Biology

Ch. 6

Cell Structure
and Function
Cell- is the basic unit of life. All
organisms are made up of cells
(or in some cases, a single cell
I. The Cell Theory:
- A theory that developed
over several hundred
years involving many
scientists.
I. The Cell Theory (3 parts):
* All living things are made of
cells.
* All cells come from
preexisting cells.
* Cells are the basic units of
structure and function.
Robert Hooke (1665)
- Coined term ‘Cell’
Von Leeuwenhoek (1675)
- first to see live cells
 *Two Basic Cell Types:
1.Prokaryotes (ex. bacteria):
- no nucleus, very small
- no organelles
2.Eukaryotes (ex. plants, animals):
- have a nucleus & organelles-
complex internal structure
Prokaryote

Bacteria Cell
Eukaryote

Plant Cell
Eukaryote

Animal Cell
II.Cell Structure
Three main parts of cells:
* Cell membrane
* Nucleus
* Cytoplasm
 Plasma membrane- The
membrane enclosing a cell is
made up of two lipid layers
called a "bilipid" membrane.
The lipids that are present in
the plasma membrane are
called "phospholipids
These lipid layers are made
up of a number of fatty
acid building blocks. The
fatty acid that makes up
this membrane has two
different parts to it- a
small water loving head-
hydrophilic head.."
These lipid layers are made up
of a number of fatty acid
building blocks
The fatty acid that makes up
this membrane has two
different parts to it- a small
water loving head- hydrophilic
head. Hydro stands for water
and philic means liking or
loving. The other part of this
fatty acid is a long water-or
repelling hating tail.
 This tail is
hydrophobic- Hydro stands
for water and phobic means
fear. The plasma membrane is
arranged in such a way so
that the tails face each other
on the inside and the heads
face towards the outside of
the membrane
A.
A. Cell
Cell membrane:
membrane:
-thin, porous layer that protects
the cell and regulates movement
in and out of the cell.
- made of:
lipid
bilayer
&
proteins
*Cell
*Cell Wall:
Wall:
- layered, rigid
structure that
supports and
protects plant
cells
- made of cellulose
B.
B.Nucleus:
Nucleus:

- control center of the cell

- contains chromosomes (DNA)

Nucleus
B.
B.Nucleus:
Nucleus:
- Nuclear Membrane:
surrounds the
nucleus
- Nucleolus:
makes
ribosomes
 Nucleus- The nucleus is the
control center of the cell. It is
the largest organelle in the cell
and it contains the DNA of the
cell.
 The nucleus is the most
important part of a cell. It is
the “information” headquarters
and is in charge of the cellular
activities. It contains the
information that will tell the cell
what to do, what to make, and
when to divide. A nucleus is a
small and very powerful part of
a cell.
 All cells contain genetic
material in units called
genes. Genes control what
a cell looks like, what it
can do, and how it
functions. In the cells of
higher organisms, including
humans, the genetic
 A nucleus is a region
within the cell that is
surrounded by a
membrane, called the
nuclear membrane. The
nuclear membrane controls
which molecules enter and
leave the nucleus
 Chromosome
count of a typical
human female.
Every cell in a
healthy human
female has these
chromosomes in
the nucleus
Each chromosome is made up
of two parts-DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid)and
proteins. The DNA is the
genetic material that codes
for the characteristics of a
person. A chromosome
contains one long molecule
of DNA.
 DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
contains all the information for cells
to live, perform their
and reproduce.Inside the nucleus is
another organelle called the nucleolus.
The nucleolus is responsible for making
ribosomes.
The circles on the surface of the
nucleus are the nuclear pores. These
C.Cytoplasm:
- liquid material located within
the cell membrane and outside
the nucleus
- contains water with many
dissolved substances
(oxygen, sugar, proteins)

Cytoplasm
D.Cytoplasmic Organelles
- tiny, cell structures that
carry out specialized jobs

Organelles
Eukaryote
Cell
1.Mitochondrion:
- "power house" of cells
1.Mitochondrion:
- site of cellular respiration
Glucose + Oxygen Energy + CO 2 + H2O
C6H12O6 + O2
2.Chloroplasts:
- site of
photosynthesis
in plant cells
2. Chloroplasts:
Sunlight + H2O + CO2 C6H12O6 + O2
3. Ribosomes:
- site protein production
- found in both prokaryotes and
eukaryotes
4.Endoplasmic Reticulum:
- produces and
transports
molecules
5.Golgi Body:
- collects, modifies, packages,
and distributes molecules
6.Lysosome:
- digest food molecules
or worn-out
cells
7.Vacuole:
- stores food, waste, or water
Vacuole

Stored food
or waste
III.Movement of Materials
through the Cell Membrane
A. Diffusion
Diffusion
A. Diffusion
- movement of molecules
from high concentration to
low conc.
- until equilibrium reached
- requires no cell energy
Passive Transport:
- movement in or out of a cell
that requires no cellular energy
(ex. O2 into and out of cells)
B. Osmosis:
- diffusion of water through a
selectively permeable membrane
1.Turgor pressure:
- pressure inside plant cells
1. Turgor pressure:

Leaves
and
Onion
Epidermis
1. Turgor pressure:

Plant
Movements
from
Osmosis
2. Plasmolysis:
- loss of cell liquid
(shrinking of the cell)
2. Plasmolysis:
- loss of cell liquid
(shrinking of the cell)
3. Cytolysis:
- bursting of cells due to
internal osmotic pressure
3 Types of Solutions page 282
1. Isotonic – “iso” means equal
The concentrations of solutes
outside the cell equals the
concentration inside the cell.
Cell is in equilibrium
2. Hypertonic solution
“hyper” means over.
The concentration of solutes
outside the cell is greater than
inside.
Causes plasmolysis ( cell shrinks)
3. Hypotonic solution
“hypo” means under.
The concentration of solutes
outside the cell is less than the
concentration inside the cell.
Causes cytolysis.( cell swells)
C. Facilitated Diffusion
p 294
- the diffusion of large
molecules (glucose) into
cells aided by carrier
proteins
- high conc. to low conc.
C. Facilitated Diffusion:
D. Active Transport:
- movement in or out of cells
requiring energy from cell
1. Endocytosis:
- movement of large amounts
of material into a cell
1. Endocytosis:
1. Endocytosis:

Ameba
moving
and
engulfing
food.
2.
2. Exocytosis:
Exocytosis:
- movement of large amounts
of material out of the cell
2. Exocytosis:
2. Exocytosis:

Paramecium
pumping
water out
of cells.
IV. Cell Specialization
- cells can become adapted
for a particular function
- occurs in multicellular
organisms
IV. Cell Specialization
Can you identify these cells?

- Muscle
- Skin
- Bone
- Nerve
- Blood
 V. Levels of Organization
D. Organ E.Organism
System

C.Organ
B.Tissue
A. Cells
IV. Cell Specialization
Cell Cycle-Refers to the complete
sequence of events involving
interphase,cell
division(mitosis,meiosis),cell
growth, cell senescene/aging, and
cell death
1.Interphase-Called metabolic
stage of the cell cycle,beacause
there are no sign of cell
division,metabolism is strictly
taking place.
Resting phase,a period of prepation
before the cell undergoes
division.The chromatin network
appears as isolated granules or as
network forming filaments called
Chromonemata.
Phases of Interphase
 1.G1(Gap 1) or first growth- This stage where
enzymes and raw materials are made ready for DNA
replication.
 2.S-phase or synthesis- stage of DNA replication
 3.G2 (Gap 2) or second growth-stage where proteins
needed for aster and spindle formation are synthesized
2.Cell Division –This is the
process that makes possible the
multiplication of the cell number
and growth and development of
a multicellular organisms.
Types of Cell Division
a.Mitosis
b.Meiosis
c.Amitosis
Mitosis- Is a process of indirect cell
division. Indirect in the sense that
the products generated after the
process are two similar daughter
cells, each with the same number of
chromosomes
Mitosis is responsible for growth,
development, repair of damaged tissues
and most important, for the
transmission of hereditary
characteristics of the organism by virtue
of the presence of genes contained in the
chromosomes
Stages of Mitosis
a.Prophase
 Early Prophase
 Middle Prophase
 Late Propase
B.Metaphase
 Early Metaphase
 Late Metaphase
C.Anaphase
 Early Anaphase
 Late Anaphase

d.Telophase
 Early Telophase
 Late Telophase
Prophase- First stage of mitosis,
during which the chromosomes
are condensed and attach to the
mitotic spindle.
Early Prophase –The
chromonemata still appears as one
although it starts to thicken and
elongate.Later two chromatids are
formed,attached to a single
centromere.The nucleolus becomes
smaller
Middle Prophase- Each
chromosomes visibly doubles and
the chromatids continue to thicken
and shorten, nucleolus becomes
smaller, and nuclear membrane
start to disintegrate.
Late Prophase- Chromosomes
condense, the nuclear membrane
fades and along with it the
nucleolus.
Metaphase- Stage of chromosome
alignedment at the center.
Early Metaphase – The
chromosomes orient themselves
along the metaphase plate.
Late Metaphase -Chromosomes arrange
themselves along the metaphase plate with the
centromeres occupying a center portion in the
equatorial plane.
C.Anaphase –This is the stage of
chromosomes separation and migration to
opposite pole
 Early anaphase-Chromatid pairs split/
separate from each other and begin to migrate
to the opposite poles. Each chromatid is now
considered an individual chromosomes.
Late anaphase- The chromosomes
from two distinct groups at each pole.The
significant feature of this stage is the that one
chromatid from each chromosome finds its
way into each daughter cell,hence giving each
cell in an identical complement of
chromosomes
D. Telophase- start of cytoplasmic
division.
Early telophase-Chromosome have
reached the opposite pole and lie
close to each other.
Late telophase-Chromosomes
begin to uncoil just like how
they were during interphase.
Karyokineses-changes occur in
the nucleus.
Cytokinesis-Refrs to the
division of cytoplasm of plant
and animal cell into two.
Cell Growth, Senescence and
death-Mitosis is most active during
embryonic development in injured tissues, and
in the production of tumors like cancer.The
rate of mitosis slow down as body matures.
(Cell undergo senescence or aging).This is due
to the slowing down of metabolic processes
Or to decrease in the synthetic
power of the enzymes.These
factors eventually lead to death
of the cell.
Meiosis- is a reduced cell division
because the number of chromosomes in
each resulting daughter cell is reduced
by half.It occurs among germ cells
during gametogenesis(fertilization of
gametes sex cells.)
Gametogenesis-The formation of
mature sex cells.Types of gametogenesis
 1.Spermatogenesis-This occurs in male
gonads/testes and involves steps or changes
leading to the production of spermatids,which
differentiate into mature male gametes(sperm
cells).four haploid spermatids are produced
after meiosis of one spermatogonium.
2.Oogenesis-The process occurs in the
female gonads/ovaries.It is composed of steps
leading to the polar bodies and ootids.A
haploid ootid matures into a female
gamete(egg cells).Three polar bodies and one
ootid are produced after meiosis of one
oogonium.
 In higher plants meiosis is involved in the
formation of pollen grains and megaspores or
embryo sac initials.
 1.Microsporogenesis- involves meiosis of pollen
mother cells or microspore mother cells to form
haploid microspores or pollen grains in anther of
a flower.
 2.Megasporogenesis- involves meiosis of
megaspore mother cells or embryo sac mother
cells to form haploid megaspores or embryo
 mother cells to form haploid megaspores or
embryo sac initials. Only one functional
megaspores is produced out of four from
meiosis of one megaspores mother cells while
the three others are aborted.
Amitosis- is a direct type of cell
division which involves the constriction
of the cytoplasm and the nucleus into
two or more parts of the cells,with
approximately equals amount of nuclear
and cytoplasmic materials.
Types of amitosis.
1.Binary fission- the body of parent is
divided into two approximately equal
parts ,each of which grows into an individual
similar to the parent.
 Ex.common among protozoans
2.Budding- This involves the unequal
division of the organism,The new individual
arises as an outgrowth(bud) from the
parent.The bud develops organs like the
parent and detaches itself.External budding
e.g.hydra ,Internal budding e.g.fresh water
sponge
3. Sporulation or multiple
fission- An organism breaks into more
than two parts,each capable of becoming a
complete animal.e.g.plasmodium
 4.Conjugation-involves two phases
 A.Asexual phase-two individuals fuse temporarily and
exchange nuclear materials
 Although two parents are involved, they
cannot be designated as male or female.
B.Sexual phase- after nuclear
exchange,the two animals separate
where each divides into two to produce
four offsrings.