UNIT – 3

PSYCHOPHYSICS (PP)

 Psychophysics is that branch of psychology which

studies the relationship between actual (physical
stimulus) and perceived (sensory experience).
 Psychophysics is a study of r/s between physical
stimuli (length, weight, brightness), and
sensations.
 Psychophysicists we are not psychologist, but they
remain within traditional disciplines of training,
example, physiology, physics and philosophy.
 Psychophysics is the branch of psychology which is
concerned with subjective measurements.
 It is considered a science because it investigates
the quantitative r/s between physical events and
corresponding psychological events.

Historical Perspective:
1. Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801-1887) is considered
to be the architect and builder of “Psychophysical
Edifice”. To its founder, psychophysics was the science
of functional relation between mind and body. He was
considered that mine and body were identical or
merely different sides of the coin.

 Fechner coined the term psychophysics.

 He introduced fundamental methods for
psychophysical experiments.
 He did elaborate experiments in this field.
 Fechner’s classic “elemente der psychophysik”
(1860) is the monumental work in psychophysics
where, and he has tried to establish quantitative
attitude toward mental phenomena.

Thus, psychophysics has lost the philosophical

significance attached to it and has emerged as an
applied branch of Experimental Psychology making its
way into varied fields.
To conclude, Psychophysics (Psychology + Physics), is
the study of r/s between magnitude of sensation and
physical intensity of the stimulus that evoked the
sensation.

Definitions of PP
  According to Gulliksen (1946), “PP is that branch of
psychology, which is concerned with the r/s
between physical measurement and subjective
measurement.”
 According to Schijjman (1996), “PP is the study of
quantitative r/s between environmental
stimulation (physical dimension) and sensory
experience (psychological dimension).”
 According to Encyclopaedia Britannica Online
(2000), “PP is the study of quantitative relations
between psychological events and physical events,
or more specifically, between sensations and the
stimuli that produce them.”

Problems of PP
OR
Important Terms/Concepts Related to PP

Problems of PP are related to the selective capacity of

the organism, his/her ability to respond in different
ways to different stimuli.
1. Detection – One of the major problems PP deals
with is that of detection. It refers to the perception
of presence of the stimulus. We become aware of
a stimulus only when its energy level is high
enough to stimulate our sensory system.

2. Threshold – The problem of detection is

concerned with the intensity of the stimulus, being
sensed. This minimal value of stimulus which is
perceptible is called the threshold.
 A threshold is defined as a boundary at which
change takes place.
 The term “threshold” was first of all used by
Johann Herbert (1824) 20 when he defined “
Threshold of Consciousness”.
 The word “ threshold” and its German
equivalent ”Limen” means “ a boundary
separating the stimuli that ill one response
from the stimuli that illicit a different
response”.
 Threshold is defined statically as “ the minimal
amount of physical stimulus that produces a
sensation in 50% of the trials”.
 Threshold varies from subject to subject. Even
for the same individual, the threshold has to
 be measured repeatedly and an average is to
be found. It’s exact location varies from
moment to moment.

Thus, a threshold is always a statistical rather than a

real value.
 A concept very closely related to threshold is
sensitivity.

Sensitivity – An organism is equipped with a number of

receptor organs that respond to particular energy
changes in the environment. The capacity of the
receptor organs to respond selectively and
differentially to physical stimulation is called sensitivity.
It varies from individual to individual and even
in the same individual, from time to time.

Threshold and Sensitivity:

a) Threshold is inversely related to the concept of
sensitivity. Example, that only a low intensity of
the stimuli is required for us to say, “I detect the
stimulus”. it means that we are sensitive to that
stimulus. Lower the threshold, higher the
sensitivity and vice versa.
 After a long stay in bright light, we
become less sensitive and hence are
threshold for perceiving light increases.
But a few minutes stay in darkness makes
us very sensitive and our threshold for
perceiving dim light goes down
dramatically.
Hence, the index of sensitivity and
threshold.
b)Sensitivity describes the capacity of the organism
to respond. Threshold describes the stimulus
strength that evokes the said response.
c) Two types of sensitivity are: Absolute and
Differential sensitivity, which correspond to
Absolute Differential threshold.
Absolute Sensitivity – It is referred to as the
limit of the organisms capacity to respond to
stimulation.
Differential Sensitivity – It refers to as the
organisms capacity to respond to differences
that is qualitative and quantitative between
stimuli.
3. Types of Threshold: Usually, the threshold
problems of PP is studied under three topics:

Types of Threshold

Absolute Terminal Differential

1. Absolute Threshold – (different names for it )
Absolute Limen (AL)
Lower Threshold
Lower Stimuli Threshold
Stimulus Threshold
Reiz Limen (RL)

 AL is defined as the minimum value of a physical

stimulus that evokes a sensation.
 Statistically, it is defined as the value of the stimuli
which evokes a positive response on 50% of trials.
 According to Eysenck (1972), “ AL refers to the
value of a quantitative variable at which a stimulus
is detectable.” Example, a ticking watch is kept at a
certain distance from your ear, and you are not
able to hear it. Therefore, the intensity is below
the point on the physical continuum, but when it is
brought a bit near, you are able to hear it’s ticking
sound. This intensity of the sound that made you
feel its presence is the absolute Limen or
Threshold.
2. Terminal or Upper Threshold (TL) – Every sense
has its limit beyond which it yields no greater
sensation. This limit is terminal threshold - the
maximum stimuli beyond which no further
sensation can be registered or stimulation is too
painful. It is that on the physical scale beyond
which no increase in stimulus produces any
appreciable increase in sensation.

TL is differently defined in different senses.

 For cutaneous pressure and loudness of sound

- it, the notes a stimulus intensity that just
begins to be painful.
 For pitch - it denotes vibration frequency
(about 20,000 cycles per second) above which
no tone can be heard.
 For light - it denotes ultraviolet stimulation.

3. Differential Threshold (Differential Limen or DL) –

It is the minimum amount of stimulus exchange
required to produce a sensation of difference.
Statically, it is defined as the minimum stimulus
difference which gives rise to judgement of
 difference, at least 50% of the time. According to
D’Amato (1951), “Differential Limen is the
minimum amount of stimulus required to produce
a sensation difference.”
Example, we are listening to the music and
suddenly volume is raised or lowered, and we find
difference between previously heard one and that
of present one. This point which has discriminated
two volumes in music dimension is DL.
 The determination of DL always implies two
stimulus intensities, the difference between
which is to be perceived.

 Just Noticeable Difference (JND): It is the

difference in sensation benefited by two stimuli
that are separated by one DL.

 Point of Subjective Equality (PSE): There can be

two categories of responses as far as the
judgement of differences is concerned - same or
different. However, these judgements do not
necessarily relate to the actual physical
characteristics of the stimuli.
 PSE is defined as that comparison and
stimulus, which is most likely to result in a
 judgement of the same. It might be in some
cases, actually respond to the physical
characteristics of the stimuli, but this is not
important on necessity. It usually does not do
so.

Psychophysical Methods (PPM)

PPM are procedures by which the experiment may

quantify relations between the stimulus and the
sensation or experiences that follow.
According to Underwood (1965), “Methods used to
study the stimulus response r/s in the situations in
which stimuli are varied along a physical dimension are
commonly called PPM.”

Aims or Goals of PPM:

 The obvious purpose of PPM is to investigate
the quantitative r/s between subjective
measurement of these stimuli (as judged by
the subject) and objective measurement by
the physical scales.
 These methods intend to discover some
definite quantitative relation between physical
 stimulus and resulting sensation or experience
by manipulation of the physical stimulus
dimensions.

Types of PPM

1st Criteria 2nd Criteria

Stimulus situations in which Situations in which variation in
variation is described by stimuli cannot be meaningfully
physical dimension. described by physical dimension.

Classification on Basis by 2nd Criteria

I II

Paired
MO Units Comparison
Method

MO Average
Rank Order
Errors

MO Constant
Stimuli Rating
 1. Method of Limits

 It is a popular method of determining Absolute

Threshold.
 It was so named by Kraepelin (1891) is a series of
stimulus ends when the subject has reached that
limit where he changes his judgement.
 DIFFERENT NAMES -Guilford (1954) prefers to call
this method, “The Method of Minimal Changes”
because the stimulus sequence is varied with a
minimum change in its magnitude in each
presentation.
 Also known as method of Serial Exploration
because of the procedure, which consists of
descending and ascending series, each carried far
enough to locate momentary transition point or
Threshold from one response category to another.
 Also called method of Just Noticeable Difference or
Method of Least Noticeable Difference.

Characteristics of Method of Limits:

 Stimulation is changed by minimum amount.
 It has ascending or descending series.
  Minimum unit of change decided remains constant
for all trials.

Aim - This method is used to determine the threshold

of subject’s sensitivity, and there are two sensory
threshold, which have been defined:
 Absolute threshold
 Differential threshold

Procedure - It consists of the experimenters gradually

lowering the intensity or value of a stimulus until it is
no longer perceived by the subject or by increasing or
decreasing the value of two stimuli until it becomes
JND or by increasing value of a stimulus until it is no
longer perceived.

Method of Limits used in Measurement or

Determination of AL
 The determination of AL in this method, is most
accurately performed by using an ascending and a
descending series of presentation.

 Ascending series - The experimenter gradually

increases stimulus value from a point well
 below the possible threshold of the subjects
to a point where the subject reports sensation
of the stimulus.
 Descending series - The experimenter explores
the series in a descending fashion by lowering
the stimulus from a point well above the
sensation point to a point where subject
reports no sensation of the stimulus.

 The midpoint where these two determined points

is taken as AL.
 The threshold thus found in each series is also
called transition point above, which subject
changes his or her response in ascending and
below, he or she also changes his or her response
in descending series.
 Calculation of AL: (in table 13.1)

Method of Limits used in Measurement or

Determination of DL
DL allows the experimenter to answer the problem of
just how much change must take place in a stimulus
before a subject is able to report accurately a change.
The ascending and descending series of presentation
are applied here as well for an accurate result.
 Calculation of DL: (in table 13.2)

Types of Errors in Method of Limits

Possible Errors in Method of Limits

Error of Habituation Error of Anticipation

or or
Error of Preservation Error of Expectation

1. Error of Habituation –