Power Point Presentation

On
Lithography
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
SUBMITTED BY
NARAYAN MISHRA

Department of Electronics Engineering

Institute of Engineering and Rural Technology Prayagraj
 Name : Narayan Mishra • Submitted To:
• COURSE: B.TECH(3rd Year)
Yatendra Gaurav Sir
• BRANCH:ELECTRONICS
• Submitted By:
ENGINEERING(B3)
• AKTU ROLL No.: 1811030033 Narayan Mishra

dueboltbae @ekbe``rbe
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Lithography in the MEMS context is typically
the transfer of a pattern to a photosensitive
material by selective exposure to a radiation
source such as light.
A photosensitive material is a material that
experiences a change in its physical properties
when exposed to a radiation source. If we
selectively expose a photosensitive material to
radiation (e.g. by masking some of the
radiation) the pattern of the radiation on the
material is transferred to the material exposed,
as the properties of the exposed and unexposed
regions differs
 STEPS IN LITHOGRAPHY
• COATING THE SUBSTRATE WITH PHOTO SENSITIVE MATERIAL (PHOTO
RESIST)
• FIXING THE MASK WITH THE FEATURES ON THE COAT
• EXPOSURE TO RADIATION
• SPRAY OF DEVELOPER TO OBTAIN EITHER ‘POSITIVE’ OR ‘NEGATIVE
• ETCH OR DEPOSIT
• STRIP THE PHOTO RESIST
MASK, EXPOSURE & DEVELOP
ETCH(SUBTRACT) or DEPOSIT(ADD)
 CARE TO BE TAKEN

• Alignment
• Exposure
 Alignment
• In order to make useful devices the patterns for different lithography steps
that belong to a single structure must be aligned to one another.
• The first pattern transferred to a wafer usually includes a set of alignment
marks, which are high precision features that are used as the reference
when positioning subsequent patterns, to the first pattern
• Often alignment marks are included in other patterns, as the original
alignment marks may be obliterated as processing progresses.
• It is important for each alignment mark on the wafer to be labeled so it may
be identified, and for each pattern to specify the alignment mark (and the
location thereof) to which it should be aligned.
• By providing the location of the alignment mark it is easy for the operator
to locate the correct feature in a short time. Each pattern layer should have
an alignment feature so that it may be registered to the rest of the layers
 Exposure
• The exposure parameters required in order to achieve
accurate pattern transfer from the mask to the
photosensitive layer depend primarily on the
wavelength of the radiation source and the dose
required to achieve the desired properties change of
the photoresist.
• Different photoresists exhibit different sensitivities to
different wavelengths.
• The dose required per unit volume of photoresist for
good pattern transfer is somewhat constant
EFEECTS OF OVER EXPOSURE

• if an image is overexposed, the dose received by photoresist at

the edge that shouldn't be exposed may become significant.
• If we are using positive photoresist, this will result in the
photoresist image being eroded along the edges, resulting in a
decrease in feature size and a loss of sharpness or corners
• If we are using a negative resist, the photoresist image is
dilated, causing the features to be larger than desired, again
accompanied by a loss of sharpness of corners.
• If an image is severely underexposed, the pattern may not be
transferred at all, and in less sever cases the results will be
similar to those for overexposure with the results reversed for
the different polarities of resist
 Industrial Process steps
• Dehydration bake - dehydrate the wafer to aid resist
adhesion.
• prime - coating of wafer surface with adhesion promoter. Not
necessary for all surfaces.
• Resist spin/spray - coating of the wafer with resist either by
spinning or spraying. Typically desire a uniform coat.
• Soft bake - drive off some of the solvent in the resist, may
result in a significant loss of mass of resist (and thickness).
Makes resist more viscous.
• Alignment - align pattern on mask to features on wafers.
resist to cause selective chemical property
change.
Post exposure bake - baking of resist to
drive off further solvent content. Makes
resist more resistant to etchants (other than
developer).
Develop - selective removal of resist after
exposure (exposed resist if resist is positive,
unexposed resist if resist is positive).
Usually a wet process (although dry
processes exist).
Hard bake - drive off most of the remaining
solvent from the resist.
Descum - removal of thin layer of resist
scum that may occlude open regions in
 Resolution
• Resolution or the critical dimension is the minimum
feature size that could be printed
• The ability to project a clear image of a small feature
onto the wafer is limited by the wavelength of the
light that is used.
• The minimum feature size that a projection system
can print is given approximately by

• λ = wave length,
NA = numerical aperture, K = constant (0.4)
 NUMERICAL APERTURE
• In most areas of optics, and especially in
microscopy, the numerical aperture of
an optical system such as an objective
lens is defined by
• NA = n Sinθ
• where n is the index of refraction of the
medium in which the lens is working
(1.0 for air, 1.33 for pure water, and up
to 1.56 for oils), and θ is the half-angle
of the maximum cone of light that can
enter or exit the lens
Photolithography has used ultraviolet light from
gas-discharge lamps using mercury, sometimes in
combination with noble gases such as xenon.
These lamps produce light across a broad
spectrum with several strong peaks in the
ultraviolet range. This spectrum is filtered to
select a single spectral line, usually the "g-line"
(436 nm) or "i-line" (365 nm).
CD is 200 to 150nm
Current state-of-the-art photolithography
tools use deep ultraviolet (DUV) light with
wavelengths of 248 and 193 nm
which allow minimum feature sizes down to
100 nm
 Immersion lithography
• Immersion lithography is a
photolithography resolution
enhancement technique that
replaces the usual air gap
between the final lens and the
wafer surface with a liquid
medium that has a refractive
index greater than one. The
resolution is increased by a
factor equal to the refractive
index of the liquid. (CD = 60nm)
                      

Other issues in photo lithography

• Low depth of field and depth of focus
• Depth of field is a measurement of depth of acceptable sharpness in the
object space, or subject space.
• Depth of focus is a measurement of how much the film / substrate can
be displaced while an object remains in acceptably sharp focus
Depth of field diagram
Depth of field and depth of focus
Depth of focus
 Depth of Focus

• t is the depth of focus,

•N is the f-number of the optical system
•C is the circle of confusion
•v is the distance of the object from lens
•f is the focal length
 maskless lithography
• In maskless lithography, the radiation that is used to expose a
photosensitive emulsion (or photoresist) is not projected from, or
transmitted through, a photomask. Instead, most commonly, the
radiation is focused to a narrow beam. The beam is then used to directly
write the image into the photoresist, one or more pixels at a time
FORMS OF MASKLESS LITHOGRAPHY

• Laser (Optical)
• Focused ion beam
• Electron beam
 Multiphoton lithography
• Multiphoton lithography (also known as direct laser
writing) is a technique for creating small features in a
photosensitive material, without the use of complex
optical systems or photomasks.
• By scanning and properly modulating the laser, a
chemical change (usually polymerization) occurs at
the focal spot of the laser and can be controlled to
create an arbitrary two or three-dimensional periodic
or non-periodic pattern.
• This method could also be used for rapid prototyping
of structures with fine features
 Multiphoton lithography
• In laser physics the numerical aperture is defined
slightly differently
• The NA of a Gaussian laser beam is related to its
minimum spot size by

• D = beam dia
 Focused ion beam
• Focused ion beam (FIB) systems operate in a similar fashion to a
scanning electron microscope (SEM) except, rather than a beam of
electrons and as the name implies, FIB systems use a finely focused
beam of ions (usually gallium) that can be operated at low beam
currents for imaging or high beam currents for site specific sputtering or
milling
 Why Ions ?
• ions are larger than electrons

• they cannot easily penetrate within individual atoms

of the sample. Interaction mainly involves outer shell
interaction resulting in atomic ionization and breaking
of chemical bonds of the substrate atoms.
• The penetration depth of the ions is much lower than
the penetration of electrons of the same energy.
 Why Ions ?

• ions are heavier than electrons

• ions can gain a high momentum. For the same energy,
the momentum of the ion is about 370 times larger.
• For the same energy ions move a lot slower than
electrons. However, they are still fast compared to the
image collection mode and in practice this has no real
consequences.
• The magnetic lenses are less effective on ions than
they would be on electrons with the same energy. As
a consequence the focused ion beam system is
equipped with electro-static lenses and not with
magnetic lenses
 USE of FIB
• Unlike an electron microscope, FIB is inherently destructive to the
specimen. When the high-energy gallium ions strike the sample, they
will sputter atoms from the surface.
• Gallium atoms will also be implanted into the top few nanometers of
the surface
• FIB assisted deposition
• the surface will be made amorphous
 FIB

• Because of the sputtering capability, the FIB is used as a micro-

machining tool, to modify or machine materials at the micro- and
nanoscale.
• nano machining with FIB is a field that still needs developing.
• The common smallest beam size is
2.5-6 nm
 ion beam induced deposition
• FIB-assisted chemical vapor deposition occurs when a gas,
such as tungsten hexacarbonyl (W(CO)6) is introduced to the
vacuum chamber and allowed to chemisorb onto the sample.
• By scanning an area with the beam, the precursor gas will be
decomposed into volatile and non-volatile components; the
non-volatile component, such as tungsten, remains on the
surface as a deposition.
• From nanometers to hundred of micrometers in length,
tungsten metal deposition allows to put metal lines right where
needed.
• Other materials such as platinum, cobalt, carbon, gold, etc.,
can also be locally deposited