Chapter 3
KINSHIP, CASTE AND CLASS
1. Explain the language and content of Mahabharata.
The language and content of Mahabharata are discussed below:
Language: Mahabharata was written in Sanskrit language (although there are versions in
other languages as well). However, the Sanskrit used in the Mahabharata is far simpler
than that of the vedas.
Content: Historians usually classify the contents of the Mahabharata under two broad
heads:
Narrative This section contains stories.
Didactic: This section contains prescriptions about social norms, designated as didactic.
But this divisison is by no means watertight as the didactic sections include stories and
the narrative often contains a social message.
However, generally historians agree that the Mahabharata was meant to be a dramatic,
moving story, and that the didactic portions were probably added later.
Interestingly, the text is described as an itihasa within early Sanskrit tradition. The literal
meaning of the term is “thus it was”, which is why it is generally translated as “history”.
Historians are in a doubt that the war really took place or not, which is described in the
epic.
Some historians think that the memory of an actual conflict amongst kinfolk was
preserved in the narrative while other point out that there is no other corroborative
(authentic) evidence of the battle.
2. Explain how you will prove that the text of Mahabharata was a dynamic one.
The following points prove that the text of Mahabharata was a dynamic one:
The growth of the Mahabharata did not stop with the Sanskrit version.
Over the centuries, version of the epic were written in a variety of languages through an
ongoing process of dialogue between peoples, communities, and those who wrote the
texts.
Several stories that originated in specific regions or circulated amongst certain people
found their way into the epic.
The central story of the epic was often retold in different ways, and episodes were
depicted in sculpture and painting.
They also provided themes for a wide range of performing arts i.e. plays, dance and
other kinds of narrations.
3. Describe the various stages through which Mahabharata was compiled in the 20th century.
The work of compilation of Mahabharata started in 1919 under the leadership of noted
scholar vs Sukthankar. The team comprised of dozens of scholars. They initiated the task
of preparing a critical edition of the Mahabharata. The various stages of compiling
Mahabharata were:
They collected Sanskrit manuscripts of the text, written in a variety of scripts, from
different parts of the country.
They compared verses from each manuscripts. They selected the verses that appeared
common to most versions.
These common verses were published in several volumes, running into over 13,000
pages.
The project took 4 years to complete.Two things became clear from this project:
There were several common elements in the Sanskrit version of the story and these
were found all over the sub-continent.
More than half the 13000 pages had these types of variations which were documented
in footnotes and appendices to the main text.
4. Why Mahabharata is considered a colossal epic?
Ans. The Mahabharata is a colossal epic running over 100,000 verses with depictions of
social categories and situations.
It was composed over a period of about 1,000 years (c. 500 BCE onwards)
Some of the stories it contains may have been in circulation even earlier.
The central story is about two sets of warring cousins.
The text also contains sections laying down norms of behaviour for various social
groups. Occasionally (though not always), the principal characters seem to follow these
norms.
5. The Mahabharata is a good source to study the social value of ancient times. Prove it.
(i)The Mahabharata gives a vivid discription.
(ii) Emphasized patriliny succession.
(iii) It reinforces the relation between the caste and the occupation.
(iv) Vivid discription of the caste system and interrelation.
(v) Provides evidence to patriarchal society.
(vi) Kanyadan was considered an important religious duty of the father.
(vii) Different types of marriage were practised.
(viii) Elders were dominating.
6. How rules of marriage were followed in early societies?
Ans. Sons were important for the continuity of the patrilineage, daughters were viewed
rather differently within this framework and marrying them into families outside the kin
was considered desirable.
Kanyadana or the gift of a daughter in marriage was an important religious duty of the
father. The Brahmanas laid down certain codes of social behaviour in great detail. From
c. 500 BCE, these norms were compiled in Sanskrit texts known as the Dharmasutras
and Dharmashastras.
The most important of such works was the Manusmriti.
The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras recognised as many as eight forms of marriage.
Of these, the first four were considered as “good” while the remaining were
condemned. It is possible that these were practised by those who did not accept
Brahmanical norms.
Women were expected to give up their father’s gotra and adopt that of their husband.
But the members of the same gotra could not marry.
The Satavahana women’s names derived from father’s gotras. Some of the Satavahana
rulers were Polygynous (that is, had more than one wife). Such marriages amongst
kinfolk (such as cousins) ensured a close-knit community.
7. What were the two most important rules about the gotra? Mention two rules about gotra,
particularly of women, according to Brahmanical practice after 1000 B.C.E.
After marriage, every woman gave up the gotra of her father and adopted the gotra of
her husband.
Members of the same gotra could not marry.
8. Who were Gotama and Vashishtha? Which earlier rulers gotra’s names were taken by their
names? Give examples.
Gotama and Vashishtha were Vedic seers. Gotras of Satvahana kings were taken by their
names like :
Raja Gotami-puta SSir-Satakani.
Raja Vasithi-puta (Sami) Siri Pulumayi.
9. Where did endogamy prevail in India during 600 B.C.E.—600 C.E. ? What was its importance?
Endogamy existed in certain South India communities between 600 BCE—600 CE and it
still exists. Such marriages among kinfolk ensured a close-knit community.
10. What do the names of Satavahana rulers indicate towards the status of mothers in the
society? Is this thing applicable to succession to the throne?
Satavahana rulers were identified through metonymies means that names were derived
from that of the mother. It indicates that mothers had an important place in society.
This thing is not applicable on succession to the throne as it was generally patrilineal.
11.What is meant by Metronymics? Is this concept correct in the case of Satavahanas?
The meaning of Metronymics is that most importance is given to the mother in any clan
or dynasty. The name of that clan is derived from the name of the mother.
This social custom is clearly seen in the society of Satavahanas. Even kings used to
associate the names of their mothers with their names.
Gotami-puta Satakani and Vasithi-puta are evidence of this practice. Although more
importance was given to females in the society still Satavahana dynasty was patrilineal
as the successor to the throne was generally a male member.
12. Explain the factors that should be kept in mind by the historians were: while handling
textual traditions.
While analyzing a book or a literary source, the historians were: should keep different
aspects in their mind such as follows:
1. They should examine in which language the book has been written. They should see if
the book has been written in Pali, Prakrit, or Tamil which were usually spoken by the
people. They should also see if the book has been written in Sanskrit which was used by
a particular section of the society.
2. The historians were: also paid attention to the kind of text. They tried to analyze if the
text contained mantras or the stories which could be read or heard by the people.
3. The historians were: also wanted to know the authors whose views and perceptions
gave a concrete shape to the text.
4. The historians were: also examine the audience because every author keeps in mind
the audience.
5. They also analyze the possible period of the creation of the book.
Thus, every historian completely analyses the issues involved in the text. By examining
the subject- matter, he can recreate history. This task becomes all the more intricate
and complicated in texts like Mahabharata.
13.How are all families not identical? Explain the kind of variations that occurred in ancient
times.
All families, in ancient times, were not identical. They vary in terms of the number of
members,
their relations with each other, and the type of activities they share. Generally, people
belonging to the same family share food and other resources, and they live, work and
perform rituals together.
Families are generally parts of a larger network of people defined as relatives or kinfolk.
While familial ties are often regarded as natural and based on blood, they are defined in
many different ways.
14. What has been said about the right on paternal property in the Manusmriti?
According to the Manusmriti, the paternal property should be equally divided among all
the sons after the death of their parents. However, the eldest son is entitled to a special
share. The women were not allowed to demand any share in this property.
15. What was the relationship between the Varna system and occupation according to
Brahmanical texts? Which strategies were used by Brahmanas for l enforcing these norms?
The relation between the Varna system and occupations according to Brahminical texts.
1. Brahamanas: Study and teach the Vedas, perform sacrifices and get sacrifices
performed as well as give and receive gifts.
2. Kshatriyas: Engage in warfare, protect people and administer justice, study the Vedas,
get sacrifices performed, and give gifts.
3. Vaishyas: Study Vedas, perform yajnas, give gifts, agriculture, pastoralism, and trade.
4. Fourth Varna: Serving the higher three Varnas. Brahmanas used the following
strategies to enforce these norms:
Asserting that the Varna order was of divine origin.
Advised kings to ensure that these norms were followed by their subjects.
Attempted to persuade people that their status was determined by birth.
16. What was the basis of criticism of the Varna system?
When Brahmanical ideas were being compiled in Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras, at
that time some other traditions expressed their criticism of the Varna system.
The most important criticism, out of these was developed in the early Buddhist religion
(around the 6th century). Buddhists admitted that there existed differences in society
but according to them these differences were not natural. They even rejected the idea
of social prestige based on birth.
17. Describe the position of the untouchables in ancient society.
In ancient society, the position of the untouchables was very pitiable. They were kept at
the lowest place in the society. They were assigned the following duties :
1. They were compelled to live outside the village.
2. They used discarded utensils. They wore clothes worn out by the dead at the time of
their burial or cremation. They wore ornaments made of iron.
3. They were not allowed to move or walk in the village at night.
4. They had to perform the last rites of those dead persons who had no relatives. They
also acted as the hang-man.
18. What was Stridhana?
Literally, Stridhana means a woman’s wealth. The wealth could be inherited by her
children without the husband having any claim on it.
The women were allowed to keep the gifts they received on the occasion of their
marriage. It was considered as her Stridhana. However, she could not hoard any family
property as valuables.
19. Distinguish between Varna and Jati. Also, tell the similarities between the two.
There were only four Varnas but the number of Jatis was not fixed.
All the sections of the society were not included in the Varna system. But the Jati system
was encompassing and comprehensive. It included even those who were not in any
Varna system.
Similarity: Both the Varna and the Jati were based on the birth of a person.
20. What was the position of those people in a society whose social practices were not
influenced by Brahmanical ideas?
Due to diversity in the sub-continent, there were many people whose social practices
were not influenced by Brahmanical ideas. Their mention has been found in many
Sanskrit texts. They are often described as odd, uncivilized, and beastly people. They are
also considered as forest dwellers who hunted to survive. The Nishida, Eklavya was one
of them and belonged to this category of people.
The others who were suspected included nomadic pastoralists. They did not adjust
themselves in the framework of settled agriculturists. The people who did not speak
Sanskrit were often termed as Mlechchhas. They were looked down upon in society.
There are many stories about such people in the Mahabharata.
21 Explain how access to property sharpened social differences between men and women in
ancient times.
In accordance with the Manusmriti, the parental property should be equally divided
between all the sons after the death of their parents. But the eldest son was entitled to
a special share.
The women had no right to demand any share in this property. But they had complete
ownership in all the gifts presented to them on the occasion of their marriage. It was
called the wealth of the women. This property could be easily inherited by their
progeny.
The husband had no right on this property of the woman often called stree dhan. But
the Manusmriti also prohibited all the women to hide any family property or
accumulate precious things secretly without the permission of the husbands.
There are undoubtedly some indications that a few women from the higher strata of a
society controlled all the resources. But the land, animals, and money were always
under the control of men.
In other words, the disparity between the social position of the men and women
became rampant because of diverse control of men and women over the resources.
22. According to the Sastras, only Kshatriyas could become kings. Do you think this rule was
always kept? Justify your answer.
According to the Sastras, only Kshatriyas could become kings. But many important
dynasties did not belong to the class of Kshatriyas.
The Mauryas were not Kshatriyas. The Brahmin books consider them to be people
belonging to. a lower class. Modern historians believe that the Mauryas were Vaisyas.
Sungas and Kannuas were Brahmins.
The Sakas that came from Central Asia were considered uncultured by the Brahmins.
Satavahana Kings claimed they were Brahmins: The most famous Satavahana King,
Gautami Putra Satakarni called himself ‘Eka-Brahmin’ He also claimed to be the one who
destroyed the pride of the Kshatriyas.
23. How important were gender differences in early societies ? Give reasons for your answer.
Gender differences in early societies were very important because it had effects on
social life of men and women in the following ways :
No share for women in the paternal estate : According to Manusmriti, the paternal
estate was to be divided equally amongst sons after the death of the parents. Women
could not claim a share of these resources. Women were allowed to retain the gifts they
received on the occasion of their marriage as stridhana.
No hoarding by women : Manusmriti warned women against hoarding family property,
or even their own valuables, without the husband’s permission.
There was the ideal of patriliny under which sons could claim the resources, including
the throne in the case of kings, of their fathers when the latter died.
Gotra of women : Women were expected to give up their father’s gotra and adopt that
of their husband on marriage.
Polygyny : Under polygyny, a man could have several wives. Satavahana rulers were
polygynous.
Wives to be treated as property of their husbands : Wives were treated as property of
the husband because Yudhisthira after losing everything including himself had staked
their common wife Draupadi in a game of dice and lost her too.
However, Draupadi asked whether Yudhisthira after losing himself could stake her. The
matter remained unresolved and ultimately Dhritarashtra restored to the Pandavas and
Draupadi their personal freedom.
24. What did the Buddhists say about the inequalities prevalent in society? What does it
indicate?
The Buddhists were aware of the social inequalities. So they developed institutions to
regulate social conflict. There is a myth in the well-known text entitled ‘Sutta Pitaka’
which tells us that originally human beings did not have fully evolved bodily forms.
Similarly, the world of plants was also not fully developed. All the people lived in an
idyllic state of peace. They took from nature only what they needed for each meal.
However, this ideal state did not remain for long. There was a gradual deterioration in
the peaceful stage. Most human beings became greedy, vindictive, and deceitful.
So the people thought of electing a man who could set things in order. He would punish
those who deserved to be punished. He would expel those who were fit to be expelled.
In return of this job, he would be given a proportion of the produce. As he would be
chosen by all people, he would be called as Mahasammata, i.e., the great elect.
From this, we come to know that the office of the king depended on the will of the
people. In other words, the institution of kingship was based on human choice. People
paid taxes for the services rendered to them by the king.
This myth also indicates that human deeds play a great role in strengthening social and
economic relations. For example, if human beings could create the system, they could
also change it in the future.
