Predicate Formulas
In mathematical logic, a predicate formula is an expression used in predicate calculus (also
known as first-order logic) to represent logical statements involving objects and their
properties or relationships. Predicate formulas extend propositional logic by incorporating
variables and quantifiers, allowing for more detailed and structured representation of
statements.
Structure of a Predicate Formula
A predicate formula generally consists of the following elements:
• Predicate Symbols: Represent properties or relationships. For example, P(x) might
mean “x is a prime number”, and R(x, y) might mean “x is greater than y”.
• Variables: Represent individual objects in the domain of discourse. These are usually
denoted by lowercase letters like x, y, and z.
• Quantifiers:
o Universal Quantifier (∀): Used to express that a statement applies to all
elements. Example: ∀x P(x) means “P(x) is true for all x”.
o Existential Quantifier (∃): Used to express that a statement applies to at least
one element. Example: ∃x P(x) means “There exists an x for which P(x) is
true”.
• Logical Connectives: Combine multiple formulas using connectives such as:
o ¬ (not)
o ∧ (and)
o ∨ (or)
o → (implies)
Examples of Predicate Formulas
1. “There exists a man.”
This means some x is a man.
• Predicate: M(x): x is a man
• Formula: ∃x (M(x))
2. “Some men are clever.”
This means there exists a man x such that x is clever.
o Predicates:
• M(x): x is a man
• C(x): x is clever
o Formula: ∃x (M(x) ∧ C(x))
3. “Some real numbers are rational.”
• Predicates:
o R₁(x): x is a real number
o R₂(x): x is a rational number
• Formula: ∃x (R₁(x) ∧ R₂(x))
4. “Every number is greater than or equal to itself.”
• Predicates:
o G(x): x is greater than or equal to itself
• Predicate Formula: ∀x G(x)
5. “If a number is even, then it is divisible by 2.”
• Predicates:
o E(x): x is even
o D(x): x is divisible by 2
• Predicate Formula: ∀x (E(x) → D(x))
o This reads: "For all x, if x is even, then x is divisible by 2."
6.“Some students like math and some do not.”
• Predicate:
o S(x): x is a student
o L(x): x likes math
• Predicate Formula:
∃x (S(x) ∧ L(x)) ∧ ∃y (S(y) ∧ ¬L(y))
o There exists a student who likes math and a student who does not like math.
7.“All prime numbers are greater than 1.”
• Predicate:
o P(x): x is prime
• Predicate Formula: ∀x (P(x) → x > 1)
Free and Bound Variables
Free Variable
A free variable is a variable not associated with any quantifier (like ∀ or ∃) within a logical
expression.
Its value is not fixed, meaning the expression’s truth value may depend on what the variable
stands for.
Let:
• P(x) = "x is a prime number"
The formula:
P(x) ∧ Q(y)
Here:
• x and y are free variables (no quantifier binds them).
• This expression is not a complete statement, because it cannot be evaluated as true or
false without knowing values for x and y.
Bound Variable
A bound variable is a variable that is within the scope of a quantifier like ∀x (for all x) or ∃x
(there exists an x).
Bound variables are placeholders that range over the universe of discourse.
Let:
• P(x) = "x is a prime number"
The formula:
∀x P(x)
Here:
• x is a bound variable, because it is governed by the quantifier ∀x
• This is a complete statement. It can be evaluated as either true or false, depending on
the universe of discourse.
Examples:
(a) ∀x (P(x) ∧ R(y)) → ∃z P(z)
• Bound variables:
o x (bound by ∀)
o z (bound by ∃)
• Free variable:
o y is free, not inside any quantifier scope
• This is not a statement (because of free variable y)
(b) ∀x (P(x) ∧ ∃y (Q(y) ∨ P(x)))
• Bound variables:
o x (by ∀),
o y (by ∃)
• Free variables:
o None — all variables are bound
• This is a statement (can be evaluated)
(c) ∃x (P(x) ∧ Q(z)) ∧ ∃z R(z)
• Bound variables:
o x (in ∃x),
o z (only in ∃z R(z))
• Free variables:
o z in Q(z) is free, not bound inside the first part
• This is not a statement
(d) ∀x (P(x) → ∃y (Q(y) ∧ ∃z R(z)))
• Bound variables:
o x, y, z (all bound by respective quantifiers)
• Free variables:
o None
• This is a statement
Note: A formula is a statement only if all its variables are bound by quantifiers; if it contains
free variables, it is not a complete statement and cannot be evaluated as true or false.
Universe of Discourse
The Universe of Discourse (UoD) is the set of all elements over which a variable in a logical
formula can range. It defines the domain of interpretation for the variables used in predicate
logic.
• The truth value of a predicate formula depends on the universe over which the
variables are interpreted.
• Without specifying the universe, the meaning of the formula can be unclear or
incorrect.
• UoD helps us determine:
o Whether a predicate applies to an object.
o Whether a logical statement is true or false.
Let,
Statement: “All men are giants.”
• M(x) = x is a man
• G(x) = x is a giant
• General Universe:
∀x (M(x) → G(x))
o Meaning:
For all x (no matter what it is), if x is a man, then x is a giant.
• Restricted Universe (only men):
∀x G(x) → now x already ranges over men, so M(x) is omitted.
Types
1. Explicit Universe: Clearly defined set (e.g., {1, 2, 3, 4})
2. Implicit Universe: Assumed based on context (e.g., “all people”, “all real numbers”)
Examples:
1. Statement: ∀x (x² ≥ 0)
Meaning: “For every x, x squared is greater than or equal to 0.”
o Universe 1: Real numbers (ℝ)
True – because square of any real number is always ≥ 0
o Universe 2: Complex numbers (ℂ)
true – because square of any complex number has a non-negative magnitude
o So: The statement is universally true for these universes.
2. Statement: ∃x (x < 0)
o Meaning: “There exists a number x such that x is less than 0.”
o Universe 1: Natural numbers (ℕ = {1, 2, 3, …})
False – natural numbers do not include negatives.
o Universe 2: Integers (ℤ = {…, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, …})
True – there are negative numbers in ℤ.
o So: Whether the statement is true or false depends on the universe.
3. Statement: ∀x (x is a student ⇒ x takes exams)
o Universe: All students in your class
True – if all students take exams.
o Universe: All people in the world
Not necessarily true – not everyone is a student.
o So: A statement can become invalid if the wrong universe is assumed.
4. Statement: ∃x (x is a bird ∧ x can talk)
o Universe 1: All birds
True – parrots can talk.
o Universe 2: All animals
Still true – parrots are included.
o Universe 3: Only cats
False – no cats can talk like birds.
o The universe controls who or what x can be.
