nitrogenous waste –
absorbed from gut wall (digestive system) removed in the urine by the kidneys

Modification of molecules absorbed from Gastrointestinal tract – undigested matter

gut by liver , fat cells, gastrointestinal eliminated as feces
mucosa, kidneys and endocrinal cells

Movement to obtain food and for Liver – detoxification of drugs and

protection – Musculoskeletal systems chemicals that is eventually excreted in
the feces and urine.
Protection of the body

Immune system – 1) distinguish self cells from foreign cells and substances, 2) remove
by phagocytosis or by activated lymphocytes or specialized proteins (e.g. antibodies
or complements)

Integumentary system – cover and protect deeper tissues and organs of the body,
temperature regulation and excretion of wastes
 Disturbance in internal environment

• Normal body functions is dependent on homeostasis.

• Disturbance in homeostasis results in physiological stress
(body systems compensates to normalize the internal
environment),
• Severe disturbance in homeostasis (or inability of the body
systems and processes to compensates) results in
pathophysiological stress - diseases.
 STRESS AND HOMEOSTASIS
• Stress – is any stimuli (external and internal) that is disturbing
homeostasis
E.g. internal stresses -  blood glucose, and  acidity in ECF
E.g. external stresses - heat, cold, lack of oxygen
• There are variations of stress from mild stress  to extreme stress.
E.g. mild stress (physiological stress) - thirst and hunger
E.g. extreme stress (pathophysiological stress) - poisoning, severe
infection
• For mild stress, cells (tissues, organs and organ systems) respond
quickly to restore imbalance/ disturbance
• For extreme stress, cells (tissues, organs and organ systems) may restore
incompletely or unable to restore the imbalance/ disturbance and then
result in disease (s) or even death.
• The body has many homeostatic regulating systems to oppose the
stimuli of stress and restore internal environment.
STRESS and HOMEOSTASIS
 REGULATION OF HOMEOSTASIS
• The Nervous system and Endocrine system work together or
independently to regulate homeostasis
• 1) NERVOUS SYSTEM
- uses nerve impulses to respond to stresses in the body
- response is rapid compared to endocrinal system
E.g. Active muscle contraction – produces  CO2 and  O2 in
blood. Nerve cells detects changes in blood gases  sends
impulses to brain  brain send impulses to heart to  heart
rate  brain also sends impulses to respiratory Centre in
brain to  breathing rate  blood gases are quickly restored
back to normal.
 REGULATION OF HOMEOSTASIS

• 2) ENDOCRINAL SYSTEM
– Uses hormones to responds to stresses and to maintain
homeostasis
– Response is slower than nervous system and also is more fine
tuning.
E.g. Active muscle contraction  produces  CO2 and  O2
in blood   CO2 causes the release of epinephrine into
blood  epinephrine causes  in heart rate  delivery
to and removal of CO2 in lungs .
CONTROL MECHANISM FOR HOMEOSTASIS
• The control mechanism for homeostasis is a feedback system (or
feedback loop).
i.e. a dynamic cycle of evens in which a monitored variable (a
controlled condition e.g. body temperature) is evaluated,
monitored, changed, re-monitored, re-evaluated, etc.
- A stimulus in this loop would be any disruption in a controlled
condition.
- FEEDBACK SYSTEM has 3 parts ;
1) CONTROL CENTER
2) RECEPTOR
3) EFFECTOR
 CONTROL MECHANISM FOR HOMEOSTASIS
1) CONTROL CENTER
- Mainly the brain and other parts of the central nervous system
- Sets the values at which the controlled condition
(E.g. body temperature) is to be maintained.
- Receives input coming in from the receptors that detecting the change
in the controlled condition (signal)
- Sends output to the effectors that act to correct the disturbance in
controlled condition detected by the receptors.
2) RECEPTOR
- Monitors changes in the controlled condition and sends information
to control center. (E.g. thermo-receptors continuously sends body
temperature data to the body temperature control center in the brain)
3) EFFECTORS
- Receives information from controlled center and acts to correct
disturbances in controlled condition.
CONTROL MECHANISM FOR HOMEOSTASIS
TWO TYPES OF FEEDBACK LOOPS

1) NEGATIVE FEEDBACK LOOP

2) POSITIVE FEEDBACK LOOP

 TWO TYPES OF FEEDBACK LOOPS
• 1) NEGATIVE FEEDBACK LOOP
- the response reverses changes in controlled condition (stimuli) by
inhibiting it.
- we especially see in conditions that require frequent
monitoring and make adjustment within physiological
limits.
Example:
1. Body temperature and blood glucose level is regulated
by negative feedback system.
2. Release of thyroxine (T3 and T4 hormones) from
thyroid gland.
 TWO TYPES OF FEEDBACK LOOPS

• 2) POSITIVE FEEDBACK LOOP

- the response enhances the original stimulus (change in the
controlled condition)
- the action of positive feedback loop continues until it is
interrupted by some mechanism
- we see in conditions that does not require fine-tuning
- can be destructive and result in various disorder but
some are normal and beneficial.
 2) POSITIVE FEEDBACK LOOP
Example:
i) Blood clotting. The original signal is amplified until
blood clot forms and bleeding is under control.
Then other substances help turn off the clotting
response.
ii) At birth. Positive feedback loop results in
strengthening of labor contractions until the baby
is finally delivered.
iii) Immune response. The positive feedback loop
causes the body to amplify the signal and response
to contain and quickly remove the pathogen
(disease causing agent) from the body.
 Negative versus positive feedback system

1. Negative feedback reacts to cancel/ reverse the disturbance in

the controlled condition
-Positive feedback system reinforces the disturbance in
controlled condition. And usually an event outside the feedback
system occurs and switches it off

2. Negative feedback system is the main system regulating the

conditions in the body keeping them ~ stable. Positive feedback
conditions occur in events that does not occur very often.
E.g. CLOTTING CASCADE
DISEASE :HOMEOSTASIS and IMBALANCE

• Body processes remains within physiological limits body

cells function well homeostasis is maintained
body is healthy.

• But when body processes ( 1 or >1) loose their ability to contribute

to homeostasis. The outcomes would result in;
- (if moderate) diseases/ disorder results
- (if severe) death results
• LOCAL DISEASES - disease affecting limited part/ region of the
body.
 DISEASE:HOMEOSTASIS and
IMBALANCE
• SYSTEMIC DISEASE - disease affecting entire body or several
parts of the body.
• SYMPTOMS - Subjective changes (complains) in the
body function that a patient complains about, and is not
apparent to an observer. (e.g. pain complaint by patient)
• SIGNS - Objective changes that a clinician can observe and
measure.
- SIGNS can be ;
(ANATOMICAL changes) – Swelling, rash
(PHYSIOLOGICAL changes) – Raised blood pressure and
raised body temperature
• Epidemiology – science describing when, why, and where a
disease occurs and their transmission among individual in a
community.
• Pharmacology – science describing how medicinal drugs are
used to treat diseases.