1.
The Cell as the Basic Unit of Life
All living organisms are made up of cells, which are the basic structural and functional
units of life.
Cells can exist as single-celled organisms (unicellular) or as part of multicellular
organisms (like plants, animals, fungi, and certain protists).
The study of cells is central to understanding growth, development, reproduction, and
response to the environment in organisms.
2. Types of Cells
Prokaryotic Cells
-Definition: Cells without a defined nucleus or membrane-bound organelles.
-Characteristics:
*DNA is found in a nucleoid region, not enclosed by a membrane.
*Organelles: No mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, or Golgi apparatus.
*Examples: Bacteria and archaea.
*Structure: Plasma membrane, cell wall (peptidoglycan in bacteria), ribosomes, flagella (for
motility).
Eukaryotic Cells
-Definition: Cells with a well-defined nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
-Characteristics:
*DNA is enclosed within a nuclear membrane.
*Organelles : Mitochondria, Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER), Golgi Apparatus, Lysosomes, etc.
*Examples: Animal cells, plant cells, fungi, protists.
*Structure: Plasma membrane, cytoskeleton, mitochondria, ER (rough and smooth), Golgi,
lysosomes, vacuoles (in plants), ribosomes.
3. Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
-Nucleus:
*Contains the genetic material (DNA).
*Controls cell activities such as growth, metabolism, protein synthesis, and reproduction (via
transcription and translation).
-Mitochondria:
*Powerhouses of the cell.
*Site of cellular respiration, producing ATP (energy) by oxidizing glucose and fatty acids.
-Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
*Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes. It is involved in protein synthesis and modification.
*Smooth ER: Involved in lipid synthesis, detoxification, and calcium storage.
-Golgi Apparatus:
*Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids from the ER for transport or secretion.
Lysosomes:
*Contain digestive enzymes that break down waste materials, cellular debris, and foreign
substances.
-Cytoskeleton:
*Network of protein filaments that maintain the cell's shape, enable movement, and
participate in cell division.
-Ribosomes:
*Composed of RNA and protein; they are the site of protein synthesis.
-Vacuoles:
*Large vesicles in plant cells that store water, nutrients, and waste products.
4. Cell Membrane and Transport
Plasma Membrane: Composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.
It controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell.
-Fluid Mosaic Model: The membrane is dynamic, with proteins and lipids moving within the
layer.
Transport Mechanisms:
-Passive Transport (doesn’t require energy):
*Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration.
*Osmosis: Diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane.
*Facilitated Diffusion: Use of channel or carrier proteins to move substances across the
membrane.
Active Transport (requires energy):
*ATP-powered pumps (e.g., sodium-potassium pump).
*Endocytosis and Exocytosis: Bulk transport of materials in and out of the cell.
5. Cellular Division
Mitosis:
-Process of cell division that results in two genetically identical daughter cells.
-Stages: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, and Cytokinesis.
-Important for growth, tissue repair, and asexual reproduction.
Meiosis:
-Specialized cell division that produces gametes (sperm and egg cells).
-Reduces chromosome number by half to maintain genetic diversity in sexual reproduction.
-Stages: Meiosis I (separation of homologous chromosomes) and Meiosis II (separation of
sister chromatids).
6. Cell Signaling and Communication
Signaling Pathways: Cells communicate with each other through signaling
molecules (hormones, neurotransmitters, etc.) and receptors.
Key Pathways:
*G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs): Involved in sensing environmental changes.
*Receptor Tyrosine Kinases (RTKs): Initiate cell signaling cascades in response to growth
factors.
*Cyclic AMP (cAMP): Second messenger that mediates intracellular responses.
Endocrine, Paracrine, and Autocrine Signaling:
*Endocrine: Signals travel through the bloodstream (e.g., hormones).
*Paracrine: Signals affect nearby cells (e.g., neurotransmitters).
*Autocrine: Cells signal themselves, often seen in cancer cells.
7. Cellular Metabolism
Anabolism: Biosynthesis of molecules; building complex molecules from simpler
ones (e.g., protein synthesis, DNA replication).
Catabolism: Breakdown of molecules to release energy (e.g., glycolysis, citric acid
cycle).
ATP: The energy currency of the cell, produced through cellular respiration.
Glycolysis (in cytoplasm) → Krebs Cycle (in mitochondria) → Oxidative Phosphorylation (in
mitochondria).
8. Special Topics in Cell Biology
Cellular Differentiation: How cells specialize in function during development to
form tissues and organs.
Stem Cells: Undifferentiated cells with the potential to develop into various types of
cells.
Cancer and Cell Cycle Regulation: Disruptions in cell cycle control can lead
to cancer.
Key Takeaways
*Cells are the basic building blocks of life.
*Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells differ in structure and function.
*Organelles within the cell perform specialized tasks that contribute to the cell's overall
function.
*The plasma membrane regulates the movement of substances in and out of the cell.
*Cellular division processes (mitosis and meiosis) are essential for growth, repair, and
reproduction.
*Communication between cells is vital for maintaining physiological functions.
