Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Stress Strain Elasticity and Plasticity Hookes Law Elastic Limit Stress and Strain Diagram Types of Material Elongation
Extension of Bar due to Applied Weight In bar of uniform cross-section Elongation of tapering bar Extension of Bar due to Self Weight Extension in length of bar of uniform cross-section Extension in conical bar Extension in composite bars
3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
9 9 9 11 11 12 13
Shear Stress Bulk Modulus (K) Poissons Ratio () Modulus of Rigidity (C)
14 14 15 15
16
16 16 17
Strain Energy Suddenly Applied Load Impact Loading Properties of Material Hardness Tests
Brinell Hardness test Rockwell Hardness test Vickers Hardness Test
19 20 20 21 23
23 25 26
Stress
The internal restoring force per unit area set up within the body, when deformed by the external force is called stress.
Stress =
Tensile stress
Compressive stress
Strain
The strain in a body is measured as the change in the relevant dimension per unit dimension.
Hookes Law
As you know from a spring, if you gradually stretch it, the force needed increases, but the material springs back to its original shape when the force is released. Materials which react in the same way as a spring are said to be elastic. Typically if we measure the extension of different forces and plot the graph of this, we will find that the extension is proportional to the force applied. Materials that obey Hookes Law exhibit a linear relationship between the strain and the applied stress. Hookes law states that within the elastic limit the stress is directly proportional to strain.
Stress
Strain
= modulus of elasticity
Elastic Limit
Elastic limit is the upper limit of deforming force up to which the body regains its original size or shape completely on removal of deforming force and the body loss its property of elasticity and gets permanently deformed if deforming force is further increased.
Types of Material
1. Homogenous and isotropic material: All elastic properties are same at each point and in all direction. 2. Rigid and linearly elastic material: Not deform on applying any amount of load. 3. Plastic material and rigid plastic: Deformation is continuous even after the removal of load. 4. Ductile and brittle material.
Elongation
1. Extension of Bar due to Applied Weight
[ ]
a) Extension in length of bar of uniform crosssectional area due to its own weight
[ ]
( ) ( )
( (
) )
( )
Shear Stress
To keep this body in equilibrium complementary stress will be there, so that body stays in equilibrium. =
If only shearing is applied /acted on the body and no other stress is applied it is called simple or pure stress.
=
v
=
z x
+
y
Bulk Modulus = K =
Poissons Ratio ()
Poisson ratio is the ratio of lateral strain and longitudinal strain. The value of is various from 0.25 to 0.33 in general.
-1=
[ ( ( E = 9K -
( ) )
)]
E+
= 9K
E (1+
) = 9K
E(
) = 9K
E=
E=
= 2C (1+ ) =
Strain Energy
When an external force acts on a elastic material and deforms it , the external resistance is developed due to cohesive force between the molecules of the material. The internal resistance does same work which is stored in the material as strain energy.
suddAl/E
suddAl/E
=P
suddl/E
sudd
=2
gradual)
Impact Loading
w(h + l) = w(h +
2 i 2 impactAl/E
l) = i i
2 iAl
- wh = 0 =0 ]
(Quadratic Equation) (Neglect ve root)
2 i
[1+
i=
Properties of Material
1. Strength It is the ability of the material to sustain the load without failure.
2. Stiffness It is the ability of the material to resist deformation. Material having more modulus of elasticity has more stiffness.
4. Resilience Amount of energy a material can absorb within the elastic limit.
5. Hardness Hardness is the property of the material to resist penetration, wear and tear and scratching.
6. Fatigue If a material is loaded with a fluctuating load the material tend to develop different behaviour other than the behaviour under steady load.
7. Creep It is the slow plastic deformation even if we dont increase the load.
8. Elasticity
9. Plasticity
10. Ductility
Malleability
Hardness Tests
The hardness of a material is its resistance to penetration under a localized pressure or resistance to abrasion. The most common hardness tests are:
i) Brinell hardness test ii) Rockwell hardness test iii) Vickers hardness test
Brinell hardness number (BHN) = 2 P / ( D (D - (D2 - d2)1/2)) where P = load on the indenting tool (kg)
D = diameter of steel ball (mm) d = measure diameter at the rim of the impression (mm)
The calculated value of B.H.N may have slight error because of elastic recovery which takes place after the removal of load. For harder material elastic recovery is greater than for softer materials.
Precautions: 1. The test should not be performed on thin specimen. 2. Impression (indentation) should make too close to the edge of a specimen. 3. There should be proper gap between two successive impressions. 4. The Brinell test should be performed on smooth, flat specimen from which dirt and scale have been cleaned.
Advantages: 1. Surface preparation is not so critical as these in Rockwell test. 2. Its result correlates well with tensile properties. 3. The impression made by the Brinell machine is large enough to give a fairly representative hardness, which are not often by small soft spots small hard spots. Limitations: 1. Size of the indentation produced is large so it is similar to destructive test. 2. The Brinell test is entirely reliable. 3. Test equipment is heavy and bulky.
The specimen is placed on the anvil of the machine and then a minor of 10 kgf is applied on the specimen through the indenter. This minor load helps to seat the specimen. Then the dial indicator is set at zero and then a major load of 60 100 or 150 kg is applied, forcing the penetrator into the specimen. The depth of indentation is automatically recorded as hardness number on a dial gauge. The dial of the dial gauge is divided into 100 divisions with each division representation a penetration of 0.002 mm. the dial scale is reserved so that a small indentation depth is read as high hardness.
irrespective of hardness. The basic principle, as with all common measures of hardness, is to observe the questioned material's ability to resist plastic deformation from a standard source. The Vickers test can be used for all metals and has one of the widest scales among hardness tests. The unit of hardness given by the test is known as the Vickers Pyramid Number (HV) or Diamond Pyramid Hardness (DPH). The hardness number can be converted into units of pascals, but should not be confused with a pressure, which also has units of pascals. The hardness number is determined by the load over the surface area of the indentation and not the area normal to the force, and is therefore not a pressure.