Geotechnical characteristics of primary and secondary leach copper ore

Caractrisation gotechnique de remblais de lixiviation primaire et secondaire

J. Campaa, E. Bard, M. E. Anabaln & R. Len

Arcadis Geotcnica, Chile

ABSTRACT The design of Heap Leach Pads and Secondary Heap Leach is based mainly on hydrometallurgical variables, which determine the maximum height of the heap leach pad, the rate of irrigation, the duration of the leaching cycle, the percentage of copper recovered, etc. Nevertheless, the experience of operating these works has shown the need for incorporating geotechnical variables and considerations in to their design, with the objective of assuring the short and long-term stability and the control of infiltrations into the foundation soil. Among the most important geotechnical variables to be incorporated in the design are: grain size and index properties, saturated and partially saturated permeabilities, shear strength parameters, analysis of the potential risk for static liquefaction, basal drainage system (in some cases subjected to high pressures), liners, singularities in the foundation area, etc. It is also required to introduce geotechnical restrictions and recommendations for construction and operation, destined to sustain a safe and efficient operation of the works. In this paper, the most relevant geotechnical characteristics of some of the copper ore subjected to leaching are analyzed, obtained from several projects developed in Chile. Also the most prominent geotechnical aspects to be considered for their application in a leaching project are point out. Keywords: geotechnical properties, leaching, static liquefaction, permeability, leach pad, spent ore 1 INTRODUCCION process of one layer is finished, the new layers are placed sequentially over the previous ones. Figure N1 presents a spent ore waste rock dump and Figure N2 presents a heap leach pad currently in operation in the North of Chile.

Leaching is a hydrometallurgical process by which the metal is extracted of the ore that comply with certain metallurgical characteristics. The extracted ore from the mine is subjected to a crushing process, reducing the ores maximum particle size to less than 1". Later this ore is transported by conveyor belts or trucks to large pads where it is deposited in one or several layers, to be leached with a solution that allows for the extraction of copper. The heap leach pads are normally built in layers of variable thickness, between 3 and 10 m, over a base drainage system with an HDPE or LLDPE geomembrane. The heap leach pads are classified as Dynamic Heap Leach Pads or Permanent Heap Leach Pads. In Dynamic Heap Leach Pads, also called on-off, the leached ore is removed and sent to a dump. This leached ore, commonly called spent ore, may eventually be subjected to a secondary leaching process in the same dumps. The Permanent Heap Leach Pads are those in which, once the leaching

Figure N1: Secondary Heap Leach. Copper mine located in the North of Chile. Source: Google Earth (2006).

Figure N2: Heap Leach Pad. Copper mine located in the North of Chile. Source: Google Earth (2006).

GEOTECHNICAL PROBLEMS IN THE DESIGN OF HEAP LEACH PADS AND SECONDARY HEAP LEACH

Stability and static Liquefaction: During the entire operation, it must be assured the local and global stability of the works to avoid affecting operators, facilities, and equipment. In general, in heap leach pads and secondary heap leach, the ore as well as the spent ore are stockpiled with a low density and due to the process, present high moisture contents. In the case of the ore, these tend to present high moisture content due to the irrigation, even being capable of reaching saturation caused by the increase of the phreatic level. In the case of the spent ore, these may present high moisture content remaining from the leaching process. In addition, depending on the heights of the secondary heap leach, the spent ore may reach a condition close to saturation. When the materials present low compaction and elevated degree of saturation, these structures present a risk of static liquefaction (see Figure N3).
Scarp Displaced block Cracks

In general, the design of heap leach pads and secondary heap leach is based mainly in hydrometallurgical variables, which determine the maximum height of the heap leach pad, the rate of irrigation, the duration of the leaching cycle, the percent of copper recovered, among other aspects. Nevertheless, the experience of operating these heaps leach has shown the importance of incorporating geotechnical variables in their design for a safe and efficient operation, as well as for closure. Among the relevant geotechnical variables are: Grain size and permeability: to perform the process of heap leaching, it is necessary that the stockpiled material present a permeability suitable for the application of irrigation rates that allows for an efficient recovery. Ore with a high sand and fines content present reduced permeabilities. These materials, in general, require an agglomeration process that modifies the original grain size and leads to an increase in permeability. Due to their compressibility, they present a significant reduction of the permeability when subjected to overburden and irrigation. Therefore, they are commonly operating in heap leach pads of low height. On the other hand, minerals with a coarse grain size (low content of sands and fines) present greater permeabilities, which allow for the use of irrigation rates and heap leach pads of greater heights. During the construction period, it is necessary to avoid segregation of these materials, which generate preferential flow paths that lead to non-uniform leaching. In addition, the leaching may contribute to the formation of fines by the effect of chemical crushing, as the solution penetrates microfissure or dissolve the materials filling fissures of the rocks. This effect makes necessary perform a geotechnical characterization the material before and after being subjected to irrigation with leaching solutions.

Flow Failure Sliding area

Figure N3: Landslide in a secondary heap leach by possible static liquefaction. Bard et al, 2004

Drainage System: the objective of the process is to collect the leaching solutions, rich in copper. In addition to this function, the drainage system must avoid the rise in phreatic level in the interior of the heap leach pad (or eventually secondary heap leach), which could seriously affect its stability. According to the experience of the authors, the greatest stability problems that present the heap leach deposits are associated with a deficient functioning of the drainage system. Normally, the drainage system is constituted by perforated pipes that capture the leaching solutions. When the mineral presents a reduced permeability, the pipes must be inserted in a drainage layer constituted of a material of higher permeability and with filter-like characteristics (to avoid clogging by fines). Geomembrane liner: both for process and environmental reasons, it is indispensable to prevent the leachate solutions from infiltrating into the foundation soil. Heap Leach Pads and, in general, Secondary Heap Leach are placed over an impermeable surface, constituted by HDPE, LLDPE, or similar geomembrane. These geomembranes not only must be chemically stable but also must be resistant to puncture and also present adequate shear strength at

the interface with the ore to avoid constituting a preferential failure surface. 3 CARACTERIZATION OF THE LEACHED MATERIALS

In the following paragraphs, the most relevant geotechnical characteristics are summarize that, in the opinion of the authors, may condition the design of a heap leach pad or a secondary heap leach. 3.1 Grain Size During the development of metallurgical tests in pilot plants, it is common to perform grain size tests on samples conditioned for such tests, obtaining in this manner an extensive and valuable data base. Nevertheless, in these tests it is common to only tests the material over the #100 sieve and, in some cases, the grain size is determined by dry sieving.
100
Project 1: 14 < %F < 32

compaction, and fines plasticity, among others, condition this property. During the leaching processes, the permeability of the ore is affected by the increase in fines content (mechanical and chemical crushing), by the fines movement, by the densification of its selfweight, by the formation of preferential flow paths, etc. Figure N5 presents a summary of saturated permeability, both in-situ as well as laboratory, in different materials subjected to leaching. From this figure it can be seen that there is a wide range of variation, even for a single density. Generally, the lower permeabilities are associated with high fines content and/or medium to high densities, similar to those expected in secondary heap leach of great heights, due to the effect of compaction by its selfweight.
10-1 Saturated Permeability, ks (cm/s) 10-2
-3

90
Project 2: 6 < %F < 12

10

80
Project 3: 10 < %F < 27

70

10-4
-5

% Passing

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0.01

Project 4: 7 < %F < 29 %F: Fine material (< 0.074mm)

10

10-6 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2 Dry Density, d (x10 kN/m3) 2.1 2.2

Figure N5: Spent ore. Variation of saturated permeability v/s density. Arcadis Data Base.
0.1 1 10 100

Grain Size (mm)

3.3 Density In static heap leach pads and secondary heap leach, it is relevant to know the increase in density of the spent ore due to its selfweight, to quantify the evolution of the level of saturation by densification or analyze eventual variations of the strength properties of the deposited materials. In the interior of the heap leach pad or the secondary heap leach, far away from the slopes, the stress state may be associated, in a first approximation, to a geostatic state (H=kov), reason why the evolution of the density by its selfweight may be estimated from large scale oedometer tests. Figure N6 summarizes the results of a series of oedometer tests, performed on different materials that have been or will be subjected to leaching. In general, the evolution of the dry density from the different materials tested follows a common tendency. The initial density at which the different samples were made corresponds to the dump density, determined from in-situ tests. It must be considered that there is an initial densification produced when irrigation begins, ap-

Figure N4: Grain size curves of 4 copper leaching projects in Chile. Arcadis Data Base.

Figure N4 presents the grain size curves of 4 different leaching projects. For a same project, it can be seen that the fines content varies in a wide range. On the other hand, when analyzing the grain size of the ore before and after the leaching, it observes a chemical crushing can be detected that modifies the fraction of sands and fines. The fines content, in some cases, may reach to more than double the original content (Bard et al, 2004). It is especially important to keep this effect in mind given that it affects the drainage capacity of the material and that of the base drainage system. 3.2 Permeability Notwithstanding that the materials that constitute the leaching deposits come from a controlled industrial process, it is common to see its permeability vary in a wide range. Factors such as grain size,

proximately 10% of the layer thick, only by the effect of particles arrangement.
2.0

Dry Density (x 10 kN/m3)

1.9 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Leach ore: 9% Fines (oedometer test) Leach ore: 10% Fines (oedometer test) Leach ore: Fines <10% (oedometer test) Leach ore: Fines <14% (oedometer test) Leach ore: 15% Fines (oedometer test) Leach ore:15% Fines (oedometer test) Leach ore: Fines <20% (oedometer test) Leach ore:10- 20% Fines (topographic survey) Leach ore: 21% Fines (oedometer test) Leach ore: 31% Fines (oedometer test) Leach ore: 20% - 40% Fines (oedometer test)

posits. In effect, levels of saturation above 85% usually generate percolation and in the case of insufficient drainage, an increase in pore pressure that may lead to the reduction of the shear strength of the material and triggering static liquefaction.
100 95

Saturation (%)

90 85 80 75 70 1 10 100

Overburden (m)

Figure N6: Evolution of the dry density due to overburden (selfweight). Arcadis Data Base.

Overburden (m)

Figure N7 presents the results of Modified Proctor compaction tests for two spent ores with different fines contents. Therefore, the density that the material achieves by compaction under its selfweight may be deduced from Figure N6 and the corresponding grade of compaction (GC) may be estimated from Figure N7. For example, for an spent ore with a 12% fines content, stockpiled under an overburden height of 40 m, it may be estimated, according to Figure N6, that the lower layers will reach a density in the order of 18 kN/m3 to 19 kN/m3. These are equivalent to a GC between 88% and 93% of the maximum compacted dry density obtained from the Modified Proctor test. Note that material deposited by dumping reaches a GC between 78% and 85%.
23

Figure N8: Example of a theoretical evolution of the level of saturation in spent ore, as a function of overburden, for a specific grain size and density evolution. Arcadis Data Base.

3.4 Flow in partially saturated conditions In the case of heap leach pads and secondary heap leach, the leaching solutions mainly flow through a partially saturated medium. To know the characteristics of this flow, it is necessary to estimate the permeability curves and the moisture content curves of the materials. To know these hydraulic properties not only allows an estimation of the applicable irrigation rate and to design an economical, efficient drainage system, with a duration in accordance to the useful life of the project, but also contributes to the quantification of the minimum time, necessary to allow for the drainage of the heap leach pad, once leaching has been finished. In regards to this aspect of the process, it is worth highlighting that for those materials with an important sands and fines content, with high moisture retention, an insufficient postleaching period leads to problem with material handling (difficult to ride on top of, to load and transport, and to take to the dump) and allows for the occurrence of a fluid failure or static liquefaction in the secondary heap leach. To estimate the moisture content at which the flow is started, the necessary drainage times before removing the heap leach pads, the retention capacity of the spent ore, etc., it is common to use metallurgical irrigation tests, which are developed in columns or gabions. These pilot tests, that simulate the operating conditions of the heap leach pads or secondary heap leach, have the objective of determining the hydrometallurgical characteristics of the material. Nevertheless, they are limited by the representativeness of the samples, by scale effects, by border conditions of the columns and gabions, etc.

S=100%
22

1 12% Fines 2 20% Fines

Dry Density (kN/m3)

21 20 19 2 18 17 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 1 1 2

Moisture Content (%)

Figure N7: Example of results of Modified Proctor Tests in spent ore with different fines contents. Arcadis Data Base.

From the information provided by Figure N6, the saturation curves can be estimated, such as the one plotted in Figure N8, in which the increase of the saturation level of a deposited material with constant moisture by the effect of its selfweight is indicated. This type of analyzes is especially important in the case of permanent heap leach pads and spent ore de-

q= (1-3)/2

It is possible to estimate the hydraulic properties in partially saturated conditions (permeability and moisture content curves) by numerical models of flow, so as to reproduce the hydraulic balances determined in the metallurgical irrigation tests. Both curves are calibrated based on the results of the irrigation tests. Once these curves are calibrated, it is possible to extrapolate the results of the column test to the heap leach pad or secondary heap leach, of any dimension and with any irrigation rate. Figure N9 illustrates an example where the moisture content curve and variation of permeability were obtained and the drainage curve of a test column was verified.
Volumetric water content
0.4

3.5 Static liquefaction The static liquefaction is characterized by a sudden loss in the shear strength in a loose granular material, by passing from a drained to an undrained condition, triggering by the pore pressure increase. This behavior may be provoked by the effect of its selfweight only. Figure N10 presents a sketch of the loss of shear strength of a material of low density by undrained conditions.
Drained

Undrained

a)
0.3

Su

0.2

1 (%)

Figure N10: Sketch of the evolution of the shear strength due to the increase of pore pressure, undrained condition.
0.1 1 10
-3 -4

10

100

1000

Suction (kPa) Conductivity k (cm/s)

10

10-5 10
-6

b)

10-7 10-8 10 10
-9 -10

Slope failures associated with the occurrence of static liquefaction have been described by Professor N. Morgenstern in waste rock dumps at coal mines in Canada (Dawson R.F. et. al. 1998), which have mobilized large amount of materials along long distances with flow-type sliding. The main characteristics that a granular material must present to have the potential for static liquefaction are: Relatively fine grain size with more than 20% of the particles smaller than 2 mm, Saturated permeability 10-2 cm/s, Low density (e> 0.3), Degree of saturation (S) such that the liquid phase be continuous in the interior of the material (S>85 %), External perturbation such as an increase of loads, variation in the phreatic level, etc.

10-11
10
-2

10

-1

10

10

10

10

10

Suction (kPa)
1.1 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 1 2
Model Data test 1 Data test 2

c)

Q/Qo

Q= Drainage Qo= Maximum drainage

Drainage time (day)

Figure N9. a) Moisture content curve. b) Conductivity variation. c) Calibration of drainage of column test. Spent ore with 20% fines. Arcadis Data Base.

Nevertheless, if the information or resources to perform the analysis previously described are not available, it is possible to estimate, at a preliminary level, the characteristic curve of the moisture of the material, from the grain size, according to the methodology proposed by Arya & Paris (1981). The permeability curve may be estimated from the moisture content curve, applying the method developed by Green & Corey (1971).

In general, all of these conditions are present in dynamic and permanent heap leach pads as well as in secondary heap leach. Figure N11 indicates the undrained strength, Su, deduced from triaxial tests on spent ore samples. An important dispersion of results, due to the different grain sizes, lithologyies, and densities of the samples. The results of the previous triaxial tests show the importance of assuring a good drainage system, either by collecting the solutions rich in copper, to warrant the short and long term stability of the facilities. This condition could be especially critical for permanent heap leach pads and secondary heap leach.

9% Fines 19% Fines 13% Fines 23% Fines 10% Fines 17% Fines 9% Fines 25% Fines 23% Fines 21% Fines 10%? Fines

Su (MPa)

Su = 0.45 '3
Su = 0.30 '3
Su = 0.15 '3

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Confining Pressure, 3' (MPa) Figure N11: Variation of the undrained strength for different types of spent ore. Arcadis Data Base.

CONCLUSIONS

Until recent times, the design of heap leach pads and secondary heap leach considered for the static and pseudo-static stability analysis a drained condition. Nevertheless, experience has demonstrated that under specific circumstance the drained conditions change to undrained condition and consequently the shear strength could be decrease. For this reason it is necessary to complement these analyses with other geotechnical considerations for the designs. Experience has demonstrated that due to inappropriately geotechnical characterizing of the ore o spent ore, could be occurs landslide, decrease in permeability, undesired increases in phreatic level, preferential flow paths that affect the efficiency of leaching process, among others, during operations of the heap leach and secondary heap leach. In addition, it is important that during previous studies and in the design stages, a fluid exchange of information take place between metallurgical and geotechnical engineers, since the information generated by both disciplines are complementary. The main geotechnical aspects that must be solved for this type of project are: - Characterize the materials before and after leaching: determine the permeability, shear strength parameters, evolution of the undrained strength with the confining pressure (Su/3), evolution of the density under the effects of selfweight, effect of fine generation by chemical and mechanical crushing, - Evaluate the potential risk for static liquefaction and propose corresponding mitigation measures, - Make compatible the geotechnical restrictions with the irrigation sequence established in the operation plan. - In addition, it must be incorporated into the design studies associated with:

Drain material that will constitute the drainage layer. In North of Chile, it is difficult to find natural materials suitable for drains or filters, Incorporate in the design that the drainage layer must have characteristics of filter-drains, which prevents its clogging and decrease in drainage capacity. In addition, the drainage layer must serve as a protection layer for the geomembrane, Mechanical characterization of the interface between the foundation soil, geomembrane, and drainage layer. This interface could be constitute a preferential failure surface, Implement a monitoring system that alerts, from the extraction of the materials in the pit, the presence of materials that do not comply with the design assumptions (greater amount of clay, for example), so as to strategically dispose of them to avoid affecting the stability of the heap leach pad or secondary heap leach, Implement systematic monitoring systems of phreatic levels, as well as slope deformation. This last one is of especial importance in the spent ore dumps, Implement monitoring systems for eventual seepage. REFERENCES

Andrade C., Bard E., Campaa J., Paredes L., (Octubre 1997). Caracterizacin Geotcnica de Interfaces de materiales granulares y geomembranas, 4 Congreso Chileno de Ingeniera Geotcnica Valparaso, Chile. Andrade, C., Bard, E., Garrido, H., Campaa, J., (2000). Radomiro Tomic Secondary Heap Leach Facility. Slope Stability in Surface Mining, pp. 427-434, W. A. Hustrulid, M. K. McCarter, and D. J. A. Van Zyl, Eds. Littleton, Colorado, SME. ARCADIS Geotcnica, Base de Datos de varios proyectos Bard E., Campaa J., Andrade C.,(2000). Depsitos de Ripios Lixiviados Caracterizacin interfaz de material granular y geomembrana. 3er Congreso de Minera del Per. HuarazPer. Bard, E., Campaa, J., Garrido, H., (2003). Depsito de Ripios Lixiviados Caracterizacin interfaz de material granular y geomembrana. 12 Congreso Panamericano de Suelos y Fundaciones, Boston, USA. Bard, E., Campaa, J., (2004). Aspectos Geotcnicos en el Diseo de Pilas y Botaderos de Ripios Lixiviados. V Congreso Chileno de Ingeniera Geotcnica, Santiago. Codelco Educa, www.codelcoeduca.cl. Dawson, R., Morgenstern, N., Stokes, A., (1998). Liquefaction Flowslides in Rocky Mountain Coal Mine Waste Dumps. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 35, pp 328-343. Thiel, R., Smith, M., (Julio 2002). Potential Problems in Dump Leaching, Mining Magazine. Sabatini et al., (Julio 2002), Evaluation of soils and rock properties, FHWA-IF-02-034, Geotechnical Engineer Circular N5. Arya, L. & Paris, J. (1981) A Physicoempirical Model to Predict the Soil Moisture Characteristic from Particle Size Distribution and Soil Density Data. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., Vol. 45.