Lithography

0
 Lithography
• Lithography is the process of transferring geometric patterns from a photomask (or reticle) to a photoresist-coated wafer.
And, it is arguably the single most important technology in IC manufacturing.
• The ITRS was driven by the desire to continue scaling device feature sizes.

EUV

• Critical dimensions (CDs) shrink by ~0.7× every 2–3 years, corresponding to roughly 2× transistor density increase per node.
• Overlay(Placement) accuracy ≈ 1/3 of the minimum feature size (to ensure proper alignment of successive layers).
• Lithography accounts for >35% of total wafer fabrication costs. (Expensive Scanners, Photomasks, High energy & cleanroom)

1 Slide 1
 Lithography
Light
Electron Source
Source
Condenser
Electron Lens
Beam Mask

Focusing
Reduction
Deflection
CAD System Lens
• Layout Cr PR
• Simulation Mask PR
• Design Rule Checking Wafer
Projection Printer
• Patterning process consists of mask design, mask fabrication and wafer printing.
• Both e-beam(high-resolution) and laser writers(faster, lower cost) are used for mask generation(a single EUV mask > $300k)
• State-of-the-art manufacturing today is done with 193 nm projection printers.
• Below this wavelength no materials are transparent, so EUV systems will use reflecting optics.
• It is convenient to divide the wafer printing process into four parts Light source, Mask, Wafer exposure system, Photoresist.
2 Slide 2
 Light Sources
Photon Energy :
ℎ𝑐 1.2398
𝐸 𝑒𝑉 = =
𝜆 𝜆 𝜇𝑚
Lithography
Wavelength Photon Energy (E) Light Source
Type
g-line 436 nm ≈ 2.84 eV (~3 eV) Mercury (Hg) lamp
i-line 365 nm ≈ 3.40 eV (~3 eV) Mercury (Hg) lamp
KrF DUV 248 nm ≈ 5.0 eV (~6 eV) KrF excimer laser
ArF DUV 193 nm ≈ 6.4 eV (~6 eV) ArF excimer laser
Laser-produced plasma
EUV 13.5 nm ≈ 91.8 eV (~92 eV)
(Sn droplets)

• Hg vapor lamp : Electrons in Hg atoms are excited to higher energy levels by electrical discharge. When these electrons relax to lower
energy states, photons are emitted at specific wavelengths.
• Excimer lasers : Unstable species are created(𝐾𝑟 + 𝑁𝐹! → 𝐾𝑟 ∗ ) and , KrF(248 nm)/ArF(193 nm) are emitted(𝐾𝑟 ∗ → 𝐾𝑟 + 𝐹 + ℎ𝜐).
• EUV Plasma Source(13.5nm) : Neutral atoms cannot emit photons at such high energies(~92 eV). Requires highly ionized atoms in hot
plasma. CO₂ laser pulses strike tin (Sn) droplets. Droplets explode into a dense plasma(~200,000 K). Highly ionized Sn atoms transition
between energy levels, emitting 13.5 nm EUV photons.

3 Slide 3
Light Sources : Hg Arc Lamp

4 Slide 4
Light Sources : EUV

5 Slide 5
Lithography

Aerial Image is the pattern of optical radiation

intensity formed on the top surface of the photoresist
after passing through the mask and projection optics.
It is purely determined by optics (diffraction,
interference, lens aberrations), and determines the
ideal intensity distribution that defines feature edges.
Latent Image is the 3D chemical modification inside
the photoresist created after exposure and post-
exposure bake (PEB). It involves photo-chemistry and
diffusion : In chemically amplified resists (CAR), acid
generation and diffusion during PEB modify the resist
solubility. It determines the final developed pattern,
including line edge roughness (LER) and critical
dimension (CD) uniformity.

6 Slide 6
 Photoresists
① Ensurres that the resist will adhere well to the wafer.
② HMDS(Hexamethyldisilane) is use an adhesion promoter. One end of the
HMDS molecule bonds with SiO₂ surfaces and the other bonds with the Typical photoresist processing sequence.
resist.
③ The resist is dispensed onto the wafer and the wafer is spun(3000–6000 Surface cleaning, dyhydration baking Align wafer, Expose Resist
rpm for ≈30 s) to produce a thin uniform layer (0.1–0.5 μm). During the first (prepares surface for photoresist) (i-line, DUV or EUV exposure tool)

few seconds, the wafer spends at high spin rates, the film levels to a
uniform thickness. During the remainder of the 30s spin, the solvent
HMDS Application Post exposure bake
continues to evaporate to produce the final resist thickness. (adhesion promoter) (Typically 10 min @ 100˚C)
④ Pre-bake is accomplished at 90–100°C. The remaining solvent in the resist is
evaporated, reduced from ≈25% to ≈5% of the resist content. Adhesion of
the resist is improved, since the heating strengthens the bonds between Resist Application Resist Develop
(typically spun on wafer at 5000 rpm) (spray or puddle develop)
the resist and the HMDS and substrate.
⑤ At PEB(post-exposure bake), the PAC in i Line/g Line resists will diffuse far
enough to the edge of the resist features. Or PAG in DUV and EUV resists Pre-bake Resist Post bake resist
reacts with the polymer chain to complete the exposure process. (typically 10 – 30 min @ 90 – 100˚C) (typically 10 – 30 min @ 125 – 150 ˚C)

⑥ The wafers are immersed in the developer. The rate is dependent on

temperature or on developer concentration.
⑦ The post-exposure bake is done at higher temperature(10–30 min at 125–
150°C), and is hardening the resist and improve its etch resistance.
7 Slide 7
 g-Line and i-Line Resists
The g-line and i-line photoresists consist of ①an inactive The most commonly used g-line and i-line resists are DNQ
resin ②a photoactive compound (PAC), ③a solvent used materials. DNQ readily dissolve in the developer solution
to adjust the viscosity of the resist. at a dissolution rate of ~15㎚/s.
The role of the PAC is to inhibit the dissolution of the DNQ
O O in the developer. PAC is insoluble in developers and
H2O
O C C OH reduce the overall dissolution rate of the resist to 1–
N2 2㎚/s.
N2
+N2 Thus the DNQ material is essentially insoluble in the resist
O S O Light O S O O S O developer before it is exposed to light.
O O O
R
R R The N₂ molecule is weakly bonded in the PAC and DUV
Wolff photons(5–6 eV) is sufficient to break the N₂ bond,
Rearrangement leaving behind a highly reactive carbon site. The PAC
O N
H H2O structure can stabilize itself by moving a carbon atom
outside the ring with the oxygen atom covalently bonded
to it. The resulting carboxylic acid is readily soluble in a
S Light
basic developer.
C
N2 Then DNQ is readily soluble in this solution. The exposed
resist material thus dissolves at a rate of 100–200 ㎚/s.
8 Slide 8
 DUV Resists
DNQ resists have issues when 248㎚ is used. ①The resists strongly DUV resists make use of chemical amplification resists
absorb the incident photons below i-line (365㎚). Thus the radiation (CA resists or CARs).
cannot penetrate through the thickness of the resist. ②The intensity DNQ resists have quantum efficiencies of ~0.3,
of DUV is much lower than at i-line. Higher sensitivity is needed. meaning ~30% of the incoming photons interact with
DUV Exposure PAC molecules.
PHS CARs use a different exposure process, the incoming
photons react with a photo-acid generator (PAG)
molecule, creating an acid molecule. These acid
molecules then act as catalysts during a subsequent
PAG Blocking
PAG H+ resist bake to change the resist properties in the
Groups
b). Exposure exposed regions.
a). Unexposed Photoresist
PAG initiates a chemical reaction that makes the resist
soluble in the developer. The reactions are catalytic;
the acid molecule is regenerated after each chemical
reaction. The overall quantum efficiency is multiplied
by the number of subsequent reactions. This product
H+ H+ H+ can be much larger than 1 and improves the sensitivity
d). End of Reaction c). Catalytic Reaction of DUV resists.

9 Slide 9
 EUV Resists
• EUV resists are also chemically amplified resists. However, the incoming photon energy is 92 eV! This is
way more than is required to break bonds and drive chemical reactions.
• Generally of the 92 eV, ≈ 10 eV is used to drive PAG chemistry, the rest is given to an electron which
drives subsequent PAG reactions. \ catalytic action \ sensitivity is enhanced.

As the wavelength decreases, this depth of focus

also decreases, meaning the image is in focus for
a finite thickness of photoresist. The resist
thickness decreases as λ decreases.
Since virtually all the components in EUV resists
absorb EUV photons, the thickness of EUV resists
must be fairly small in order to expose the resist
through its entire thickness.
Planarization is critical and often “hard masks”
must be used below the resist to provide robust
Evolution of the reduction in resist film thickness
etch masking, implant masking.
10 Slide 10
 Masks

UV & DUV Masks : Transparent quartz substrate, Opaque

chrome (Cr) patterns define circuit features:
• Digital (binary) masks in their simplest form → regions
are either transparent or opaque.
• Subwavelength lithography (e.g. ArF immersion) uses
optical proximity correction (OPC) and phase-shift
masks (PSM) for resolution enhancement.
Pellicles:
• Thin transparent polymer film (~0.5–1 µm thick)
Pellicle mounted above the mask.
Frame • Keeps particles out of focus during exposure (dust on
Mask
pellicle does not print).

11 Slide 11
 Wafer Exposure Systems for Mask
Electron
Source • Electron beam litho tools are also
Electron available.
Beam • These are used for mask making as well as
direct writing.
Focusing • “Serial” printing means throughput is very
Deflection slow.
Cr PR
Mask
t=
(required dose) (area)

DMD Tube Lens (beam current)

Reflecting
Mirror • Direct write lithography tools are also
available that use lasers to expose the
Collimating
Lens
Objective resist.
Lens
• These can also be used for mask making.
Light Wafer • DMD devices can be used to “parallelize”
Source
X-Y the exposure process.
Computer Stage

12
 EUV Masks

EUV Masks (Reflective Masks) : No materials are

X-Ray Diffraction and Bragg’s Law transparent at 13.5 nm → transmission masks impossible,
EUV uses Bragg-reflective mirrors.
• 40–50 alternating Mo/Si layers (each ~2–4 nm thick)
form a multilayer mirror.
• Designed for Bragg reflection at 13.5 nm.
• Reflectivity ≈ 70%, so ~30% of EUV power is absorbed.
Pellicles for EUV:
• Very challenging due to: High EUV absorption of most
materials. Need for thin, strong, heat-resistant films.
• Si₃N₄ pellicles (~50 nm thick) under development to
protect masks, but they reduce EUV transmission further.

13 Slide 13
 Wafer Exposure Systems
Mask

Projection
Illumination
Optics
Optics
Mag = 4
Mask

Source Wafer

• EUV litho system (ASML).

Parameter Value
Feature size As small as ~13 nm (single exposure)
Overlay accuracy 1–2 nm
Throughput ~125 wafers/hour (300 mm wafers)
Wafer and Wafer Mirrors EUV
Wafer size 300 mm Mask Stage Light
Field size ~26 × 33 mm (same as DUV scanners) Handler Source

14
 Wafer Exposure Systems
1:1 Exposure Systems Light
Light
Source
Light Source
Source

Optical
Mask
System

Mask
Mask Gap
Resist Resist
Wafer Wafer

Contact Printer Proximity Printer

Resist
Wafer
Feature Contact Printing Proximity Printing Projection Printing
Projection Printer
Mask-Wafer Contact Direct contact Small gap (10–50 µm) No contact (optical system)

Resolution High (<1 µm) Limited (>2–3 µm) Very high (<10 nm with EUV)
Defect Density High Moderate Low
Current Usage Obsolete (ICs) Legacy / MEMS Dominates modern lithography
Throughput Moderate Moderate >100 wafers/hour

15 Slide 15
 Ray Tracing and Diffraction
1. Geometrical (Ray) Optics : Feature sizes and optical
components are much larger than the wavelength (λ).
• • Straight-line propagation in a uniform refractive index.
• Reflection: 𝜃!"#!$%"& = 𝜃'%()%#&%$
• Refraction (Snell’s Law): 𝑛* 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃* = 𝑛+ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃+
Where n1, n2 are refractive indices, and θ1,θ2 are angles to the normal.
Aperture Image
Plane
2. Wave Optics & Diffraction : When feature sizes or
Light apertures ≈ λ (sub-micron to nanometer).
Source
•Diffraction Effects: Light spreads out after passing through
an aperture or mask opening. Smaller apertures → larger
angular spread.
• It limits the minimum printable feature size(resolution).

16 Slide 16
 Diffraction
Huygens-Fresnel Principle
• Every point on a wavefront acts as a secondary source
of spherical wavelets.
• The resulting light field at any location is the
interference of all these secondary wavelets. Diffraction
patterns can be understood as the interference of these
secondary wavelets.
a). b).

Collimating Aperture Focusing Image

Imaging the Aperture on the Resist : The lens Lens Plane
Lens
collects diffracted light and reconstructs the image.
Ideal case(infinite lens): all spatial frequencies are Point
captured → perfect image. Source
• Diffracted
Effect of Finite Lens Diameter : A finite lens aperture d Collected
Light Light
blocks some diffracted light, especially higher spatial
frequency components. resulting in loss of image
fidelity → blurring, reduced resolution. f
17 Slide 17
 Diffraction
Single-slit Fraunhofer diffraction.

Diffraction patterns for multiple slit

18 Slide 18
 Diffraction

• Diffraction effects can be calculated, but there are two limiting cases of interest:
Fresnel diffraction - near field.
Fraunhofer diffraction - far field.
• Fresnel diffraction applies generally to contact or proximity lithography tools.
• Fraunhofer diffraction applies to projection lithography tools.

19 Slide 19
Contact and Proximity Systems(Fresnel Diffraction)
g • Fresnel diffraction applies when
𝑊!
𝜆<𝑔<
𝜆
W • Within this range, the minimum resolvable feature size is
𝑊"#$ ≈ 𝜆𝑔
• Thus if g = 10 µm and an i-line light source is used, Wmin ≈ 2 µm.
• In contact systems, g➔0. Ultimate resolution ≈ λ/20, but, mask
Incident Mask Resist Wafer Light Intensity damage and particle defects make such extreme resolution
Plane Aperture At Wafer impractical.
Wave Surface

Aerial Image Formation (Huygens-Fresnel Principle) : The mask aperture is treated as an array of point
sources emitting spherical Huygens wavelets. The superposition (interference) of these wavelets forms
the aerial image on the wafer.
Ringing and spreading occur outside the aperture edges due to interference. The smaller the feature size,
the more pronounced the diffraction.

20 Slide 20
 Projection Systems (Fraunhofer Diffraction)
Projection systems are the dominant systems in
use today. Performance is in terms of Mask
Handler Mask
• Resolution : Smallest printable feature size.
• Depth of focus : Range of focus where
acceptable imaging quality is maintained.
• Field of view : Maximum area printed per
exposure (step or scan).
• Modulation transfer function : Measure of how
193 nm
well the system transfers contrast at different Excimer
spatial frequencies. Laser
• Alignment accuracy : Ability to align new Projection Wafer
Wafer Lens Stage
patterns with previously printed layers. Handler
• Throughput : Wafers processed per hour (WPH)

21 Slide 21
 Diffraction

1.22 lf/d

• When a point source of light passes through a circular aperture, the image is a bright central spot
surrounded by concentric rings(the Airy pattern) due to diffraction.
• The central bright spot is the Airy disk, which determines the resolution limit of optical systems.
• The radius (r) of the Airy disk (to the first dark ring) is:
𝜆𝑓 𝜆
1.22 = 0.61
𝑑 𝑁𝐴
• A true point image (no diffraction blur) can only form if: 𝜆 → 0, 𝑓→0, 𝑑→∞

22 Slide 22
 Resolution
Entrance
Aperture

Image
Plane
Point
Sources a d •B
A • •A
B • a

• Rayleigh suggested that a reasonable criterion for resolution is that the central maximum of each point source
lies at the first minimum of the Airy pattern.
𝜆𝑓 𝜆𝑓 𝜆 𝜆
𝑅 = 1.22 = 1.22 = 0.61 = 𝑘%
𝑑 𝑛 2𝑓 sin 𝛼 𝑛 sin 𝛼 𝑁𝐴
• k1 is a process factor(0.6 – 0.8) but can be much smaller(0.25-0.5) with advanced techniques(OPC and multiple
patterning). Obviously resolution can be improved by: decreasing k1, decreasing 𝜆, increasing NA (bigger lenses)
23 Slide 23
 MTF(Modulation Transfer Function)
Entrance Objective or
Condenser Aperture Focusing Lens The Modulation Transfer Function (MTF)
Lens Mask
quantifies how well an optical system
Light transfers contrast from the mask (object) to
Source the wafer (image).

𝐼&'( − 𝐼&)*
𝑀𝑇𝐹 =
𝐼&'( + 𝐼&)*
Photoresist
On Wafer
1 1 IMAX
Intensity Intensity MTF decreases as feature size shrinks:
at Mask On Wafer Large features → High contrast → MTF ≈ 1.
Sub-resolution features (near system limit) →
IMIN Poor contrast → MTF → 0.
0 0
Position Position

24 Slide 24
 Resist : Properties and Processing
• Regardless of the type of resist (g-line, i-line, DUV or EUV), two basic parameters are used to describe resist
properties, contrast and the critical modulation transfer function or CMTF.

Fraction of Resist Remaining

Fraction of Resist Remaining
1.0 Positive 1.0
Resist Negative
0.75 0.75 Resist
Qo
0.5 0.5 Qo Qf
Qf
0.25 0.25

0 0
1 10 100 1 10 100
Exposure Dose mJ/cm2

• Contrast is defined as
1
𝛾=
𝑄,
𝑙𝑜𝑔%+ 𝑄
-
• g-line and i-line resists achieve values of 2 - 3 and Df values of about 100 mJ cm-2. DUV resists have much higher
values (5 - 10) and Df values of 20 – 40 mJ cm-2.
25 Slide 25
 Resist : Properties and Processing
Aerial Image Aerial Image
1.0 1.0
Relative Exposure Dose

Relative Exposure Dose

Two examples of how the quality of
Qf Qf the aerial image and the resist
0.75 0.75
contrast combine to produce the
0.5 0.5 resist edge profile. (a) A sharp aerial
image and narrow resist transition
0.25 Qo 0.25 Qo region. (b) A poorer aerial image
and the resulting wider transition
0 0 region in the resist profile.
Position Position

• CMTF represents the minimum contrast the resist needs to see in the aerial image to be able to successfully resolve
(develop and hold) the line-space pattern. It's a measure of the resist's sensitivity and performance. Lower values are
better since in general CMTF < MTF is required for the resist to resolve the aerial image CMTF for resists is defined as
𝑄, − 𝑄- 10%/3 − 1
𝐶𝑀𝑇𝐹./0#01 = =
𝑄, + 𝑄- 10%/3 + 1
• Typical CMTF values for g and i-line resists are about 0.4. Chemically amplified DUV resists achieve CMTF of 0.1 - 0.2

26
 Spatial Coherence
Condenser
Mask
Lens
Light
Source
S d
•

• Spatial coherence measures how "uniform" or "plane-wave-like" the illumination is across the mask. Practical light sources
(Hg lamps, excimer lasers) are not perfect point sources, so light arriving at the mask is partially coherent.
• The spatial coherence of the system is defined as:
4#561 0-8.9/ :#;"/1/. <
𝜎 = 9-$:/$0/. 4/$0 :#;"/1/. :

High coherence (σ → 0) → illumination behaves like plane waves (ideal for diffraction-limited resolution).
Low coherence (σ → 1) → more incoherent light, reducing interference effects but improving process latitude.
• Typically, σ ≈ 0.5 to 0.7 in modern systems
27
Projection Systems (Fraunhofer Diffraction)
Separation
Depends On Projection
System Type Proximity

Contact
Light Intensity
Incident Mask Resist Wafer At Wafer Surface
Plane Aperture
Wave

• EUV systems are described by Fraunhofer diffraction as well.

28 Slide 28
 Köhler and Off-Axis Illumination
• Given what we have discussed to this point, it would seem that printing features much smaller than 0.1 µm
with 193 nm lithography systems would be very difficult.
• Indeed it is! But there are a variety of “tricks” that make this possible.

Condenser Entrance
Lens Aperture Objective or
Focusing Lens Photoresist
Mask On Wafer
Light
Source

Köhler illumination focuses light at the entrance pupil of the projection lens rather than directly on the mask.
This ensures uniform illumination and equal collection of diffracted orders from all positions on the mask. And it
improves image uniformity and contrast across the field.

29 Slide 29
 Köhler and Off-Axis Illumination
Off-axis illumination
Light is deliberately directed at the mask from off-axis
angles. Higher-order diffraction components(±1, ±2
orders) are directed into the projection lens pupil, resulting
Entrance in Improved resolution and better imaging of dense
Aperture periodic patterns.
Source-Shaping & Custom Illumination
Lost Captured Different geometries on the mask diffract light differently.
Diffracted Light Diffracted Light Modern illumination sources are shaped to optimize for
specific mask patterns to capture as many high-order
diffracted beams as possible for multiple pattern types.
Quadrupole
Entrance 2D contact holes.
Aperture Conventional

Annular Dipole
for dense lines. Quadrapole
ConventionalGood Annular Dipole
Best for periodic 1D patterns

30
 Immersion Lithography

Immersion lithography improves depth of focus (DOF) by placing

a high-index liquid (water) between the projection lens and the
wafer surface.

Index of Refraction (n)

Lens
Air: n≈1.0, Water: n≈1.44, Lens (fused silica or CaF₂): n≈1.5
Water or Air
The immersion liquid increases the effective NA: PR
𝑁𝐴 = n ) sin 𝜃
n = refractive index of the medium, θ= half-angle of light entering the Wafer
lens
So with water, NA can approach ~1.35–1.44.

31 Slide 31
 Immersion Lithography
Dry Immersion Dry Immersion

Air Water Air Water

PR PR

Wafer Wafer

NA < 1 NA > 1

• The big advantage of immersion lithography is that higher NA lenses can be used.
• From optics, the critical angle for internal reflection is given by
𝜃9.#1 = sin=% 𝑛! /𝑛%
• For lens/air, qcrit ≈ 41˚. It is much larger for lens/water since n1 and n2 are similar.
• 193 nm lithography systems today use lenses with a NA ≈ 1.35 which gives a significant resolution improvement.
• 1.35 seems to be a practical upper bound on NA.

32 Slide 32
 Immersion Lithography

If the same lens is used, changes of the focal plane location by

Index of Refraction doesn’t change the resolution. The ability
of the lens to capture diffracted light isn’t changed. q1
Lens n = 1.5
However, the depth of focus is improved
𝐷𝑂𝐹(𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛) 1 − 1 − 𝜆/𝑝 + Dry focal
= q2 q3 plane n = 1
𝐷𝑂𝐹(𝑑𝑟𝑦) 𝑛 − 𝑛+ − 𝜆/𝑝 + Wet focal
where n is 1.44 (water) and p is the pitch of the lines being plane n = 1.44
printed.

𝜆
𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃!"# =
𝑝!$%
1 𝜆
𝐷𝑂𝐹 = ±𝛿!"# =±
4 𝑛 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼

33 Slide 33
 Depth of Focus
OP Depth of Focus (DOF) is the range of focus that can be tolerated, before the image
D
quality is degraded beyond usefulness.
}

The impact of focus errors can be thought of as a spherical aberration, it occurs

a because spherical lenses do not bring all incoming rays to the same focal point. Rays
near the lens edge (marginal rays) focus at a different point than Rays near the lens
d center (paraxial rays). As a result, the image becomes blurred.
Wafer The Rayleigh criterion for DOF is that length of two rays(marginal and paraxial rays) not
Lens Aperture differ by more than λ/4:
𝜆
= 𝑛𝛿 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
4
1 𝜆 𝜆
𝐷𝑂𝐹 = ±𝛿";> = ± ≈±
4 𝑛 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 2𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛! 𝛼
Assuming 𝛼 is small, 𝛼 ≅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 𝑁𝐴,
𝜆 𝜆
𝐷𝑂𝐹 = ± = ±𝑘 !
2 𝑁𝐴 ! 𝑁𝐴 !
spherical aberration
k2 is experimentally determined(0.4–0.7; depends on resist/process). 248nm exposure
system(NA = 0.6) have a resolution of 0.3㎛(k1 = 0.75) and a DOF of ≈ ± 0.35㎛(k2 = 0.5).

34 Slide 34
 Depth of Focus
The relationship between the pitch of the grating (p), the wavelength
(λ), and the angle of the diffraction order (θ) is given by the grating
equation
𝑚𝜆
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
2𝜆/𝑝 𝑝
For the smallest pattern that can be resolved, the first diffraction order
𝜆/𝑝
(m=1) must enter the lens at the maximum possible angle (θ?@A )
𝑝 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃";>
By setting 𝜃% = 𝜃";> , we define the minimum pitch(𝑝"#$ ) that can be
condition for minnimum imaged(the resolution limit):
𝑚𝜆 𝜆
𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃";> =
𝑝 𝑝"#$
Now, we substitute this relationship into the simplified DOF equation
!
𝜆 𝑝"#$
𝐷𝑂𝐹 ≈ 𝑘! !
= 𝑘! !
𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃";> 𝑛 𝜆

35
 Multi-layer Resists, Antireflection Coatings
Mask Aerial Exposing
As Implant Image Light

Photoresist

• Depositing resist over topography results in thickness variations.

• This may be OK for large features but the limited depth of focus in small λ lithography tools means high
resolution printing requires planarization and thin resist layers.
• This also means that deposited “hard masks” below the resist are often required. (We used deposited
Si3N4 hard masks in the CMOS process).

36 Slide 36
 Multi-layer Resists, Antireflection Coatings
0.5

0 Reflections from underlying layers cause Standing

Microns

[PAC]
waves in the resist(thickness variations), Line edge
1.0
-0.5
200 mJ/cm2
roughness (LER) and Focus errors.
-1
0.01 ARC(Antireflection Coating) suppresses reflections
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 2.4 2.8
Microns Bottom Anti-Reflection Coating (BARC) : Absorbs
light or changes refractive index to minimize
reflection.
ARC thickness and refractive index are tuned to
PR n1
destructively interfere with reflected light:
𝜆
D BARC n2 𝑡≈
4𝑛
λ = exposure wavelength, n = refractive index of the ARC material
n3
Substrate

37 Slide 37
 Multi-layer Resists, Antireflection Coatings
PR
Layer • Etching the red layer with a PR mask has issues with PR
to be etched
thickness variation over topography.

Substrate

PR Organic
Layer • One solution is to use a thin PR layer
for printing the image on top of a
thicker PR layer not sensitive to the
Substrate Substrate Oxide lithography λ.
Layer
PR

• Another solution uses a hard

mask (SiO2) with a thin PR
imaging layer.
Substrate Substrate Substrate

38 Slide 38
 Design Rule Restrictions
Design rules are the geometrical constraints imposed on IC
layout to ensure manufacturability, high yield, and reliable
> 250 nm Features device performance.
Sharp corners are where high spatial frequencies occur that
130 nm are difficult to print. D/R tells designers that they can’t use
65 nm arbitrary geometries.

< 45 nm Design Rule Purpose / Reason

Minimum Line Width Defined by lithography resolution;
(Critical Dimension, CD) ensures lines are not etched too thin or broken.
Minimum Spacing Prevents shorts due to
Between Lines litho/etch over-etch or metal stringers.
Minimum Contact Ensures reliable etching & filling of contacts
/ Via Size (limited by aspect ratio capability).
Active - Active Spacing Prevents leakage
Freeform Some Regular Single Size (Isolation Rule) or latch-up due to insufficient STI or well isolation.
Design Restrictions Patterns Single Orientation Metal Width Limits electromigration and RC delay;
& Spacing Rules spacing increases with higher metal layers.
Density CMP planarization requires
& Fill Rules uniform density to prevent dishing or erosion.

39 Slide 39
 Optical Proximity Correction (OPC)
A B D C

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2
Microns

Microns
0 0

-0.2 -0.2

-0.4 -0.4

-0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4

Microns Microns

• Due to the optical diffraction limit and process irregularity, the printed Feature Type Purpose
patterns differ from the intended mask patterns : Line-end shortening, Corner
Serifs
rounding, Critical dimension (CD) variation Hammerheads
Correct line-end shortening
• OPC modifies the mask layout to compensate for these distortions, so the final
pattern matches the intended design. Scattering Bars
Enhance light interference
to improve resolution
• Left: points like A get too much light; points like B too little → change the mask
geometry (right) using serifs and cutouts (C and D).

40
 Phase Shift Masks

Mask
180˚ Phase Shift Phase Shift Masks (PSM) manipulate the phase of
transmitted light to enhance image contrast.
ℇ Field Amplitude By introducing a 180° phase shift between
At Mask
adjacent transparent regions of the mask:
Since the light intensity at the aerial image is the
ℇ Field Amplitude square of the field intensity, ℰ2, the quality of the
At Wafer resulting aerial image is significantly improved,
because of destructive interference of the two
Light Intensity
patterns.
At Wafer Better contrast → higher resolution and depth of
focus (DOF)

41
 Phase Shift Masks
1. Glass Substrate Etching (Etched PSM – Alternating PSM) :
Selectively etch quartz (fused silica) mask substrate to a specific
depth so that transmitted light experiences a 180° phase shift.
Mask Mask •Advantage: Best resolution enhancement.
•Disadvantage: Complex etching & alignment; phase edge
d
defects.
Chrome
Attenuating 2. Attenuating Phase-Shifting Material (Attenuated PSM, aPSM) :
PSM Material Deposit a thin, partially transparent phase-shifting film such as
MoSi₂. Designed to transmit ~6–10% of light and introduce ~180°
phase shift.
•Advantage: Easier fabrication; no quartz etching.
•Disadvantage: Lower image contrast than alternating PSM.
Rim PSM Scattering Bar PSM 3. Rim and Bar Phase Shift Regions (Improve Local Contrast)
• Rim-Type : Phase-shifting regions added as rims around feature
edges to sharpen line edges.
• Bar-Type : Thin phase-shifting bars placed adjacent to main
patterns to enhance interference and improve CD control.

42
 Multi-Patterning
Layout 1st Lithography 1st Etch

2nd Lithography 2nd Etch Final Etched Pattern

• Example of using multi-patterning to print a pattern with closely spaced lines and spaces.
• 2 masks are used to print one layer!

43 Slide 43
 Sidewall Spacer Methods (SADP)
Mandrel
SADP : Self Aligned Double Patterning
Layout Lithography Si3N4 Deposition 1.Mandrel Patterning : Print initial mandrel lines using
conventional lithography.
2.Spacer Deposition : Deposit a conformal dielectric or
nitride layer over the mandrel.
3.Spacer Etch Back : Anisotropically etch the spacer,
leaving spacers only on the sidewalls of mandrels.
Sidewall Spacer Etch Poly + Final Etched Pattern 4.Mandrel Removal : Etch or strip away the mandrel,
Etch Lithography
leaving behind two spacers per mandrel.
5.Pattern Transfer : Use these spacers as a hard mask to
etch the underlying layer, doubling the line density.
•Self-Aligned
•Excellent Line Edge Roughness and CD uniformity.
•Half Pitch Capability
•Layout Restrictions
•Complex Integration
•Cut Masks Required

44 Slide 44
Summary – Resolution Enhacement Methods

• Summary of various “tricks” used to improve resolution in lithographic systems.

• These “tricks” have reached their limit with 193 nm lithography and the ”7 nm” or “5 nm” technology nodes.
• EUV has been introduced for critical mask levels at the ”7 nm” or “5 nm” nodes.

45 Slide 45