NEXRES 2 (2025) 100969

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Digital twin innovations for induction motor monitoring and predictive

maintenance: A 2020–2025 review
Pravin Phutane * , Sudarshan Chavan , Hitendra Pawar 1 , Sanket Mane 1 ,
Vaibhav Barde 1
Department of Electrical Engineering, JSPMs Rajarshi Shahu College of Engineering, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Digital Twin (DT) technology is transforming how industries monitor and maintain induction motors. A DT acts
Digital twin (DT) as a virtual replica of a real motor, using live sensor data to track health, detect faults early, and predict potential
Induction motor failures. This review analyzes 60 research studies published between 2020 and 2025, focusing on DT frameworks
Predictive maintenance
that integrate sensors, simulations, and artificial intelligence for predictive maintenance. Reported results show
Fault diagnosis
Remaining useful life (RUL)
that DT-based systems achieve up to 25% higher fault detection accuracy, reduce downtime by 15–30%, and
Machine learning improve operational efficiency by 10–20% compared with traditional methods. The paper discusses the core
Finite element method components of a DT—physical, communication, data processing, modeling, and application layers—and com­
Condition monitoring (FEM) pares the most common implementation approaches, including finite element modeling, machine learning, and
Edge–cloud computing cloud–edge integration. Key challenges such as limited fault data, model drift, cybersecurity risks, and the lack of
Blockchain security standardized frameworks are highlighted. Future directions include self-learning DTs, blockchain-based security,
and plug-and-play architectures for seamless industrial deployment. This review offers a quantitative and
comprehensive perspective on recent advancements, supporting both researchers and engineers in developing
smarter, more reliable motor maintenance systems.

MQTT Message Queuing Telemetry Transport

OPC-UAOpen Platform Communications Open Platform
List of abbreviations CommunicationsUnified Architecture
DT Digital Twin LoRa Long Range
RUL Remaining Useful Life LoRaWAN Long Range Wide Area Network
FEM Finite Element Method TLS Transport Layer Security
AI Artificial Intelligence IPFS Inter Planetary File System
XAI Explainable Artificial Intelligence QA Quality Assessment
IoT Internet of Things
ML Machine Learning 1. Introduction
LSTM Long Short-Term Memory
SVM Support Vector Machine Induction motors play a main role in modern industry, powering
RL Reinforcement Learning everything from pumps and fans to compressors, electric vehicles, and
DRL Deep Reinforcement Learning conveyor belts [1,2]. Their performance and reliability have a direct
MEMS Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems impact on the efficiency and output of manufacturing plants and utility
HMI Human–Machine Interface operations. With constant, heavy-duty use, however, these machines
CMMS Computerized Maintenance Management System face wear and tear—common issues include bearing damage, rotor bar
ERP Enterprise Resource Planning

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: phutanepravin@[Link] (P. Phutane), sudarshanlc72@[Link] (S. Chavan), pawarhitendra53@[Link] (H. Pawar), msanket2005@
[Link] (S. Mane), vaibhavbarde967304@[Link] (V. Barde).
1
UG Students

[Link]
Received 20 August 2025; Received in revised form 11 October 2025; Accepted 22 October 2025
Available online 24 October 2025
3050-4759/© 2025 Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
P. Phutane et al. Next Research 2 (2025) 100969

cracks, stator winding faults, and misaligned air gaps [3,4]. Such 2.3. Exclusion criteria
problems often lead to costly downtime, higher maintenance expenses,
and wasted energy [5,6]. Studies were excluded if they:
To reduce these risks, many industries are moving toward predictive Focused on equipment other than motors (e.g., turbines, batteries, or
maintenance strategies built around DT technology [7,8]. In simple structural systems) [12]
terms, a DT is a live, virtual counterpart of a physical motor. It updates Discussed only simulation or modeling without a DT framework [32]
continuously with sensor readings—such as temperature, current draw, Were non-peer-reviewed, abstract-only, or conference summaries
vibration, and rotational speed [9,10]—allowing engineers to track the [33]
motor’s health in real time. Using a mix of simulation models and ma­ Provided minimal novelty, lacked technical details, or did not pre­
chine learning, these systems can flag unusual behavior, predict po­ sent evaluation results [34]
tential faults, and estimate the motor’s remaining service life (RUL) [11,
12]. 2.4. Screening and selection process
In the last few years, DT-based approaches have shifted motor
maintenance from reactive or schedule-based servicing to intelligent, The paper selection followed a step-by-step process:
data-driven decision-making [13,14]. They can boost fault detection Initial Search: More than 230 papers were retrieved from the data­
accuracy, cut response times, and lower monitoring costs for both older bases using the predefined search strings [7].
equipment and modern high-performance systems [15,16]. Title and Abstract Screening: Items were screened manually to check
Since 2024, research on digital twins for induction motors has moved their relevance to the topic [26].
rapidly from conceptual studies to small-scale, edge-based pilot systems Full-Text Review: About 113 papers were read in detail to examine
capable of real-time monitoring and cloud-level analytics. This shift has methods, technical contributions, and relevance to DT-based motor
helped close the gap between laboratory experiments and actual in­ maintenance [35].
dustrial operations [17–20]. Recent studies have focused on using Final Selection: 60 studies were chosen for in-depth review, covering
federated and continual learning to handle issues such as domain shifts DT architectures [36], AI integration, physical system design [37], fault
and equipment aging [21,22]. Others have explored hybrid physics–AI diagnosis [3], and future development trends [38].
models to maintain low latency during operation [18,19], and
explainable dashboards linked with CMMS to support practical main­
2.5. Quality assessment
tenance decisions on the factory floor [23,24]. Overall, the years
2024–2025 mark a crucial phase in turning DT research into depend­
Each selected paper was rated using five Quality Assessment (QA)
able, real-world industrial applications for induction motors [17–25].
measures:
This review looks at developments in DT applications for induction
QA1: Relevance to DT in induction motor maintenance [8]
motors between 2020 and 2025, with an emphasis on system architec­
QA2: Clear explanation of the methods or algorithms used [39]
ture, fault diagnosis methods, real-time deployment, technical chal­
QA3: Presence of experimental validation or real-time implementa­
lenges, and the outlook for scalable, secure, and adaptive solutions in the
tion [31]
Industry 4.0 era [7,26].
QA4: Inclusion of discussion on challenges and future scope [26]
QA5: Contribution to scalability, adaptability, or security [40]
2. Methodology of literature review Only papers with a score of at least 4 out of 5 were involved in the
final paper for analysis. A summary of the selected research papers is
To prepare this review, a structured literature search was carried out presented in Table 1.
using clearly defined selection and evaluation guidelines for peer-
reviewed studies published between January 2020 and June 2025 [7,
2.6. Paper selection summary
25,26]. The goal was to gather key research contributions applying DT
technology for condition monitoring, fault diagnosis, and predictive
Fig. 1 illustrates the systematic process used to identify and select
maintenance of induction motors [8,27].
research papers on Digital Twin (DT) applications for monitoring and
maintaining induction motors. The review initially retrieved a total of
2.1. Research databases 230 papers from major scientific databases, along with additional
sources. After removing duplicate and irrelevant studies, the number
The literature search covered multiple well-known scientific data­ was reduced to 160 papers following the post-abstract screening stage.
bases, including IEEE Xplore, Elsevier ScienceDirect, SpringerLink, In the next phase, 113 papers were reviewed in full to evaluate their
MDPI, Wiley, Taylor & Francis, and Scopus for citation tracking [7]. methodological clarity, technical contribution, and relevance to DT-
Search queries combined targeted keywords such as: based maintenance frameworks. Finally, 60 studies that met all inclu­
“DT” AND “Induction Motor” sion and quality criteria were selected for detailed qualitative and
“DT” AND “Predictive Maintenance” quantitative analysis.
“DT” AND (“RUL”)
“Condition Monitoring” AND “Motor” AND “DT” Table 1
Paper selection summary.
2.2. Inclusion criteria Source Database Papers Post- Full-Text Final
Retrieved Abstract Reviewed Selected
Filter
A paper was considered for review if it met all of the following
conditions: IEEE Xplore 82 55 35 31
SpringerLink 55 38 34 10
Published between 2020 and 2025 [7,25]
Elsevier/ 41 32 19 09
Written in English [28] ScienceDirect
Directly related to DT applications in induction motors [8] MDPI 28 18 13 05
Addressed at least one key area such as predictive maintenance [29], Others (Wiley, 24 17 12 05
fault diagnosis [3], sensor integration [29], modeling approaches [30], T&F)
Total 230þ 160 113 60
edge/cloud implementation [31], or RUL estimation [9]

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Table 3
Algorithmic trends in digital twin (DT)-based predictive maintenance
(2020–2025).
Algorithm Type / Number of Main Application Area Example
Modeling Approach Papers References
(Approx.)

Deep Learning (CNN, 28 Fault detection, RUL [5,15,17,24,

LSTM, RNN, DNN) prediction, data-driven 40,45,51,
diagnostics, vibration/ 61–63]
current analysis
Transfer Learning / 8 Cross-domain fault [4,23,61,64]
Domain Adaptation diagnosis, sensor data
imbalance handling
Hybrid Physics–AI 14 Thermal fault modeling, [3,9,12,20,
Models (FEM + electromagnetic 22,28,46,50]
ML, Thermal + simulation, induction
Neural Fusion) motor DTs
Fig. 1. Study selection process diagram. Bayesian / 5 Uncertainty [29,65–67]
Probabilistic quantification, HVAC &
Models building energy
This structured selection process ensured that the final reviewed prediction
papers were both technically sound and directly applicable to predictive Graph Learning & 4 Complex network-based [68–71]
maintenance of induction motors using Digital Twin technologies. GNNs fault diagnosis, smart
grids
Reinforcement 6 Adaptive control, [47,52–54,
2.7. Quality assessment summary (QA1–QA5) Learning & maintenance scheduling, 72]
Optimization (RL, energy optimization
As shown in Table 2, the overall average quality assessment score Metaheuristics)
Edge–Cloud & 7 Distributed DT analytics, [19,48,49,
was 4.2, reflecting strong methodological standards across the reviewed
Federated Learning low-latency predictive 55]
studies. Papers that scored lower on QA5 generally lacked detailed Integration maintenance
discussion on scalability and cybersecurity aspects. Explainable AI / 6 Model interpretability, [30,73–76]
Cognitive DTs decision transparency
Each study was evaluated on a scale from 1 to 5 for every indicator (1 (XAI, SHAP, LIME)
= very weak, 5 = excellent). The average score and the proportion of Statistical / 10 Baseline fault [1,14,16,
papers with scores of 4 or higher were then calculated to highlight Traditional ML classification, 77–79]
(SVM, RF, k-NN, performance
overall quality trends. For example, a QA1 score of 4.7 with 92% of
PCA) benchmarking
papers scoring ≥4 shows that most studies were highly relevant to Hybrid Machine 9 Multi-sensor data fusion, [9,17,21,
DT-based induction motor maintenance. Learning IoT-based monitoring 80–82]
Frameworks (ML +
The QA Summary Table summarizes these results and provides Signal/IoT Fusion)
representative references for each indicator. This structured scoring
method offers a clear, consistent, and evidence-based approach to
assessing the reviewed literature. based predictive maintenance studies published between 2020 and
2025. The reviewed papers are categorized based on their algorithmic
2.8. Algorithmic trends in digital twin (DT)-based predictive maintenance approach, application domain, and key references. This classification
(2020–2025) highlights the progression of artificial intelligence (AI), data analytics,
and hybrid modeling techniques used to improve fault detection, diag­
Table 3 presents a quantitative and comparative summary of the nosis, and Remaining Useful Life (RUL) prediction across various in­
main algorithms and modeling methods applied in Digital Twin (DT)- dustrial sectors.

Table 2
2.9. Methods & core 2024–2025 studies
Quality assessment summary.
QA Indicator Criteria Avg. % of Example 2.9.1. Methods
Score Papers References
(out Scoring ≥
An update search pass was conducted to enrich 2024–2025 coverage
of 5) 4 with induction motor–focused DT studies demonstrating implementa­
tion details such as edge/cloud partitioning, latency measurements,
QA1: Relevance to Topic focus and 4.7 92% [1,3,5,9,10,
DT in Induction practical 12,20–25, security controls, and operator-facing explainability. Screening priori­
Motor application 41–45] tized works with experimental rigs or pilot deployments, explicit DT
Maintenance architecture descriptions (sensing, communication, data, modeling,
QA2: Details on model 4.4 88% [3–5,9,12,15, application layers), and validated outcomes for diagnosis or RUL under
Methodology & type, validation 20,22,23,28,
Algorithm Clarity 40,45–55]
varying loads and environmental conditions. The QA1–QA5 rubric was
QA3: Hardware/ 4.0 81% [3,5,9,10,12, retained, with emphasis on QA5 (scalability, interoperability, and se­
Experimental or testbench 20–24,42–45, curity) to improve the deployment relevance of recent references.
Real-Time validation 56]
Validation
2.9.2. Core 2024–2025 studies
QA4: Challenges Depth of 4.2 85% [5,14,21,23,
& Future Scope discussion 25,26,31,46, To highlight the most recent developments, this review includes a
Discussion 57–60] focused analysis of DT research from 2024–2025 specifically related to
QA5: Scalability, Implementation 3.8 73% [14,19,20, induction motors. These studies were selected for their emphasis on
Adaptability, realism 23–25,43,48, experimental or pilot-scale implementations, clear architectural de­
Security 49,56]
scriptions covering sensing, communication, data, modeling, and

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application layers, and validation of diagnostic or prognostic results 3. Summary of research contributions
under real-world conditions.
The key findings from these recent works are summarized below: Table 4 provides a comparative overview of twelve core studies on
Digital Twin (DT) applications for induction motors between 2021 and
• Physics-informed DTs for electric machines combine sensing with 2025. These works were selected from the full dataset of 60 papers
model-based constraints, improving fault detection and reducing the because they offer strong implementation detail, motor-specific focus,
amount of training data needed while enabling real-time monitoring and validated outcomes.
of thermal and electromagnetic behavior [3,18,19]. Physics-informed and hybrid DTs: Early contributions emphasized
• Cross-domain and transfer learning methods within DT frame­ the use of physics-informed constraints to improve observability and
works help handle domain shifts caused by varying operating con­ reduce training data needs. Sun et al. [3] integrated sensing with
ditions, improving the generalization of motor fault diagnosis [4,21]. FEM-based models, while Zhang et al. [18] developed a surrogate
• DT-based online diagnosis for stator inter-turn short circuits has thermal DT for stator monitoring, reducing computational overhead
demonstrated diagnostic accuracy and response times suitable for without sacrificing accuracy. Adamou et al. [19] extended this line of
use in protection and condition monitoring systems [42]. work by providing accurate squirrel cage induction motor modeling.
• End-to-end DT architectures using cloud–edge coordination define Thermal and electromagnetic monitoring: Dos Santos et al. [9]
telemetry standards, model distribution, and inference timing, combined IoT sensors with thermo-magnetic finite element analysis,
helping bridge the gap between laboratory models and real-world enabling synthetic training data for ML. He and Yan [84] validated a
deployment [18,56]. DT-based infrared thermography method for industrial motor thermal
• Self-healing DT frameworks for electric drives in EV applications faults, while Adamou and Alaoui [21] proposed an efficiency-centered
show how systems can continuously adapt to inverter–motor diagnostic method for rotor broken bars.
degradation, enabling online learning to manage performance drift Data-driven and transfer learning approaches: Zhang et al. [10]
[22,43]. demonstrated online DT-based electrical fault detection with latency
• Machine learning–based DTs for conveyor drives illustrate pre­ reports, and Sun et al. [45] applied deep learning to DTs using vibration
dictive maintenance through sequence modeling and application- and current signals for multiple fault types. Chen et al. [22] introduced a
layer triggers that align with maintenance operations [32]. domain adaptation neural network for DT-supported diagnosis,
• Data-driven prognosis models using DT and deep learning provide improving generalization across datasets and operating conditions.
adaptable frameworks for Remaining Useful Life (RUL) estimation in Online and adaptive architectures: Adamou and Alaoui [42] pre­
induction motors, particularly when labeled fault data are scarce [5, sented a DT-based online diagnosis system for inter-turn short circuits
9]. with response times suitable for protection. Huang et al. [43] and Valiyil
et al. [23] extended DTs to electric drive and traction motor contexts,
Parameter-estimation and entropy-based DT diagnosis methods introducing self-healing and adaptive learning features relevant to EV
validated on induction motor faults demonstrate lightweight imple­ deployments.
mentations for edge deployment with constrained resources [83]. Fusion and industrial deployment: Zhang et al. [12] showed that
These 2024–2025 studies expand the review scope with DT-enabled data fusion from multiple sensor streams improves robust­
implementation-level detail—including latency metrics, edge/cloud ness over single-sensor approaches. These works increasingly highlight
partitioning strategies, and operator-facing explainability—that align edge–cloud coordination, transfer/federated learning, and XAI dash­
with industrial deployment priorities for induction motor monitoring boards, marking a shift from conceptual frameworks to deployable in­
and predictive maintenance. dustrial DTs for induction motors.
Together, these studies illustrate a clear evolution from simulation-

Table 4
Comparative overview of notable digital twin applications for induction motors (core 12 studies).
Ref Year Technique / Focus Fault Type Model / Approach Validation Level Key Outcome

[3] 2021 Physics-informed DT with General motor condition Hybrid FEM + constraints Lab testbench Reduced data requirements; improved fault
integrated sensing monitoring observability
[9] 2023 IoT sensor + thermo- Thermal degradation Hybrid FEM + data-driven Test rig with Enables synthetic training data; improved
magnetic FEM DT ML induced faults thermal monitoring
[10] 2023 Online DT-based fault Electrical (winding, Data-driven ML (cloud- Simulation + lab Reported real-time detection latency and
detection inter-turn) edge) tests accuracy
[45] 2023 Intelligent DT using vibration Multiple (bearing, Deep learning + DT pipeline Lab dataset High diagnostic accuracy (>95%) across
& current electrical) fault types
[42] 2024 Online DT diagnosis Inter-turn short circuit Physics-informed hybrid Hardware-in-the- Diagnosis accuracy + response time suitable
model loop for online protection
[44] 2023 DT-based thermal monitoring Thermal faults Infrared thermography + Industrial motor test Non-invasive monitoring with real-time
DT temperature mapping
[12] 2023 DT-enabled data fusion AC motor faults Fusion of multiple sensor Industrial case study Improved robustness vs. single-sensor DT
streams + ML
[20] 2025 Predictive thermal modeling Stator heating Physics-informed surrogate Pilot deployment Near-real-time stator temperature
DT prediction with reduced FEM load
[21] 2024 Efficiency-centered DT Rotor broken bars Efficiency analysis + DT Lab-scale motor Demonstrated energy-based fault signatures
diagnosis for broken bars
[22] 2024 Accurate squirrel cage motor General induction motor Physics-based DT modeling Modeling + test High-fidelity motor model enabling DT
modeling validation integration
[23] 2025 Domain adaptation NN in DT Cross-domain motor Transfer learning + DT Public & lab Improved generalization across datasets and
faults datasets operating regimes
[24] 2025 AI-enabled DT for EV traction EV drive degradation Self-adaptive hybrid DT Pilot EV test Demonstrated continuous learning and self-
motor healing in drive systems
[3] 2021 Physics-informed DT with General motor condition Hybrid FEM + constraints Lab testbench Reduced data requirements; improved fault
integrated sensing monitoring observability

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based feasibility (2021–2022) to real-time edge-first deployments with 4.3. Model drift and lack of continuous learning
explainability and security considerations (2024–2025). They form the
evidence base for the review’s claim that induction motor DTs are Over time, induction motors may experience changes in operational
entering a phase of pilot-scale and industrially relevant behavior due to aging or variations in operating conditions, leading to
implementations. model drift. Current DT systems often lack online learning or adaptive
update mechanisms. Yousuf et al. [46] reported that
3.1. Visual elements deep-learning-based DTs, when not periodically retrained, can suffer
from reduced predictive accuracy in long-term use.
Fig. 2 explains the architecture of a hybrid DT framework for in­
duction motor monitoring and predictive maintenance [2]. The process 4.4. Cybersecurity and data privacy
starts with real-time data acquisition through IoT-enabled gateways,
capturing operational parameters such as current, temperature, and Reliance on IoT devices, cloud-based infrastructure, and wireless
vibration. This incoming data is then preprocessed and routed into two networks exposes DT systems to security threats such as spoofing, un­
parallel processing modules. authorized access, and malicious data injection. Zhang et al. [14] pro­
posed the integration of blockchain and encryption-based
4. Current technical challenges in digital twin implementation communication protocols to enhance security, although implementation
costs and complexity remain barriers to widespread adoption.
Although Digital Twin (DT) technology has advanced significantly in
the context of induction-motor monitoring and predictive maintenance,
4.5. Scarcity of Labeled Fault Data
various technical, operational, and implementation-related barriers still
limit large-scale industrial deployment. Insights from the reviewed
Machine learning–based DT models rely heavily on large, labeled
literature (2020–2025) reveal several key challenges and opportunities
datasets for effective training. However, collecting such fault data is
for improvement.
challenging because motor failures occur infrequently, and industrial
datasets are often proprietary. Kobayashi and Alam [59] proposed the
4.1. Real-time data acquisition and quality
use of synthetic data generation and transfer learning as possible solu­
tions, although these approaches are not yet widely adopted in practice.
Collecting precise, high-frequency sensor data in real time is still one
of the biggest hurdles for Digital Twin systems. In real industrial set­
tings, factors like sensor drift, electromagnetic interference, and packet 4.6. Computational load and latency
loss during wireless transmission can all affect data quality. These issues
often lead to drops in model accuracy and overall reliability [19]. For High-fidelity DT models, such as those based on finite element
example, Liu and Wang [58] found that when the timing between a method (FEM) simulations, require significant computational power­
physical motor and its digital twin falls out of sync, it can significantly —particularly when integrated with real-time sensor data and AI-driven
weaken diagnostic results and reduce operators’ confidence in the analytics. This results in latency and energy efficiency issues, which are
system. more critical in edge-computing environments. Santos et al. [57] sug­
gested employing a hybrid edge–cloud architecture to reduce compu­
4.2. Lack of standardized DT frameworks tational demands, but achieving hardware scalability continues to be a
major challenge for small and medium-sized enterprises.
The absence of uniform architectures, communication protocols, and
APIs for DT implementation has resulted in fragmented solutions. Many 4.7. Explainability and trust in AI models
research groups rely on custom-built frameworks, which complicates
replication and scalability. Ma et al. [5] emphasized the importance of The lack of interpretability in AI-powered DTs remains a significant
developing modular, interoperable platforms capable of integrating obstacle to industrial adoption. Operators may hesitate to act on the
with both legacy motor systems and enterprise-level software. recommendations of black-box models without understanding their
decision-making process. The integration of Explainable AI (XAI)
methods, including SHAP (Shapley Additive Explanations) and LIME,
has shown promise [60], but practical implementation in DT dashboards
is still limited.

Fig. 2. Hybrid digital twin data processing funnel.

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5. Emerging solutions and research roadmap (2020–2025) • Plug-and-Play Modular Architectures: Develop standardized,
modular DT platforms that allow quick deployment across diverse
Building on the key challenges outlined in Section 4, this section motor systems and legacy environments [5].
summarizes the major research responses and technological advance­
ments observed between 2020 and 2025, offering a roadmap for the next Fig. 3 explains a hierarchical roadmap of emerging research prior­
generation of DT-based motor maintenance systems. ities designed to overcome the limitations of current DT solutions in
Although Digital Twin (DT) technology for induction motor moni­ industrial applications. The pyramid structure represents the progres­
toring and predictive maintenance has advanced considerably, several sion from foundational requirements to advanced autonomous func­
unresolved technical and operational barriers continue to restrict large- tionalities, aligned with recent studies [5,14,31,59,60].
scale industrial adoption. The following sections summarize the most
prominent challenges observed between 2020 and 2025, along with • Adaptive Interoperability: Enable seamless communication be­
emerging research directions. tween DT modules and heterogeneous hardware/software through
standardized APIs and protocols.
5.1. Data scarcity & labeling • Plug-and-Play DT Modules: Support drag-and-drop integration for
rapid deployment across different motor types, minimizing engi­
Challenge: AI-based DT models depend on large volumes of labeled neering complexity.
fault data for accurate training. However, induction motors often • Blockchain-Secured Logging: Incorporate immutable ledgers to
operate for extended periods without significant faults, making real- ensure trusted audit trails for safety-critical applications in sectors
world failure data rare. such as energy and transportation.
Industry Example: In manufacturing plants and power-generation • Self-Learning DTs: Integrate reinforcement learning and advanced
facilities, the lack of abnormal operational datasets limits the develop­ deep learning methods for autonomous diagnostics, adaptive
ment of robust prediction models [59]. decision-making, and optimized performance in real time.
Recent Developments: Luo et al. [59] introduced a data-driven DT
approach that estimates rotor temperature under variable conditions, This roadmap offers a strategic path toward developing secure,
reducing the need for extensive labeled fault data by creating onboard scalable, and intelligent DT ecosystems for applications spanning smart
real-time models. factories, electric vehicles, renewable energy systems, and critical
infrastructure.
5.2. Cybersecurity & data integrity
6. Digital twin architecture layers
Challenge: The reliance of DT systems on IoT sensors, cloud plat­
forms, and wireless communication exposes them to threats such as data A clear and modular understanding of Digital Twin (DT) architecture
spoofing, unauthorized access, and manipulation. is crucial for examining its use in induction motor systems. Based on
Research Insight: Recent literature reviews highlight the critical insights from recent studies, the standard DT framework can be divided
need for cybersecurity strategies tailored for DT-enabled industrial into five main functional layers: Physical, Communication, Data,
systems [14]. Modeling, and Application—each serving a distinct role in the overall
Promising Approach: Blockchain integration offers secure, immu­ system [2]. The layered framework illustrated in Fig. 4 provides a
table logging. For example, Onwubiko et al. [14] demonstrated a DT structured approach for mapping real-world DT implementations and
platform that combines Ethereum blockchain with IPFS-based storage to reflects current research directions [47].
ensure tamper-proof data traceability in industrial settings. Fig. 5 depicts the layered structure of a DT system developed for real-
time monitoring and predictive maintenance of induction motors [59].
5.3. Model drift & adaptability Each layer has a specific function, and together they ensure continuous
synchronization between the physical motor and its virtual counterpart.
Challenge: Over time, changing operating conditions can cause DT
models to lose accuracy, a phenomenon known as model drift [21].
Recent Progress: Mo et al. [21] proposed a DT-based framework for
industrial robotics that incorporates virtual decision-model training to
reduce drift and physical testing risks. Similarly, DT systems enhanced
with human-in-the-loop Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL) [31] have
shown the ability to continuously retrain and adapt in real time.

5.4. Interoperability with legacy systems

Challenge: Many industrial motor-control systems are incompatible

with modern DT frameworks, making large-scale deployment difficult.
Current Landscape: Reviews indicate a strong need for plug-and-
play DT solutions that integrate seamlessly with various motor types,
legacy controllers, and existing industrial standards [5].

5.5. Future research directions

• Self-Learning DTs with Reinforcement Learning: Implement

adaptive training using simulation environments combined with RL
to minimize physical testing and enhance adaptability [31].
• Blockchain-Secured Data Management: Employ blockchain-based
ledgers (e.g., Ethereum, IPFS) for transparent, tamper-resistant, and
auditable sensor data storage [14]. Fig. 3. Future research directions in digital twin systems.

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Fig. 4. Layered digital twin architecture for induction motor monitoring.

Fig. 5. Induction motor testbed data flow.

• Physical Layer: Comprises the motor’s physical sensors—such as • Modeling Layer: Uses a mix of physics-based simulations (such as
current transducers, vibration accelerometers, temperature pro­ FEM) and AI techniques (like ML or DL) to build a predictive virtual
bes—and embedded controllers like ESP32 for capturing real-time model of the motor and run fault-scenario tests [56].
operational data [3]. • Application Layer: Delivers the processed results to operators or
• Communication Layer: Handles secure, low-latency data trans­ enterprise systems through dashboards, analytics tools, and
mission using IoT protocols such as MQTT, LoRa, and OPC-UA, Explainable AI (XAI) features, helping guide maintenance decisions
ensuring robust connectivity between the physical and digital do­ and planning [60].
mains [5].
• Data Layer: Handles storing and processing data, whether at the The combination of these layers contributes to a closed-loop DT
edge or in the cloud. It also combines information from different ecosystem capable of real-time monitoring, self-updating models, and
sources to create a streamlined pipeline that supports large-scale predictive diagnostics, making it ideal for smart-industry deployments
analysis [29]. [2].

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6.1. Physical layer — sensors, instrumentation, and edge data acquisition

The Physical Layer forms the foundation of a DT by capturing the

motor’s operational state in real time through precision instrumentation
[3]. Typical sensor types in DT-based induction-motor monitoring
include:

• Electrical sensors: High-resolution current transducers and voltage

probes [19].
• Mechanical sensors: MEMS vibration sensors, accelerometers, and
shaft encoders [19]. Fig. 6. DT communication layer network diagram.
• Thermal sensors: Thermocouples or RTDs for winding and bearing
temperature monitoring [56]. 6.3. Data layer — ingestion, preprocessing, storage and fusion

These sensors must provide high sampling rates and optimal signal- The data layer brings together telemetry from multiple sources, each
to-noise ratios to support both physics-based synchronization and data- with its own sampling rate and format, and turns it into a consistent
driven analytics [29]. dataset ready for analysis [29,43,68]. This process involves steps such as
Practical testbeds in the literature incorporate embedded platforms aligning data in time, filtering out noise, resampling, extracting useful
such as ESP32, STM32, Raspberry Pi, NI CompactRIO, and dSPACE, features, adding labels, and securely storing the results [43]. In many
which handle local signal conditioning, timestamping, and secure data setups, processed data is kept in time-series databases like InfluxDB or
forwarding [5]. Emphasis is placed on sensor calibration, time syn­ Prometheus, while raw sensor readings are archived in cloud object
chronization, and redundancy to ensure reliability in critical industrial storage [48].
settings [3]. By combining electrical, vibration, and thermal data, fusion tech­
Fig. 5 explains the step-by-step data management sequence within a niques give a fuller picture of the machine’s condition, which helps
Digital Twin (DT) framework for induction motors. The process begins improve both fault classification accuracy and Remaining Useful Life
with sensor-based data acquisition, followed by secure transmission to (RUL) predictions compared to relying on a single type of measurement
an edge gateway. At this stage, local and edge-level preprocessing is [12,45,50,51,81]. At the edge, some preprocessing—like feature
performed before transferring the processed data for centralized storage extraction or anomaly detection—can reduce the amount of data sent
and analysis, enabling actionable operational insights. over the network and improve privacy [43,48,56]. More advanced
methods, including federated learning and local model aggregation,
make it possible to train models collaboratively without sharing raw
6.2. Communication layer — protocols, latency, and edge–cloud links data [23,25,48,49].
Practical pipeline
The communication layer acts as the bridge between the physical
sensing devices and the DT’s computational and storage infrastructure • Ingestion: Low-overhead protocols like MQTT transmit data to a
[5]. Most modern DT implementations use lightweight, low-latency message broker, which forwards it to a stream-processing framework
communication protocols. MQTT is commonly adopted for telemetry, (e.g., Kafka or Edge Streams) [48].
OPC UA for interoperability, and industrial fieldbuses such as EtherCAT • Preprocessing: Signal denoising (e.g., bandpass filtering), resam­
or Profinet for deterministic, real-time operations [2]. For applications pling, windowed feature extraction, and outlier detection [40,43].
that require mobility or wide-area connectivity, technologies such as • Storage: Processed features and alerts stored in time-series data­
LoRaWAN and 4G/5G networks are often employed [47]. bases; raw waveforms and simulation data archived in cloud object
Within this layer, edge gateways perform essential functions repositories [19,48].
including protocol conversion, temporary data buffering, cybersecurity
enforcement, and basic analytics [59]. Hybrid architectures that Fig. 7 shows how sensor data is processed in an ongoing loop —
combine edge computing for low-latency processing with cloud plat­ beginning with live data streams, moving through edge-level pre­
forms for large-scale storage and advanced analytics are generally processing, followed by secure storage, and finally feeding into iterative
regarded as the most effective approach [29]. model training aimed at improving the predictive accuracy of Digital
Design Priorities: Twin systems [48].

• Latency and Real-Time Control: For high-frequency control or

diagnostic tasks such as harmonic analysis, time-sensitive computa­
tions should be processed locally at the edge using real-time
communication protocols [5].
• Interoperability: OPC UA provides a standardized, machine-readable
data model and can be integrated with MQTT to transmit data effi­
ciently to cloud-based analytics systems [2].
• Security: End-to-end encryption through TLS, digital certificates,
and, where applicable, blockchain-based logging can strengthen
system integrity. However, designers must balance these security
measures against the computational load imposed on edge gateways
[46].

Fig. 6 explains the network topology of a DT communication layer,

showing the integration of sensors, edge gateways, local processing
units, and cloud analytics platforms to support secure and real-time data
exchange. Fig. 7. Sensor data processing cycle.

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P. Phutane et al. Next Research 2 (2025) 100969

6.4 Modelling Layer — FEM, ML/DL, and Hybrid Approaches for

Fault Detection & RUL
The modelling layer serves as the analytical core of a Digital Twin
(DT) for induction motors, bringing together different modelling
methods to detect faults and estimate the motor’s Remaining Useful Life
(RUL) [20,21]. In practice, modern DT systems often combine three
main approaches:
Physics-based models (FEM / thermal-electromagnetic co-
simulation):
Using the Finite Element Method (FEM), engineers can simulate
electromagnetic fields, heat distribution, and structural behaviour in
great detail [2,22]. This makes it possible to recreate fault patterns such
as broken rotor bars, winding short circuits, or rotor eccentricity [20,
22]. FEM models are especially valuable for producing synthetic fault
datasets, running sensitivity tests, and validating the assumptions Fig. 8. Modeling layer process funnel.
behind data-driven models [20,22,36].
Data-driven models (ML/DL): display motor health status, classification results with associated con­
Machine learning and deep learning are widely used in DT applica­ fidence levels, predicted Remaining Useful Life (RUL) along with un­
tions for diagnosing faults and predicting future failures [3,4,12,47,85]. certainty intervals, and explainable AI (XAI) visualizations that
Examples include supervised classifiers like Support Vector Machines highlight the most influential features in decision-making [46].
and Random Forests, convolutional neural networks for image-like data Industrial adoption of DT solutions is strongly influenced by human-
such as spectrograms or FFT outputs, and time-series models like LSTMs centered design principles and traceability, ensuring that operators can
or Transformers for RUL prediction [9,45,51]. These approaches work easily interpret and trust system outputs [47].
best when rich, labelled datasets are available, though techniques such Deployment Strategies:
as transfer learning and data augmentation can help fill data gaps [4,
23]. • Edge Dashboards: In scenarios where rapid operator response is
Hybrid modelling: essential, local human–machine interfaces (HMIs) provide real-time
This approach blends the strengths of physics-based and data-driven alerts directly at the plant floor [3].
methods. For instance, FEM simulations can be used to create labelled • Cloud Analytics and Reporting: Fleet-level data aggregation, his­
data for training ML models, or physical rules can be incorporated torical trend analysis, and cross-site model refinement are generally
directly into neural networks through physics-informed architectures handled in centralized cloud environments [29].
[22,23,50]. Another variant, known as surrogate modeling, uses
simplified models or ML stand-ins to replace the heavy computation of Fig. 9 explains key indicators of motor condition, such as time-series
full FEM runs—allowing near-real-time updates in live DT systems [20, plots for temperature and vibration, a Remaining Useful Life (RUL)
37,40]. Research shows that hybrid methods can improve the accuracy gauge with confidence ranges, a SHAP-based analysis showing which
of RUL estimates, reduce uncertainty, and adapt better to varying features had the most influence, and a maintenance action button that
operating conditions [29,36,51,86]. allows operators to respond in real time [46,47,87].
Model Maintenance & Adaptation
6.5. Summary table: DT layer functions
• Online and Transfer Learning:
To mitigate model drift caused by aging motors or changing load To better understand the structural organization of the Digital Twin
profiles, techniques such as incremental retraining, domain adapta­ framework, the layers and their corresponding key components or
tion, and federated learning allow updates without the need for functions are categorized and summarized in Table 5, illustrating their
complete retraining on central servers [23,25,48,49]. specific contributions to the integrated DT system.
• Explainability and Uncertainty Estimation:
Integrating explainable AI methods (e.g., SHAP, LIME) alongside 7. Digital twin applications for induction motor monitoring and
probabilistic or Bayesian approaches improves transparency in fault predictive maintenance
detection and RUL estimation. These tools identify the specific sen­
sors or features influencing predictions, fostering operator trust [23, Digital Twin (DT) technology enables a virtual, real-time replica of
60,66]. physical induction motors by integrating multi-sensor data—such as
current, voltage, vibration, and temperature—with physics-based
Fig. 8 explains the sequential stages within the DT modeling layer. models and machine learning algorithms to continuously assess motor
The process begins with surrogate modeling for computational effi­ health [3,9,10,12,45,88]. This DT replica allows early fault identi­
ciency, proceeds to feature extraction, machine/deep learning classifi­ fication—including bearing wear, rotor bar cracks, and stator winding
cation, and LSTM-based RUL prediction, and concludes with explainable failures—before they cause significant downtime [21,42,44].
AI modules for transparent and trustworthy decision-making. Modern DT systems combine high-speed data acquisition in motor
drives with advanced analytic engines that derive runtime features from
6.4. Application layer — visualization, decision support, and frequency- and time-domain signals, which are then input to classifiers
explainability such as Support Vector Machines or deep neural networks [10,23,45,
89]. These approaches achieve high diagnostic accuracy, often reported
The application layer transforms analytical outputs from the Digital in the 96–98% range [21,45].
Twin (DT) into actionable tools for monitoring, diagnostics, and main­ DT-enabled predictive maintenance also enhances Remaining Useful
tenance planning. These tools often include interactive dashboards, Life (RUL) estimation by integrating sensor data with physics-based
automated alarms, and integration with enterprise systems such as simulations. This fusion allows condition-based maintenance sched­
Computerized Maintenance Management Systems (CMMS) or Enterprise uling, reducing both operational costs and downtime compared to
Resource Planning (ERP) platforms [2]. A well-designed interface can traditional reactive or preventive maintenance strategies [9,12,51].

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P. Phutane et al. Next Research 2 (2025) 100969

Fig. 9. Unified motor health dashboard.

IoT-based manufacturing environments.

Table 5
Summary table: DT layer function.
7.1. Smart manufacturing
Layer Key Components/Functions

Physical IoT sensors, ESP32, motor data acquisition [2] Within manufacturing, DTs enable live, virtual models of production
Communication MQTT, OPC-UA, LoRa, edge gateways, low-latency links [5] systems. This real-time view helps optimize workflows, reduce defects,
Data Preprocessing, fusion, edge/cloud storage, database archives [56]
and speed up product development [97–100]. In one study, Soori et al.
Modeling FEM, ML/DL, hybrid models, RUL prediction, fault detection [29]
Application Visualization dashboards, explainability, operator dashboards [101] showed that applying DT-based simulations in component pro­
[46] duction led to better efficiency and higher product quality, supporting
the shift toward agile, adaptable manufacturing in line with Industry 4.0
goals.
Hybrid models that combine Finite Element Methods (FEM) for
analyzing thermal and electromagnetic fault patterns with 7.2. Electric vehicles
machine-learning-based surrogates provide an effective compromise
between accuracy and computational efficiency, making them suitable For electric vehicles (EVs), DT technology is applied to the modeling
for real-time monitoring [3,9,20,22]. of complete powertrains, including battery management and health
Recent DT frameworks increasingly use edge–cloud architectures, monitoring subsystems [92,102]. Kurukuru et al. [15] developed a
where preprocessing and anomaly detection are handled at the edge, DT-based EV drivetrain health monitoring system using a bond graph
while large-scale analytics and model retraining are performed in the (BG) model in conjunction with a Support Vector Data Description
cloud. This setup improves scalability, responsiveness, and overall sys­ (SVDD) classifier, achieving high detection accuracy (~98.7% during
tem performance [19,24,43,56]. Despite these advancements, several training and ~96.2% in testing).
challenges remain—such as maintaining data quality, adapting to sys­ Verma’s 2025 review [103] further describes DT applications in EV
tem aging and domain shifts, ensuring cybersecurity, and achieving battery systems, power electronics, and vehicle health diagnostics,
interoperability with legacy motor controllers. To address these issues, outlining their performance benefits as well as the challenges related to
researchers are exploring federated learning, blockchain-secured DTs, implementation and scalability [24].
and plug-and-play architectures [23,25].
Digital Twin (DT) technology is also expanding across various in­ 7.3. Power plants
dustrial sectors, offering new opportunities for simulation, predictive
maintenance, and process optimization. This section discusses several While not specific to induction motors, DT integration into smart
case studies involving smart manufacturing, electric vehicles, power power systems—such as microgrids and renewable energy
generation, and HVAC systems, highlighting both the demonstrated plants—enhances asset supervision, load optimization, and fault man­
benefits and the practical limitations reported in recent studies [35,83]. agement [104]. Mchirgui et al. [77] reported that DT-enabled smart grid
In [90], a Digital Twin–based approach is proposed for predictive control improves system reliability, resilience, and responsiveness under
maintenance in metro systems, whereas [91] addresses thermal fault varying operational conditions. The studies reported in [105,106]
diagnosis techniques for power transformers. Studies in [92–94] have investigated the application of Digital Twin (DT) technology for moni­
explored the implementation of Digital Twin–based predictive mainte­ toring and optimizing the performance of wind farms.
nance strategies for railway infrastructure, maintenance planning, and
high-speed railway bogies.
7.4. HVAC systems
The study in [95] investigates the implementation of Digital Twin
concepts in automated warehouse systems, while [55,96] explore
In heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, DTs
cyber-physical system frameworks integrating industrial robotics and
combined with predictive maintenance algorithms facilitate early fault

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P. Phutane et al. Next Research 2 (2025) 100969

detection and performance optimization. Hosamo et al. [28] imple­ Building on these insights, future research should emphasize devel­
mented a DT-based monitoring framework for air-handling units oping self-adaptive Digital Twins capable of continuous learning to
(AHUs), enabling proactive maintenance planning and minimizing un­ manage model drift and operational variability. Advances in federated
planned downtime. learning can address data scarcity and privacy by enabling collaborative
Fig. 10 explains a visual summary of four major industrial domains model training across distributed industrial sites without sharing raw
where Digital Twin (DT) technology is being actively implemented: data. The integration of blockchain technology promises enhanced se­
Smart Manufacturing, Electric Vehicles, Power Systems, and HVAC curity and transparent, tamper-proof data management for DT ecosys­
(Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) [15,28,83,101,107]. Each tems. Industry-wide standards for modular, plug-and-play DT
quadrant illustrates a representative application area enabled by DT components will expedite deployment and interoperability with legacy
adoption: motor control systems. Furthermore, embedding explainable AI (XAI)
elements and human-in-the-loop mechanisms will improve operator
• Smart Manufacturing: DTs model production lines and machine trust and decision-making. Optimized edge-cloud computational archi­
operations in real time to improve throughput, reduce unplanned tectures will ensure real-time responsiveness alongside scalable fleet
downtime, and enable flexible, demand-driven manufacturing in analytics. Lastly, establishing open, high-quality benchmark datasets
Industry 4.0 settings [101,108–110]. and validation protocols reflecting real motor fault scenarios is critical
• Electric Vehicles: DT frameworks track drivetrain performance and to accelerate innovation and reliable deployment.
battery health, providing predictive diagnostics, efficiency optimi­ Overall, this study contributes a detailed, layer-oriented framework
zation, and Remaining Useful Life (RUL) estimations for key vehicle for DT architecture, along with sector-specific insights in areas such as
subsystems [15,103]. smart manufacturing, electric vehicles, HVAC systems, and modern
• Power Systems: Within power grids and generation plants, DT power grids. The goal is to offer both researchers and industry pro­
integration supports asset health monitoring, load forecasting, and fessionals practical guidance for building and implementing reliable DT-
fault localization, enhancing operational reliability and resilience based maintenance and monitoring systems.
[77]. In short, the path to faster and broader DT adoption will depend on
• HVAC Systems: In smart buildings, DTs process sensor data from air- stronger collaboration between academic researchers and industry
handling units (AHUs) to identify faults at an early stage and opti­ partners, the development of shared standards, and a continued focus on
mize energy management strategies [28]. scalable, innovative maintenance technologies aligned with advanced
learning, security, and interoperability capabilities.
This figure provides a concise representation of how DT technology
is adapted across multiple sectors, emphasizing its role in predictive Ethical approval
maintenance, operational optimization, and real-time performance
monitoring. No experiments involving human participants or live animals were
conducted for this study; therefore, institutional ethical approval was
8. Conclusion not required.

This review looked at advances in Digital Twin (DT) technology from Funding
2020 to 2025, focusing on its applications in induction motor condition
monitoring, predictive maintenance, and Remaining Useful Life (RUL) No Funding applicable for this work.
estimation. Drawing on more than 50 peer-reviewed papers, it outlined
a structured, layer-based DT architecture, described the research CRediT authorship contribution statement
methodology, highlighted real-world examples, and compared ap­
proaches to show how DT use in industry has evolved. Pravin Phutane: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original
The findings point to several clear trends: a growing dependence on draft, Supervision, Resources, Project administration, Methodology,
AI-driven predictive models, wider adoption of FEM–ML hybrid Investigation, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Sudarshan Chavan:
methods for better fault diagnosis, and an increasing shift toward Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Supervision.
edge–cloud architectures that support real-time analysis and decision- Hitendra Pawar: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Validation.
making. At the same time, a number of obstacles remain—among Sanket Mane: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Investigation,
them, the scarcity of high-quality datasets, the gradual loss of model Conceptualization. Vaibhav Barde: Writing – original draft, Software,
accuracy over time, cybersecurity risks, and the difficulty of integrating Data curation.
DT solutions with older systems.

Fig. 10. Applications of digital twin in industry.

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P. Phutane et al. Next Research 2 (2025) 100969

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